Anastasia Bugrova, Yekaterina Vikhrova

English through Biology

Moscow State University

2008
Рецензенты:
доцент кафедры иностранных языков РГАУ-МСХА Е.Н.Комарова; доктор
филологических наук, профессор кафедры иностранных языков А.Л.Семенов

Бугрова А.С., Вихрова Е.Н.

English through Biology. – Учебное пособие.

Цель учебного пособия – подготовка студентов-биологов к сдаче

государственного экзамена по английскому языку. Структура и содержание
пособия соответствуют формату экзамена и предполагают
совершенствование навыков письменного перевода и реферирования
научных текстов, аудирования, а также устной речи. Тексты пособия
заимствованы из специализированной англоязычной литературы и освещают
различные аспекты и разделы биологии.

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 Предисловие

Назначение учебного пособия “English through Biology” – подготовка

студентов-биологов к сдаче государственного экзамена по английскому
языку. На экзамене студенты естественных факультетов должны
продемонстрировать свои навыки и умения в области различных видов
речевой деятельности, а именно: прочитать специальный текст и перевести
его на русский язык; прослушать специальный текст на иностранном языке и
ответить на последующие вопросы; прочитать специальный текст на русском
языке и кратко изложить его на английском языке; рассказать по-английски о
своих научных интересах.
Формат экзамена и предопределил структуру и содержание учебного
пособия. Каждый из двенадцати разделов-уроков пособия посвящен
определенной научной тематике (разделу биологии) и содержит аутентичный
текст для контроля степени сформированности навыков чтения и перевода.
Тексты не адаптированы для иноязычной аудитории, изобилуют
специальными терминами, знание которых обязательно для студентов. В
текстах присутствуют лексические единицы, фонетическая форма которых
нередко представляет трудности даже для третьекурсников (например,
dehydration, enzyme, fungi, protein и мн. др.), а также слова латинского и
греческого происхождения, у которых образование формы множественного
числа является нетипичным для английского языка. Упражнения по
аудированию включены в десять из двенадцати разделов пособия. В каждом
разделе есть задания на просмотровое чтение и передачу содержания
русского текста на английском языке (rendering). На экзамене это задание
выполняется устно. Едва ли возможно заслушивать в классе краткий
пересказ соответствующих десяти текстов пособия в изложении каждого
студента (обычно в группе 14-16 человек); поэтому здесь предлагается
выполнять задание “Render in English” письменно с последующей проверкой

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преподавателем. Пособие завершается общим англо-русским словарем
использованной в нем профессиональной и общеупотребительной лексики.
Стимулирование спонтанной речи, организация групповой дискуссии
способствуют отработке навыка говорения на научные темы. В течение
учебного года преподаватель должен также предоставить каждому студенту
возможность подготовить доклад о своей научной работе, выступить на
занятии и ответить на вопросы аудитории.
Авторы пособия ставили перед собой задачу поэтапного комплексного
повторения тех грамматических явлений, восприятие и понимание которых в
научном тексте вызывают определенные затруднения у будущих ученых. В
связи с этим очень важно отметить, что при составлении любого учебного
пособия одним из решающих факторов является количество академических
часов, отводимых на его изучение. Так, объем курса английского языка на
третьем году обучения является ограниченным (около 80 аудиторных часов).
В настоящем пособии предлагаются упражнения на повторение тем
“Infinitive”, “Conditionals”, “Passive Voice” и употребление в научной речи
форм “Present Participle” и “Past Participle”; анализируются функции
модальных глаголов в английском языке. Композиционно грамматика
представлена в виде разделов Language Focus, содержащих теоретический
материал, примеры и упражнения. В корпус грамматических заданий
включены специальная лексика и клише научной речи, соответствующие
тематике разделов.
Структура всех двенадцати разделов (units) пособия относительно
единообразна. Сначала студентам предстоит прослушать небольшой текст,
соответствующий тематике данного раздела, и выполнить ряд упражнений,
дополнительной целью которых является активизация лексики урока. Далее
следует основной текст, работа с которым предполагает различные виды
заданий, прежде всего - прочитать и перевести, поскольку именно эти умения
будут востребованы на экзамене. Определенный акцент делается на чтении
вслух для отработки произносительных и ритмико-интонационных навыков,

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а также на синтаксическом анализе предложений. Тест сопровождают
лексические упражнения. Следующим этапом является проработка
определенной грамматической темы и выполнение практических
упражнений. Каждый раздел завершается заданием на реферирование.
Необходимо отметить, что Unit 1 организован несколько иначе. На первом
занятии преподавателю нужно определить уровень группы, поэтому в начале
этого раздела предлагается краткий тест, целью которого является
ознакомление студентов со структурой экзамена на практике (Listening Task,
Translation Task, Rendering Task) и определение степени готовности к
выпускному экзамену каждого студента.
В приложении содержатся скрипты заданий на аудирование, которые
при отсутствии аудиозаписи может зачитывать преподаватель, а также англо-
русский словарь использованной в пособии специальной и
общеупотребительной лексики.

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 Unit 1
Life and Levels of Organization of Living Matter

Introduction

This is a test similar to the Final Test at the end of the third year at the Faculty of
Biology, though it has been shortened for convenience. It is aimed at revealing
which areas of language you still need to work at.

Listening Task

You will hear a short extract about life. It will be read twice. Answer the following
questions:
1. Why is it difficult to define life? (Give at least two reasons.)
2. What are the characteristics of living matter? (Name at least three.)

Translation Task

Using your dictionary, translate the following:

The quality of life emerges on the level of the cell. Just as an atom is the
smallest unit of an element, so too the cell is the smallest unit of life. The
difference between a living cell and a conglomeration of chemicals illustrates some
of the emergent properties of life.
Fundamentally, all cells contain genes, units of heredity that provide the
information needed to control the life of the cell; subcellular structures called
organelles, these being miniature chemical factories that use the information in the
genes and keep the cell alive; and a plasma membrane, a thin sheet surrounding the
cell that both encloses a watery medium (the cytoplasm) that contains the
organelles and separates the cell from the outside world. Some life-forms, mostly

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microscopic, consist of just one cell, but larger life-forms are composed of many
cells whose functions are differentiated. In these multicellular life-forms, cells of
similar type are combined into tissues, each performing a particular function.
Various tissue types combine to make up a structural unit called an organ. Several
organs that collectively perform a single function are called an organ system, and
all the organ systems functioning cooperatively make up an individual living thing,
the organism.

Rendering Task

At the exam you will be asked to render a Russian article (about a page long) into
English. The task has to be done very fast. Render the following extract from a
Biology textbook into English. Summarize, do not try to translate word-by-word.
Use Vocabulary at the end of the text. (You do not have to use all the words!)

Клетка – структурная и функциональная единица, а также единица

развития всех живых организмов, обитающих на Земле. На клеточном уровне
сопрягаются передача информации и превращение веществ и энергии.
Элементарной единицей организменного уровня служит особь, которая
рассматривается в развитии – от момента рождения до прекращения
существования – как живая система. На этом уровне возникают системы
органов, специализированные для выполнения различных функций.
Совокупность организмов одного и того же вида, объединенная общим
местом обитания – это надорганизменная система, называемая популяцией. В
этой системе осуществляются элементарные эволюционные преобразования
– процесс микроэволюции.
Сообщество – совокупность организмов разных видов и различной
сложности организации с факторами среды их обитания. В процессе
совместного исторического развития организмов разных систематических
групп образуются устойчивые сообщества.

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 Биосфера, наконец – это совокупность всех сообществ, система,
охватывающая все явления жизни на нашей планете. На этом уровне
происходит круговорот веществ и превращение энергии, связанные с
жизнедеятельностью всех живых организмов.

Vocabulary:
наследственная информация – hereditary information
превращение веществ и энергии – conversion of matter and energy
особь – an individual
место обитания – a habitat
популяция – a population
эволюционные преобразования – evolutionary transformations
сообщество – a community
сложность организации – the complexity of organization
биосфера – the biosphere
круговорот веществ – the flow of matter

Language Focus 1

Passive Voice
1 Compare:
- They built this house in 1887 (active).
This house was built in 1887 (passive).
- This thing will change your life (active).
Your life will be changed by this thing (passive).
When A does something to B, there are often two ways to express it. If we want A
(doer) to be the subject, we use an active verb: built, will change. If we want B (the
“receiver” of the action) to be the subject, we use: was built, will be changed.

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In most cases, the subject of an active verb is not expressed in the corresponding
passive sentence. If it does have to be expressed, this usually happens in an
expression with by; the noun is called the „agent‟.
This house was built in 1887 by Sir George Green.

2 We often choose passive structures when we want to talk about an action, but are
not so interested in saying who or what does/did it. Passives without „agents‟ are
common in academic and scientific writing for this reason.
The laboratories are very well equipped nowadays.

3 We often prefer to begin a sentence with something that is already known, or that
we are already talking about, and to put the „news‟ at the end. This is another
common reason for choosing passive structures. Compare:
Tom is completing his diploma paper. (Active verb so that the „news‟ – the
diploma paper – can go at the end.)
Great experiment! – Yes, it was completed by our young scientists. (passive verb so
that the „news‟ – our young scientists – can go at the end)

Passive Voice: Tense Forms

Fill in the table with forms of verbs in the Passive Voice:

Present Simple …. / is /….trusted Present Continuous ….. / .. / ..…
Past Simple ….. / ..… obtained …… ..….
Future Simple ….. ..… held Past Continuous ….. / ..…
Present Perfect ….. / has ….. …… being …...
Past Perfect ….. ….. ………. Perfect Continuous have /… …...
Future Perfect ….. ….. been … …. studied

I. Split into pairs. Complete the sentences with any possible endings.
1. The necessary substance is being (has been) obtained …
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2. The lecture will be (will have been) presented to 400 students of all years …
3. The meeting was being (had been) held in the Main Building of MSU …
4. The calculations of the shuttle‟s movement have not been (are not being)
corrected …

II. Form groups of four. The first student reads the beginning of the sentence; the
rest give their variants of its end.
1) A new shopping centre has recently been built in the neighbourhood …
2) Two atomic power stations are being put into operation near Moscow these
days..
3) Sample collection will have been completed by today‟s evening …
4) When the accident happened, I was being shown the building …

III. Think of your own beginnings and continuations. Use the Passive Voice in the
beginnings.

Words, Words, Words

I. Compose three sentences which would include all the words and word
combinations below. Please pay attention to the Usage Box below. You can use the
constructions given there.
A cell consists of/is
composed of/ compri-
ses the plasma mem-
hereditary information an individual brane, the cytoplasm
and subcellular struc-
tures.

the biosphere population The plasma membrane,

the cytoplasm and sub-
cellular stuctures con-
stitute/comprise a cell.

microscopic and multicellular life-forms The cell includes the

nucleus and the
cytoplasm.

subcellular structures non-living matter

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II. In pairs, group these words according to any chosen criterion.

individual a community the plasma membrane a cell

subcellular structures conversion of matter and energy the cytoplasm
a habitat the flow of matter organic molecules proteins
vital functions genes metabolism the biosphere

Grammar Review

I. Translate into English using passive constructions.

1. Многое было сделано для развития биологической науки в современной
России.
2. В этой лаборатории за последнее время было реализовано только два
исследовательских проекта.
3. Расчеты собираются завершить на этой неделе.
4. Необходимую информацию скоро предоставят.
5. Печень может одновременно выполнять две функции.
6. На следующем уровне организации клетки объединяются в ткани.
7. Cегодня были отправлены новые данные.
8. Зеленые растения получают энергию в процессе фотосинтеза.
9. Врачу необходимо доверять.

II. Think of sentences that would include the following words and word
combinations:
a. ... being tested … b. … been provided …
c. … am trusted … hurt … d. … to be obtained …
e. … should be put into … f. … was presented …
g. … will … performed …

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Language focus 2

Passive Voice: it-constructions

auditory -
слуховой

I. Find it+passive constructions in this extract. Can you think what vivacity –
оживленность
they serve for grammatically and stylistically?
to be prone to
smth – иметь
склонность к чему-
It is generally agreed that the more difficult it is to follow the lecture, либо

the more easily we get obsessed by sleep or other pleasant activity

apart from listening to the professor. It has been observed that the
farther you are from the source of noise, the more you are prone to
sleepiness. It is thought that this phenomenon develops due to the fact
that the sound vibrations produced by the professor‟s articulative
organs affect the auditory receptors of the nearby listeners stronger,
resulting in more vivacity and higher speed of writing.

II. Include it-constructions given here in one of the articles below

(you may choose any). Mind the tense of the passive!

It has been suggested

It has been proposed
It has been announced It is agreed It has been recommended
It has been explained It has been arranged It is required
It was reported It has been decided It is demanded
It is rumored
It has been said

+ that It was believed

It has been determined It is felt
It has been noticed It is widely known
It is observed It is thought
It can be expected It is understood

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 It is widely known that

A Organisms can be grouped into three major categories, called domains: (1)
Bacteria, (2) Archaea [a:kı(:)ə], and (3) Eukarya [jukærıə]. This classification is
based on fundamental differences among the cell types that comprise these
organisms. Members of both the Bacteria and the Archaea normally consist of
single, simple cells. Members of the Eukarya have bodies composed of one or
more highly complex cells and are subdivided into four kingdoms: Protista, Fungi
[fΛndзı], Plantae, and Animalia. There are exceptions to any simple set of criteria
used to characterize the domains and kingdoms, but three characteristics are
particularly useful: cell type, the number of cells in each organism, and the mode
of nutrition – that is, energy acquisition.

B There are two fundamentally different types of cells: (1) prokaryotic and (2)
eukaryotic. Kariotic refers to the nucleus of a cell; eu means “true” in Greek;
eukaryotic cells possess a “true”, membrane-enclosed nucleus. Eukaryotic cells are
larger than prokaryotic cells and contain a variety of other organelles, many
surrounded by membranes. Prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus; their genetic
material resides in their cytoplasm. They are small – only 1 or 2 micrometers long
– and lack membrane-bound organelles. Pro means “before” in Greek; prokaryotic
cells almost certainly evolved before eukaryotic cells (and eukaryotic cells
probably evolved from prokaryotic cells). Bacteria and Archaea consist of
prokaryotic cells; the cells of the four kingdoms of Eukarya are eukaryotic.

C All organisms need energy to live. Photosynthetic organisms capture energy

from sunlight and store it in molecules such as sugars and fats. These organisms,
including plants, some bacteria, and some protists, are therefore called autotrophs,
meaning “self-feeders”. Organisms that cannot photosynthesize must acquire
energy prepackaged in the molecules of the bodies of other organisms; hence, these
organisms are called heterotrophs, meaning “other-feeders”. Many archaeans,
bacteria, and protists and all fungi and animals are heterotrophs. Heterotrophs

13
differ in the size of the food they eat. Some, such as bacteria and fungi, absorb
individual food molecules; others, including most animals, eat whole chunks of
food and break them down to molecules in their digestive tracts (ingestion).

III. Three tasks presented below are multiple choice tasks. Only one answer in each
assignment is correct. Make your choice!
1. A scientist examines an organism and finds that it is eukaryotic, heterotrophic,
and multicellular and that it absorbs nutrients. She concludes that the organism is a
member of the kingdom:
a. Bacteria
b. Protista
c. Plantae
d. Fungi
e. Animalia
f. Archaea

2. Which statement is correct?

a. Eukaryotic cells are simpler than prokaryotic cells.
b. “Heterotroph” means “self-feeder”.
c. Mutations are accidental changes in genes.
d. A scientific theory is similar to an educated guess.
e. Genes are proteins that produce DNA.

3. Which of the following are characteristics of living things?

a. They reproduce.
b. They respond to stimuli.
c. They are complex and organized.
d. They acquire energy.
e. All of the above.

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Language Focus 3

Indirect Passive
1 Some verbs can have two objects (usually a person and a thing):
We gave the professor all the materials. (= We gave all the materials to the
professor.)
(Object 1 – the professor (indirect object), object 2 – all the materials (direct
object))

So it is possible to make two passive sentences (without or with a preposition):

The professor was given all the materials. or All the materials were given to
the professor.

2 Some other verbs that can have two objects are:

ask make pay show tell
bring offer promise take throw
buy pass send teach write

3 When these verbs are used in passive structures, the subject is usually the person
who receives something, not the thing which is sent, given, etc.; however, it can be
the subject if necessary:
What happened to other books? – Well, an Oxford Russian dictionary was given to
Ms Jones.

I. Form the Direct and Indirect Passives where possible. Follow the example given.
Indirect Obj. Direct Obj.

Somebody gave me the book. =>

The book was given to me.
I was given the book.
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Not all the verbs can be „turned around‟ in such a way (e.g. to bring, to send, to
take):

Somebody brought a letter to me.

A letter was brought to me.
I was brought the letter.

1. Some university has granted a scholarship to Peter.

A scholarship ………………………………………………………………….……
Peter………………………………………………………………………………….
2. They asked me a lot of questions about my research.
I…….…………………………………………………………………………….…
A lot of questions ………………………………………………………….………
3. They offered the post of rector to Mr Sawyer yesterday evening.
The post of rector …………………….…………………………………….………
Mr Sawyer ……………………………………………………………………..……
4. You should show respect to the police!
Respect ..……………………………...………………………………….……….…
The police …………………………………………………………………..…….…
5. Professor Burne taught us several new methods of genetic research.
We…..…….……………………………………………………………………….
Several new methods ……………………………………………………….………
6. You promised me a dinner!
A dinner .……………………………………………………………………....……
………………………………………………………………………………....……
7. Those scientists do not pay me the rent because they say they are very poor.
The rent ……………..…………………………………………………………....…
…………..…………………………………………………………………………
8. Professor Oliver will read us a part from “Hamlet”.

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………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………….
9. Somebody lent me a hundred roubles.
……………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………
10. Some person sent me a greeting by the Internet.
I…………………………………..…………………………………………………
A greeting ……………..………………………………………………………....…
11. A stranger gave me a bunch of roses.
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

II. Think of your own examples using these verbs.

Language Focus 4

Prepositional Passive
The objects of prepositional verbs can become subjects in passive structures.
We have looked at the plan carefully.  The plan has been carefully looked at.
Nobody listens to her.  She is never listened to.

Note the word order. The preposition cannot be dropped.

I don’t like to be shouted at. (NOT I don’t like to be shouted.)

I. Translate the dialogues. Mind the prepositional verbs. Who are speaking? Act
the dialogues in class.

a) - How can this be accounted for?

- We don‟t know, sir. Such things have never been dealt with before.
17
- Is there any authority deserving to be relied upon?
- I am afraid there is none, sir.

b) – There is nothing here to be laughed at!

- Why? This can‟t be looked at without a smile.
- You‟ve probably found something in this worth being written about?
- To be disapproved of by people like you?.. Well, I am not afraid of it. Not a bit.

c) – Has he been sent for?

- Well, he‟s been spoken to.
- And what did he say?
- He said it should be thought of as a slight depression.
- A slight depression! Indeed she‟s nearly killed herself! Can he be relied upon?
- I believe not. What should we do?

II. Translate into English.

1. Широко известно, что археобактерии представляют собой отдельный

домен (надцарство), как бактерии и эукариоты.
2. Было решено, что одним из критериев, по которым организмы
подразделяются на группы, является способ получения энергии, то есть
способ питания.
3. Раньше считали, что археобактерии включаются в домен (надцарство)
бактерий.
4. Полагают, что прокариотические клетки появились прежде
эукариотических.
5. Существует соглашение о том, что домен (надцарство) эукариотов
подразделяется на четыре царства: растения, животные, грибы и простейшие.
6. Было установлено, что у прокариотических клеток нет органелл,
окруженных мембранами.

18
7. Было замечено, что некоторые простейшие являются гетеротрофами.
8. Сообщили, что исследуемый организм всасывает питательные вещества.
9. Было предложено назвать тип клеток, содержащих окруженное мембраной
ядро, эукариотическими, так как слово kariot обозначает «обладающий
ядром».
10. Ходят слухи, что этот новый организм питается солнечной энергией, но
при этом не фотосинтезирует.

III. Fill in the gaps with any number of words, word combinations or sentences to
get a coherent (связный) text.
I was given ………………………and told ………………… I was not promised
…………… but offered ………………………………... It …………………….. .
Finally I was sent ………. and told that my problem will be dealt with as soon as
they ………………………………

IV. Make up singular-plural pairs and formulate the rules for plural forms of
different words of Greek and Latin origin.

species phenomena
vacuum syntheses
criterion axes
helix hypotheses
phenomenon theses
genius crises
momentum species
crisis loci
synthesis criteria
thesis momenta
nucleus quanta
quantum radii

19
analysis foci
locus nuclei
radius analyses
hypothesis helices
axis maxima
focus genii
maximum vacua

20
 Unit 2
Biological Molecules

Reading

I. Read the text. Some sentences have been taken out of the text and are listed
below. Choose the correct sentence (a, b, c, etc) for each gap in the text (1, 2, 3,
etc).
…. 1 …. As a result, the bodies of all organisms use the same basic types of
molecules. For this reason, humans can obtain nutrients from other organisms, and
our bodies, in turn, can become nutrients for other organisms after we die.
…. 2 …. How are these molecules formed? What roles do these biological
molecules play in our bodies and in the bodies of plants, insects, and fungi? Here
we are talking about the basic types of organic molecules – the carbohydrates
[ka:bəuhaıdreıts], lipids, proteins [prəuti:nz], and nucleic acids – that form the
basis of life on Earth.
…. 3 …. The term is derived from the ability of living organisms to
synthesize and use these molecules. Inorganic molecules include carbon dioxide
and all molecules without carbon, such as water.
Although the common structure and function of the types of organic
molecules among organisms afford unity, the tremendous range of organic
molecules accounts for the diversity of living organisms and for the diversity of
structures within single organisms and even within individual cells. This vast array
of organic molecules, in turn, is possible because the carbon atom is so versatile. A
carbon atom has four electrons in its outermost shell, with room for eight. …. 4 ….
They become stable by sharing four electrons with other atoms, forming up to four
single covalent bonds or fewer double or triple covalent bonds. Molecules with
many carbon atoms can assume complex shapes, including chains, branches, and
rings.

21
 Organic molecules are much more than just complicated skeletons of carbon
atoms, however. Attached to the carbon backbone are groups of atoms, called
functional groups that determine the characteristics and chemical reactivity of the
molecules. …. 5 ….
…. 6 ….: (1) the use of the same set of functional groups in virtually all
organic molecules in all types of organisms and (2) the use of the “modular
approach” to synthesizing large organic molecules.

a) These functional groups are far less stable than the carbon backbone and are
more likely to participate in chemical reactions.
b) All of the diverse forms of life, from bacteria to mushrooms to redwood trees to
sea urchins to humans, evolved from a distant common ancestor.
c) Therefore, carbon atoms are able to form many bonds.
d) The similarity among organic molecules from all forms of life is a consequence
of two main features:
e) What sorts of basic biological molecules make up living things?
f) In chemistry, the term organic is used to describe molecules that have a carbon
skeleton and also contain some hydrogen atoms.

II. Give the headline of the extract in one word, as a word-combination and a
whole sentence.

Language focus 1
The Use of Passive Structures
I. Explain the reasons for using passive structures in the following text.

Disaccharides Consist of Two Single Sugars linked by Dehydration Synthesis

Monosaccharides, especially glucose and its relatives have a short life span in
a cell. Most are either broken down to free their chemical energy for use in various
cellular activities or are linked by dehydration synthesis to form disaccharides or

22
polysaccharides. Disaccharides are often used for short-term energy storage,
especially in plants. Common disaccharides include sucrose (glucose plus
fructose), which you stir into your breakfast coffee; lactose (milk sugar: glucose
plus galactose), found in the milk you pour in your coffee; and maltose (glucose
plus glucose, which will form in your digestive tract as you break down the starch
in the pancakes you may have for breakfast). When energy is required, the
disaccharides are broken apart into their monosaccharide subunits by hydrolysis.

II. Say whether the passive or active voice is appropriate in these sentences.
Transform those that you think should be in the passive.
1. Roots and seeds commonly form starch.
2. The saliva enzymes break the pancakes that you chew into component sugars.
3. Some lipids form waterproof coverings on plant and animal bodies.
4. We can classify lipids into three major groups: (1) oils, fats and waxes; (2)
phospholipids; and (3) steroids.
5. Protein enzymes guide almost all the chemical reactions that occur inside cells.
6. Nature uses some proteins, such as elastine or keratine, for structural purposes;
other proteins for energy and material storage (albumin, casein), transport
(hemoglobin) and cell movement.
7. We commonly find twenty amino acids in the proteins of organisms.

Language focus 2
By or With?

We use “by” when we talk about an action – what we do to get a result. We use
“with” when we talk about a tool or other object that we use to get a result.
I killed the spider by hitting it.
I killed the spider with a shoe.
‘I got where I am by hard work.’ – ‘No, you didn’t. You got there with your wife’s
money.’ …

23
I. a) Fill in the gaps with by or with.
1 The decision was taken ............... a group of scientists.
2 There is only one way to do it - …………… a needle.
3 A meeting was held …………… the authorities on the central square of the
town.
4 The reactions in cells are catalyzed …………… enzymes.
5 You could illustrate your idea …………… a picture.
6 You could illustrate your idea ……………. showing a picture.
b) Use the following word combinations in sentences of your own.
– by the process of photosynthesis – with a dropper
– by a computer – with your friend‟s efforts
– by being polite – with that principle

Words, Words, Words

Using the words given, tell the class about:

A Amino acids
a chain a functional group
an amino group a carboxyl group a variable group
to be (in)soluble in water to link together
to differ in properties

B Proteins
highly organized molecules four levels of organization
to assume primary, secondary, tertiary [tə:ərı] and quaternary
[kwətə:nərı] structures
a sequence of amino acids helix to be dissolved in water

24
C Nucleic acids
nucleotide 5-carbon sugar phosphate
nitrogen-containing bases adenine cytosine [saıtəzi:n]
thymine [Өaımi:n] guanine uracil [juərəsi:l]
to be strung in long chains deoribonucleic acid
ribonucleic acid to be formed in the chromosomes
to direct the synthesis of proteins

Review

I. Think through the topic of the unit and choose the right answer.

1. Which of the following is not a function of polysaccharides in organisms?

a. energy storage
b. storage of hereditary information
c. formation of cell walls
d. structural support
e. formation of exoskeletons

2. Characteristics of carbon that contribute to its ability to form an immense

diversity of organic molecules include its:
a. tendency to form covalent bonds
b. ability to bond with up to four other atoms
c. ability to bond together to form extensive, branched or unbranched carbon
skeletons
d. all of the above

3. Foods that are high in fiber are most likely to be derived from
a. plants
25
 b. dairy products
c. meat
d. fish
e. all of the above

4. Proteins differ from one another because

a. the peptide bonds linking amino acids differ from protein to protein
b. the sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain differs from protein to
protein
c. each protein molecule contains its own unique sequence of sugar molecules
d. the number of nucleotides in each protein varies from molecule to molecule
e. the number of nitrogen atoms in each amino acid differs from the number in
all atoms

5. Which, if any, of the following choices does not properly pair an organic
compound with one of its building blocks (subunit)?
a. polysaccharides - monosaccharide
b. fat - fatty acid
c. nucleic acid – glycerol
d. protein – amino acid
e. all are paired correctly

6. Which of the following statements about lipids is false?

a. Wax is a lipid.
b. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature.
c. The body does not need any cholesterol.
d. Both male and female sex hormones are steroids.
e. Beef fat is highly saturated.

26
II. Translate into English (passive constructions are preferable).
1. Дисахариды и полисахариды образуются соединением нескольких
моносахаридов в одну цепочку.
2. Дисахариды используются растениями для долгосрочного хранения
энергии.
3. Молочный сахар можно определить в крови при помощи биохимических
методов.
4. Водоотталкивающие покрытия на листьях и теле некоторых животных
образуются благодаря липидам.
5. Практически все химические реакции в клетках проводятся с помощью
протеиновых ферментов.
6. Некоторые белки используются организмами как строительный материал.
7. Ты добился всего благодаря деньгам твоего отца.
8. Жизнь клетки невозможно объяснить только химическими принципами.
9. Крахмал можно расщепить на молекулы глюкозы при помощи ферментов.
10. Моносахара объединяются в полимеры при помощи реакции
дегидратации.

III. Use the following words and expressions in sentences of your own.

1. to have a short span of life 2. …is found in…

3. to be broken apart 4. commonly
5. to classify into 6. …the reactions that occur…
7. to illustrate by

IV. Read the text and count all prepositional passive structures contained in it.

The Use of Isotopes [aısəutəups] in Biology and Medicine

Although all atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons,
the number of neutrons may vary. Neutrons do not affect the chemical reactivity of

27
an atom very much, but they do make their presence felt in other ways. First,
neutrons add to the atom‟s mass, which can be detected by sophisticated
instruments such as mass spectrometers. Second, nuclei with “too many” neutrons
break apart spontaneously, or decay, often emitting radioactive participles in the
process. Those particles can also be detected – for instance, with Geiger [gaıgə]
counters. The process in which a radioactive isotope spontaneously breads apart is
called radioactive decay.
A particularly fascinating and medically important application of radioactive
isotopes is positron emission tomography, more commonly know as PET scans. In
a common application of PET scans, a subject is given the sugar glucose that has
been labeled with (that is, attached to) a harmless radioactive isotope of fluorine.
When the nucleus of fluorine decays, it emits two bursts of energy that travel in
opposite directions along the same line. Energy detectors are arranged in a ring
around the subject. They record the nearly simultaneous arrival of the two energy
bursts. A powerful computer then calculates the location within the subject at
which the decay must have occurred and generates a map of the frequency of
fluorine decays. As the fluorine is attached to glucose molecules, this map reflects
the glucose concentration within the subject‟s brain. The brain uses prodigious
amounts of this sugar for energy; the more active a brain cell is, the more glucose
is uses. How can this information be used in biological research?
Let us suppose that a neuroscientist is trying to locate the areas of the brain
that are involved in memory. The researcher might give fluorine-labeled glucose to
a few volunteer subjects and then ask them to memorize a word list, which is read
aloud. Because brain regions that are active during this process would need more
energy and would take more fluorine-glucose molecules than they would be taken
by inactive regions, the active regions would have more fluorine decays. The PET
scans would be taken during the memorization and then pinpoint brain regions
active in storing memories of words.
Physicians also use PET scans in the diagnosis of brain disorders. For
example, brain regions in which epileptic seizures originate generally have

28
excessively high glucose utilization and show up in PET scans as “hot spots”.
Many brain tumors also light up in PET scans. Abnormal metabolism of certain
brain regions may also be detected in patients with some mental disorders, such as
schizophrenia [skıtsəufri:njə].

V. Compose five questions in Russian relating to the text. In small groups of three
practice translating and answering the questions (a curious Russian student asks
his/her questions to an American expert in the field, the questions being translated
by an interpreter; each student is to perform all three roles).

Listening.

Listen to the text “Protein Structure – a Hairy Subject” and answer the
following questions: Which kinds of bonds or bridges between keratin molecules
are altered when hair is (a) wet and allowed to dry on curlers; (b) given a
permanent wave?

Render in English.

Образование биологических молекул

Живые организмы образуют всевозможные малые органические

молекулы, называемые мономерами. Мономеры – это строительные блоки,
или субъединицы, более крупных молекул. Они способны соединяться друг с
другом, образуя полимеры, известные также под названием макромолекул.
Людям давно знакомы такие органические полимеры, как шерсть, шелк,
каучук или хлопок; человечество использует их уже не одну тысячу лет. С
начала нашего века химики стали изготовлять органические полимеры,
пластмассы, соединяя друг с другом различными способами малые

29
органические мономеры, например, диметиловый эфир или этилацетат.
Таким образом, возникло искусство или на худой конец ремесло, по сути
дела имитирующее природу.
Организм строит свои макромолекулы, соединяя друг с другом
мономеры. Процесс этот обратим: полимеры могут быть разрушены до
мономеров, из которых они состоят. Именно это, в частности, и происходит в
желудочно-кишечном тракте животных: макромолекулы пищи разрушаются
здесь до малых молекул, которые затем всасываются в кровь и используются
организмом для образования новых макромолекул, принадлежащих уже
самому организму. Такое же разрушение, только в гораздо меньшем
масштабе, происходит во всех живых клетках: в них также старые молекулы
подвергаются расщеплению, а из обломков строятся новые, то есть идет
процесс реутилизации.
Все живые организмы содержат четыре главных класса органических
соединений: углеводы, липиды, белки и нуклеиновые кислоты. Соединения
каждого класса построены из своих особых мономеров, объединяющихся в
полимеры.

30
 Unit 3
Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell

Introduction

Listen and answer the questions.

1. What is caused within a system by any use of energy (according to the second
law of thermodynamics)?
2. How does energy flow in chemical reactions?
3. Give an example of an exergonic reaction.
4. How is cellular energy carried between coupled reactions?

Reading

I. Put paragraphs of the following abstract in order, then read and translate it.

Energy Carriers in Cells

1 ATP is admirably suited to carry energy within cells. The bonds joining the
last two phosphate groups of ATP to the rest of the molecule (sometimes called
high-energy bonds) require a large amount of energy to form, so considerable
energy can be trapped from exergonic reactions; it readily releases its energy in the
presence of appropriate enzymes. Under most circumstances, only the bond joining
the last phosphate group (the one joining phosphate to ADP to form ATP) carries
energy from exergonic to endergonic reactions.
2 Energy can also be transported within a cell by other carrier molecules. In
some exergonic reactions, including both glucose metabolism and the light-
capturing stage of photosynthesis, some energy is transferred to electrons. These
energetic electrons (in some cases, along with hydrogen atoms) are captured by
electron carriers.

31
3 The life span of an ATP molecule is very short, because this energy carrier
is continuously formed, broken apart to ADP, and resynthesized. More stable
molecules, such as sucrose, glycogen, starch, or fat, store energy in our body for
hours, days, or months.
4 Common electron carriers include nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide and its
relative flavin adenine dinucleotide. Electron-carrier molecules pick up electrons
generated by exergonic reactions and hold them in high-energy outer electron
shells. Hydrogen atoms are often picked up simultaneously. The electron is then
deposited with another molecule to drive an endergonic reaction, typically the
synthesis of ATP.
5 The most common energy-carrier molecule in cells is adenosine
triphosphate, or ATP. It is a nucleotide composed of the nitrogen-containing base
adenine, the sugar ribose, and three phosphate groups. Energy released in cells
through glucose breakdown is used to drive the synthesis of ATP from adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate. ATP carries this energy to sites in the
cell that perform energy-requiring reactions, such as the synthesis of proteins or
muscle contraction. The ATP is then broken down to form ADP and inorganic
phosphate. During these energy transfers, heat is given off at each stage, and there
is a loss of usable energy.

II. Choose the right answer:

ATP is important in cells because:

a. it is assembled into long chains that make up cells membranes.
b. it acts as an enzyme.
c. it accelerates diffusion.
d. it transfers energy from exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions.
e. all of the above.

32
III. Fill in the blanks with appropriate terms from the text:

1. Some substances in our organism are formed just for seconds, broken apart
and then ………….. .
2. If a substance contains no carbon molecules, it is an …………………..
substance.
3. ……………………….. is among common electron carriers.
4. The synthesis of proteins is an …………………… reaction.
5. During exergonic reactions heat is …………………….. .

IV. Using italicized words compose three true sentences and two false ones. Swap
the sentences with your partner and try to guess true and false ones.

Language focus 1

Ved Forms. Participle Constructions

1 Verb forms like left, studied, broken, finished are called „past participles‟, or Ved
Forms. Ved Forms can be used with auxiliary verbs be and have to make perfect
and passive verb forms.
I’ve completed the work. We’ll be sent for when it’s necessary.

2 Past participles can be used like adjectives.

He’s got a broken heart.

3 Participles can combine with other words into clause-like structures.

Most of the students invited to the party didn’t turn up.
Accepted by all the scientists, the new idea became a breakthrough concept.

33
4 Ved Forms are often used after nouns in order to define or identify the nouns.
We couldn’t agree on any of the issues discussed. (= … the issues that were
discussed.) (NOT … the discussed issues.)
The students questioned gave very different opinions. (= The people who were
questioned…) (NOT The questioned students…)
We had the only sample left. (NOT … the only left sample.)

5 A few participles change their meaning according to their position. Compare:

- a concerned expression (= a worried expression)
the people concerned (= the people who are/were affected)
- an involved explanation (= a complicated explanation)
the people involved (= the people concerned)
- an adopted child (= a child who is brought up by people who are not his/her
biological parents)
the solution adopted (= the solution that is/was chosen)

I. Find Ved Forms in the following sentences and say what role they play in the
sentence.
1. Sugar, produced in photosynthetic organisms, contains far more energy than do
the carbon dioxide and water from which it is formed.
2. Many of chemical reactions in a cell are linked in sequences called metabolic
pathways.
3. The original reactant molecule undergoes a series of reactions, each catalyzed by
a specific enzyme.
4. Under the influence of certain type of poisons the active site of an enzyme
remains plugged up, so no substrate molecule can enter.
5. Nuclear reactions in the sun produce concentrated energy (sunlight) along with
vast increases in entropy.
6. Living organisms constantly use the energy given off by exergonic reactions to
drive essential endergonic reactions, as shown in Figure 4-4b.
34
7. The energy stored is used later in various life processes.
II. Say whether the information contained in the participle constructions is
necessary to the meaning of the sentence, or it can be omitted.
1. Energy released in cells through glucose breakdown is used to drive the
synthesis of ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic phosphate.
2. Each enzyme has a dimple or groove, called the active site, into which reactant
molecules, called substrates, can enter.
3. Muscle movement is an endergonic reaction coupled to the exergonic reaction of
ATP breakdown.
4. Some enzymes also require the presence of other molecules called coenzymes,
typically derived from water-soluble vitamins, in order to function.
5. Far lower temperatures than those required to fry an egg can still be too hot for
normal enzyme function.

Now formulate the rule for putting commas. Do we need commas when the
information contained in the participle construction can be omitted?

III. Compose your own sentences using the participle constructions given below.
Pay attention to the punctuation!
1. … directed by enzymes … 2. …, not usually spoken of, …
3. … kept in secret … 4. … believed to be true by many …
5. …, meant to draw our attention to the idea of Justice, …

Language focus 2
Absolute Participle Construction
A participle construction can have its own subject. This happens often in a rather
formal style, for example, in scientific texts:
The active site changed, the reaction continues.
The subject is often introduced by with. It can have different meanings:
time (when?); cause (why?); circumstances (how?); place (where?).

35
I. Translate the following sentences into Russian paying attention to the function of
the participle construction.
1. The breakdown or synthesis of a molecule within a cell normally occurs in many
discrete steps, each catalyzed by a different enzyme.
2. Most enzymes function optimally at a pH between 6 and 8, the level found in
most body fluids and maintained within cells.
3. With the process initiated, the reaction lasts until the needed quantity of the
substance is achieved.
4. The active site plugged up, the substrate molecules cannot enter and the reaction
is stopped.
5. The energy released as heat, the amount of entropy increases.

II. Think of your own phrases with absolute participle construction using words:
… found … … broken … … closed …
… rejected … … catalyzed …

Language focus 3

Participles of Durative and Terminative Verbs

In English one can find verbs of terminative and non-terminative (durative) lexical
character.
Terminative verbs denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which it cannot
go: to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to
die, to become, to stand up, to sit down, to come to.
Durative verbs denote a certain action which does not imply any limit: to live, to
exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to
hope, to sit, etc.

36
I. Match the participle with its translation. Pay attention to whether the action
expressed has reached a point after which it can no longer continue. Some verbs
can have both durable and terminative meanings.
shown освобождаемый, освобожденный
liberated называемый
oxygen-starved разбитый
called выпускаемый, выпущенный
derived (from) испытывающий нехватку кислорода
broken показываемый, показанный
released произошедший, полученный (из)

II. Say whether the participles in the following sentences have a durative or a
terminative meaning. Translate the sentences.
A. Potential energy, or stored energy, includes chemical energy stored in the bonds
that hold atoms together in molecules, electrical energy stored in a battery, and
positional energy stored in a diver poised to jump.

B. A chemical reaction converts one set of substances, called the reactants, into
another set, the
products.

С. In most cases, an enzyme catalyzes a single reaction that involves one or two
specific molecules but leaves even quite similar molecules untouched.

D. Enzymes are biological catalysts, normally proteins synthesized by living

organisms.

E. Temperature also affects the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.

37
Words, Words, Words
I. Look through the sentences in the exercises of this unit. Make a classification of
new words and phrases according to any parameter chosen by you.
II. Write an abstract describing the flow of energy in the Earth‟s living systems and
the functioning of enzymes.

Render in English.

Большая часть химических реакций, протекающих в организме,

регулируется ферментами, то есть белковыми молекулами, выполняющими
функцию катализаторов. Катализатором называют вещество, ускоряющее
химическую реакцию, которая без него протекает медленно. Сам катализатор
во время этой реакции стойких изменений не претерпевает.
Каждый из ферментов катализирует только те реакции, в которых
участвуют молекулы только какого-нибудь одного или нескольких видов.
Причина этого в том, что ферменты связываются со своими субстратами, т. е.
теми веществами, на которые они действуют. У фермента имеется активный
центр. Форма и химическое строение этого активного центра таковы, что с
ним могут связываться только определенные субстраты. Катализируя
реакцию, фермент тесно сближает молекулы своих субстратов, так что те
части молекул, которым предстоит прореагировать, оказываются друг подле
друга. Субстрат, присоединившись к ферменту, несколько изменяется.
Фермент может, например, притягивать электроны, вследствие чего в
некоторых связях молекулы субстрата будет возникать напряжение. Это, в
свою очередь, может повышать реакционную способность молекулы.
Предполагается, что именно таким путем фермент и ускоряет реакцию.
Активность ферментов находится в зависимости от температуры и
кислотности (acidity), а также от концентрации молекул субстрата, самих
ферментов и коферментов (витаминов и других веществ).

38
 Unit 4
Principles of Evolution

Introduction

I. Listen to a brief biography of a very famous scientist. The student first to say the
scientist‟s name will win the contest.

II. In pairs fill in the gaps.

a) What Darwin really liked to do was to ……….. the hills, observing plants and
animals, to scrutinize, to
survey – тщательно
collecting new specimens, scrutinizing their structures, and исследовать,
изучать
categorizing them.
to gnaw on one’s
b) In 1831, when Darwin was only 22 years old, the British mind – беспокоить,
терзать
government sent Her Majesty‟s Ship “Beagle” on a 5-year
surveying expedition that ……….. first ………… the coastline of South America
and then ………….. the world.
c) In South America he discovered a snake with rudimentary hind limbs, calling it
“the passage by which Nature ……… the lizards to the snakes”.
d) But constantly gnawing on his mind was the problem of the ………….. of
species.

III. Make up a story of Darwin‟s work, including the following words:

tortoise (черепаха) prickly pear cacti (опунции) finch (вьюрок)

beak (клюв) Galapagos Islands isolated on separate islands
“On the Origin of Species”, 1859

39
Reading

I. Read the following extract about fossils. There are several sentences taken out of
the text. Put them into correct places.

a. Fossil remains also showed a remarkable progression of form.

b. These fossils (from Latin, meaning “dug up”) resembled parts or living
organisms.
c. In fact, any tangible trace of an organism that is preserved in rock or sediments
is a fossil.
d. The rapidly accumulating fossil discoveries also revealed that fossils come in
many forms.

As new lands were explored, excavations for roads, mines, and canals
revealed that many rocks occur in layers. In some cases, a few strangely
shaped rocks or fragments were found embedded within one of these layers.
( ) At first, fossils were thought to be ordinary rocks that wind, water or
5 people had worked into lifelike forms. As more and more fossils were
discovered, however, it became obvious that they were in fact the remains of
plants or animals that had died long ago and been changed into or in some
ways preserved in rock. ( ) The classic image of a fossil is of bones or
other hard parts (such as shells) that have been transformed into rock by
10 aeons of geological processing. But fossils also include casts, molds, and
other impressions that organisms left in ancient sediments before
decomposing. Some of the most interesting and informative fossils are the
trails, burrows, tracks, or droppings that organisms left behind.
( )
15 These windows into the past are fascinating in and of themselves, but the
distribution of fossils in rock can also be revealing. After studying fossils
carefully, the British surveyor William Smith (1769-1839) realized that

40
 certain fossils were always found in the same layers of rock. Further, the
organization of fossils and rock layers was consistent: Fossil type A could
20 always be found in a rock layer resting atop an older layer containing fossil
type B, which in turn rested atop a still older layer containing fossil type C,
and so on.
( ) Most fossils found in the lowest (and therefore oldest) rock layers were
very different from modern forms; the resemblance to modern forms
25 gradually increased upward toward younger rocks, as if there were indeed a
ladder of Nature stretching back in time. Many of these fossils were the
remains of plant and animal species that had gone extinct – that is, no
members of the species still lived on Earth. Putting these facts together,
scientists came to the inescapable conclusion that different types of
30 organisms had lived at various times in the past.

II. Find in the text words meaning:

showed ……………………
fixed firml ……………………
unchanged ……………………
ages ……………………
objects formed by molding ……………………
feces ……………………
similarity ……………………
no longer existing ……………………

III. Which of the following are fossils?

a. pollen grains buried in the bottom of a peat bog
b. the petrified cast of a clam‟s burrow
c. the impression a clam shell made in mud, preserved in mudstone
d. an insect leg sealed in plant resin
e. all of the above

41
Language Focus 1

Ving Forms: Use, Terminology and Types

1 We can use Ving Forms (e.g. smoking, walking) not only as verbs, but also like
adjectives, adverbs or nouns. Compare:
You’re smoking too much these days. (part of a verb in present continuous)
There was a smoking cigarette end in the ashtray. (adjective describing cigarette
end)
She walked out of the room smoking. (similar to an adverb)
Smoking is bad for you. (noun: subject of sentence)

2 When Ving Forms are used as parts of verb forms, or like adjectives, they are
called „present participles‟. (This, as well as „past participle‟, is not a very suitable
name, because both forms can refer to the past, present or future.) When they are
used more like nouns, they are often called „gerunds‟.

3 Ving Forms can be combined with other words to form clause-like structures.
She went running out of the room.
Collecting stamps was a hobby of his.
Having lost all my money, I went home.

I. Find in the Reading Text examples of various uses of Ving Forms and name
them.

II. Fill in the table:

Present Perfect
(not) preserving (not ) having ………………
(not) being preserved (not) ………… been preserved

42
III. Choose the correct form of those given in the brackets:
1 (Having spent/Spending) all his money, he went to borrow some from his sister.
2 (Having preserved/Having been preserved) by the efforts of two governments,
the reserve is now in a very good condition.
3 (Not seeing/Not being seen) her often was harder than I had thought.
4 The gulls, though (watching/being watched) all the time, did not pay attention to
the intruders.
5 For those (trying/having tried) to produce a good impression I would like to note
that I do not look at the appearance of students.
6 (Not knowing/Not having known) the facts, we cannot do anything.
7 Although (having listened to/being listened to) I felt ignored.
8 I am afraid that even (having been done/having done) everything I will fail to
answer his questions.

Ving Forms Used as Modifiers

Ving Forms can be used before nouns. This can happen both with noun-like Ving
Forms („gerunds‟) and adjective-like Ving Forms („participles‟). The two
structures do not have quite the same kind of meaning. Compare:
a waiting room (= a room for waiting – waiting is a gerund, used rather like a
noun)
a waiting train (= a train that is waiting – waiting is a participle, used rather like
an adjective)

IV. Place Ving Forms into two groups: gerunds and participles. Note the stressed
word with a blob.
a sleeping pill
working conditions
working men and women
writing board

43
a sleeping child
a living room
living things
cutting edge
a listening exercise
listening students

Language Focus 2

Determiners, possessives and object pronouns before Ving Forms

1 We can often use determiners (for example, the, my, this) with noun-like Ving
Forms.
the opening of Parliament I don’t mind your going without me.
Does my smoking annoy you? I hate all this useless arguing.
John’s going to sleep during the wedding was rather embarrassing.
She was angry at Lina’s trying to lie to her.

2 Note that possessives and pronouns are not used before Ving Forms if it is
already clear who is being talked about.
Thank you for waiting. (NOT Thank you for your waiting.).
No is often used with Ving Form to say that something is not allowed, or is
impossible. The structure often occurs alone in notices; it can also follow there is.
No smoking No parking
Sorry – there’s no smoking in the waiting room.

3 In an informal style it is more common to use object forms (like me, John)
instead of possessives (my, John’s) with Ving Forms, especially when these come
after a verb or preposition.
I don’t mind you going without me.
She was angry at Lina trying to lie to her.

44
Some verbs (e.g. hear, watch, feel) are normally followed by an object+Ving
Form.
I saw him getting out of the car. (Not I saw his getting…)

I. Put the words into right order to make sentences.

1. hate / I / saying / his / words / to / such / my daughter.
2. you / seen / dancing / him / have?
3. made /up / She / mind / „s / her / -/ is / arguing / there / no / with her.
4. always / laughing / are / making / my / mistakes / at / you.
5. for / thank / so / being / you / kind.
6. ever / do / playing / you / the / enjoy / him / violin?
7. upset / the / boys / I / behaving / was / badly / so / by

II. Translate from Russian into English.

1. Я видел, как ты разговаривала с этим человеком.
2. Он шел домой, весело напевая.
3. Этот человек заслуживает, чтобы его выслушали.
4. Развитие разнообразных умений и способностей – наша задача.
5. Посмотри на того человека, который стоит отдельно от остальных.
6. Говорящий лист: так индейцы называли письмо по бумаге.
7. Обожаю кататься на лошади!

Words, Words, Words

I. In 1858, Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently described a

mechanism for evolution in remarkably similar papers that were presented to the
Linnaean Society in London. They stated that the evolutionary theory arises from
scientific observations and conclusions based on them. But how did Darwin and
Wallace arrive at the conclusion that life‟s huge variety of excellent designs arose

45
by a process of descent with modification? The chain of logic leading to this
powerful conclusion turns out to be surprisingly descent – спуск, снижение
ascent – восхождение, подъем
simple and straightforward. Their theory is
trait; feature; characteristic –
summarized below in modern terms. However, характерная черта, особенность

the observations and conclusions are not given in offspring - потомок

the right order. Your task is to match the observations

and conclusions and to place them properly.

Observation 1: Natural populations of all organisms have the potential to

increase rapidly, because organisms can produce far more offspring than are
required merely to replace the parents. (A population consists of all the individuals
of one species in a particular area.). Nevertheless, the sizes of most natural
populations and the resources available to maintain them (such as food and
appropriate habitat) remain relatively constant at the time.

Conclusion …: Over many generations, differential, or unequal, reproduction

among individuals with different genetic makeup changes the overall genetic
composition of the population. This process is evolution by natural selection.

Conclusion …: Therefore, there is competition for survival and reproduction. In

each generation, many individuals must die young, fail to reproduce, produce few
offspring, or produce less-fit offspring that fail to survive and reproduce in their
turn.
Conclusion …: The most well-adapted (the “fittest”) individuals in one generation
tend to be the ones that leave the most offspring. This is natural selection, the
process by which the environment selects for those individuals whose traits best
adapt them to that particular environment.

46
Observation …: Individual members of a population differ from one another in
their ability to obtain resources, withstand environmental extremes, escape
predators, and so on.

Observation …: At least some of the variation among individuals in traits that

affect survival or reproduction is due to genetic differences that may be passed
on from parent to offspring.

II. Use the words in bold given in I to describe the evolution of the horse, Equus.
See the picture below:

Language focus 3

Ving Forms after Verbs

After some verbs we can use Ving Form, but not normally an infinitive:
I enjoy traveling. (NOT I enjoy to travel.)
He’s finished repairing the car. (NOT He’s finished to repair…)

47
The doctor suggested taking a long holiday. (NOT The doctor suggested to take…)
Some common verbs that are followed by Ving Form:
admit detest feel like leave off resist
appreciate dislike finish mention risk
avoid endure forgive mind (can’t) stand
burst out enjoy give up miss suggest
consider escape (can’t) help postpone understand
contemplate excuse imagine practice
delay face involve put off
deny fancy keep (on) resent

I. Match parts of the sentences and write out the verbs that require Ving Form after
them. More than one variant is possible.
I can‟t admit my telling him what to do.
accused –
The accused denied being treated in such a way. обвиняемый

We dislike his getting so much money for nothing. draught [dra:ft]

– зд. сквозняк
Do you feel like going out tonight?
Do you fancy stealing the money because I was
in a different place at that time.
Do you mind my closing the window? There is a draught.
I strongly resent being guilty until his execution.
He can‟t stand playing some old tune?

II. Compose dialogues including at least four of the following expressions.

face losing one‟s job mention one‟s behaving badly consider doing
everything at once give up drinking avoid speaking about it in public
keep (on) smiling suggest choosing another candidate understand one‟s
complaining

48
Some of the verbs listed above and some other can be followed by object + Ving
Form.
I dislike people telling me what to do.
I can’t imagine him working in a laboratory.

III. Compose sentences using the given words:

suggest + (he) + visiting
can‟t stand + (I) + playing
fancy + (they) + going
resent + (she) + complaining
not admit + (we) + saying
consider + (the matter) + developing
not avoid + (mum) + talking
understand + (the professor) + falling asleep
not mind + (I) + leaving
dislike + (they) + looking
prevent + (he) + from finding out
not stop + (the judge) + from having revenge on

IV. Translate into English.

1. Дарвин любил наблюдать за животными и растениями, собирать образцы и
классифицировать их.
2. Проблема происхождения видов до сих пор требует глубокого
исследования.
3. Поскольку камень встречается в пластах, по возрасту пласта можно
установить возраст ископаемого, сохранившегося в этом камне.
4. Века геологической обработки сформировали удивительные образцы
давно вымерших фауны и флоры древнейших времен.
5. Ископаемые остатки раскрывают перед нами лестницу природы,
простирающуюся вглубь веков.
49
6. Зерна пыльцы, захороненные в торфе, не являются ископаемыми, так же
как не являются ими насекомые, сохранившиеся в окаменевшей древесной
смоле.
7. Проведя некоторое время на Галапагосских островах, Дарвин пришел к
важным выводам, касающимся эволюции организмов путем естественного
отбора.
8. Эволюция путем естественного отбора предполагает выживание потомства
наиболее приспособленных к среде обитания особей каждого поколения.
9. Оставив наиболее многочисленное потомство, наиболее приспособленные
особи изменяют общий генетический состав естественной популяции.
10. Полученный от родителей новый набор генов, способствующих лучшему
выживанию, начинает преобладать в популяции.

Retell in English.

Основные принципы эволюционного учения Ч. Дарвина сводятся к

следующим положениям:
1. Каждый вид способен к неограниченному размножению.
2. Ограниченность жизненных ресурсов препятствует реализации
потенциальной возможности беспредельного размножения. Большая часть
особей гибнет в борьбе за существование и не оставляет потомства.
3. Гибель или успех в борьбе за существование носят избирательный
характер. Организмы одного вида отличаются друг от друга совокупностью
признаков. В природе преимущественно выживают и оставляют потомство те
особи, которые имеют наиболее удачное для данных условий сочетание
признаков, то есть лучше приспособлены. Избирательное выживание и
размножение наиболее приспособленных организмов Ч. Дарвин назвал
естественным отбором.
4. Под действием естественного отбора находящиеся в разных условиях
группы особей одного вида из поколение в поколение накапливают

50
различные приспособительные признаки. Они приобретают настолько
существенные отличия, что превращаются в новые виды (принцип
расхождения признаков).

51
 Unit 5
The History of Life on Earth

Introduction
Listen to the account of the history of ideas concerning the generation of life on
Earth and discuss in pairs whether the following sentences are true or false.
1. Several centuries ago no one thought it difficult to answer the question of how
living things had arisen. T / F
2. Earlier people thought that life had appeared spontaneously from nonliving
things and other forms of life. T / F
3. In Medieval texts the authors suggested ways of creating nonliving things from
living things. T / F
4. People thought that microorganisms had arisen from broth and wheat. T / F
5. Francesco Redi proved that maggots did not arise from rotting meat. T / F
6. Louis Pasteur‟s ideas did not answer the question of how life on Earth had
originated. T / F
7. Alexander Oparin thought that complex organic molecules could be formed
spontaneously only if oxygen was around. T / F
8. Oxygen keeps molecules simple. T / F
9. Oparin and Haldane argued that the primordial atmosphere consisted of
hydrogen gas, methane and ammonia and free oxygen. T / F
10. Prebiotic evolution means evolution of nonliving matter to become living
matter. T / F

Reading

Prebiotic Conditions Would Allow Organic Molecules to Accumulate

Prebiotic synthesis would not have been very efficient or very fast.
Nonetheless, in a few hundred million years, large quantities of organic molecules

52
could accumulate, especially because they didn‟t break down nearly as fast back
then. On Earth today, most organic molecules have a short life; either they are
digested by living organisms or they react with atmospheric oxygen. Primeval
Earth lacked both life and free oxygen, so these sources of degradation were
absent. However, the primordial atmosphere also lacked the ozone layer, a region
high in the atmosphere that is enriched with ozone molecules, which absorb some
of the sun‟s high-energy ultraviolet (UV) light before it reaches Earth. During the
early history of Earth, before the ozone layer formed, UV bombardment, which can
break apart organic molecules, must have been fierce. Some places, however, such
as those beneath rock ledges or at the bottoms of even fairly shallow seas, would
have been protected from UV radiation. In these locations, organic molecules may
have accumulated to relatively high levels.
Even in areas protected from the sun, however, it‟s unlikely that molecules
dissolved in a huge ocean could reach the concentrations necessary to form
spontaneously the more complex molecules that arose in the next stage of prebiotic
evolution. The chemical reactions in which simple molecules combined to form
larger molecules such as RNA and proteins required that the reacting molecules be
packed closely together. Scientists have proposed several mechanisms by which
the requisite high concentrations might have been achieved on early Earth. One
possibility is that shallow pools at the ocean‟s edge were filled with water by
waves crashing onto the shore. Afterward, some of the water in the pool might
have evaporated, concentrating the dissolved substances. Given enough cycles of
refilling and evaporation, the molecules in these pools could have become a
concentrated “primordial soup” in which spontaneous chemical reactions could
generate complex organic molecules. These molecules could then have become the
building blocks of the first living organisms.

I. As in the example a, choose the definitions for the words in bold from the
following list:

53
a related to the period when the universe or the Earth first began to exist -
…primeval…
b the process of the change of a liquid into gas or steam - …………………
c necessary for a particular purpose - ……………………
d the process of changing into a worse condition - ………………………
e with only a short distance from the top or surface to the bottom -
…………………..
f formed when the Earth or universe began - …………………..
g very strong or severe - …………………
h a narrow surface that continues out from the side of a cliff, wall or other surface -
…………

II. List the conditions that prevented life from appearing on the primeval Earth.
How do scientists solve the problems arising from these conditions?

Language focus 1

-Ing and –ed Participles

I. Translate the following word combinations:
a developing organism
a developed frog
a dividing cell
the divided world of the XXth century
intriguing results of latest experiments
intrigued observers of the advance of science
a misleading hypothesis
a proved theory
guided reactions
the guiding role of genes

54
failed attempts
to develop specialized structures
life-sustaining water

II. What is the general meaning of the –ed participles and of the –ing participles?
Fill in the gaps with a suitable form of an –ing or –ed participle
1. A …….……… (reproduce) organism can be called a ………………. (live)
organism.
2. A ……………. (catalyze) reaction proceeds faster than a ………………….
(non-catalyze) one.
3. The ideas ………………. (include) concerned not only the biological science
but also other fields of knowledge.
4. In the 1980s, Thomas Cech and Sidney Altman offered an ……………….
(intrigue) solution to the question of how self-reproducing molecules appeared.
5. A ……………….. (develop) human body needs more care than a
…………………… (develop) one.
6. The ………………….. (intrigue) spectators waited for the outcome of the
competition.
7. It is sometimes difficult to draw a ………………. (divide) line between living
and non-living matter.
8. A house ……………….. (divide) cannot stand.
9. A …………….. (prove) hypothesis becomes a part of a scientific theory.
10. We don‟t know how many ………………… (fail) experiments led to the
discovery of many simple things.

Language focus 2

-Ing and –ed Participle Constructions

1 The photosynthetic reactions of the first cyanobacteria converted water and
carbon dioxide to organic compounds, releasing oxygen as a by-product.

55
(The –ing participle construction is here an adverbial modifier and it modifies the
whole of the main clause.)

2 Oxygen and nutrients going into the cell and waste products going out must
diffuse through the plasma membrane.
(The –ing participle constructions are here attributes and they modify the words
oxygen and nutrients and waste products.)

3 An organism may be multicellular - that is, it may consist of many small cells
packaged into a large, unified body.
(The –ed participle construction is here an attribute, modifying the word cells.)

I. Say whether the –ing or –ed participle construction is an adverbial modifier or an

attribute.
1. If an aerobe was captured by an anaerobe cell it could absorb half-digested food
molecules residing in the cytoplasm of the anaerobe and its oxygen to complete its
metabolism, gaining enormous amounts of energy as it did so.
2. The oxygen expelled by cyanobacteria reacted with iron atoms in Earth‟s crust,
or surface layer, forming huge deposits of iron oxide, known as rust.
3. Mitochondria, chloroplasts and centrioles each contain their own minute supply
of DNA, which some researchers interpret as a remnant of the DNA originally
contained within the symbiotic bacterium.
4. Waterproof coatings on the aboveground parts reduced water loss by
evaporation, and rootlike structures delved into the soil, mining water and
minerals.
5.Specialized cells formed tubes called vascular tissues to conduct water from
roots to leaves.
6. Extra-thick walls surrounding certain cells enabled stems to stand erect.
7. A wide variety of Precambrian invertebrate animals (animals lacking backbones)
appear in rocks laid between 650 million and 544 million years ago.

56
8. A new and different set of fossil animals appears just as suddenly in strata from
the Cambrian period, marking the beginning of the Paleozoic era, about 544
million years ago.
9. Most invertebrates in the Silurian period possessed either an internal hydrostatic
skeleton, much like a water-filled tube (worms) or an external skeleton covering
the body (arthropods such as trilobites).
10. Soon a more efficient means of feeding evolved: A separate mouth and anus,
found today in almost all animals, was developed.

II. Translate into Russian, using participle constructions.

1. Анаэробный организм не нуждается в кислороде для метаболизма,
используя другие метаболические механизмы.
2. Земная кора содержит значительные по объему залежи минералов,
используемые как источник энергии и строительный материал большим
количеством организмов.
3. Реакции фотосинтеза, происходящие в хлоропластах, превращают энергию
солнечного света в другие формы энергии.
4. Митохондрии, находящиеся в цитоплазме эукариотических клеток, играют
важную роль в их метаболизме.
5. Водоотталкивающие покрытия, сформированные на поверхности листьев,
предотвращают потерю воды путем испарения.
6. Организмы, у которых нет хорды, называются беспозвоночными.
7. Цианобактерии, содержащие хлорофилл прямо в цитоплазме, варьируют в
цвете от сине-зеленого до фиолетового.
8. Цианобактерии, поглощенные клеткой-хозяином, развились в первые
хлоропласты.
9. Согласно общепризнанной гипотезе, первые хищники были
специализированными прокариотическими клетками, у которых не было
клеточных стенок и которые, следовательно, были способны поглощать
целые бактерии.

57
10. Кислород, освобожденный цианобактериями, реагировал с железом,
образуя соединение, известное как ржавчина.

Words, Words, Words

I. Prepare to discuss the development of: a) microspheres and their qualities, and b)
the first living things and their qualities, using some of the expressions given.
- to create favorable conditions for the formation of complex organic compounds
- to possess significant stability
- to form microspheres
- to absorb various substances
- to be transformed in a series of reactions
- to be expelled into the environment
- to be only partially similar to living things
- to control the synthesis of specific compounds
- to develop the mechanism of reproduction and inheritance
- to determine the order of amino-acids in the synthesis of proteins
- to gain energy from the environment
- to give off energy in the process of decay of organic compounds
- to lead to giving off oxygen into the atmosphere and water

II. Render the following extract into English, using the expressions from I.

Большое количество данных говорит о том, что средой возникновения

жизни могли быть прибрежные районы морей и океанов. Здесь, на стыке
моря, суши и воздуха, создавались благоприятные условия для образования
сложных органических соединений. Например, растворы некоторых
органических веществ (сахаров, спиртов) обладают большой устойчивостью

58
и могут существовать неограниченно долгое время. В концентрированных
растворах белков, нуклеиновых кислот могут образовываться сгустки
подобно водным растворам желатина. Такие сгустки называют
коацерватными каплями, или коацерватами (зд. microspheres). Коацерваты
способны адсорбировать различные вещества. Из раствора в них поступают
химические соединения, которые преобразуются в результате реакций,
проходящих в коацерватных каплях, и выделяются в окружающую среду.
Коацерваты – это еще не живые существа. Они проявляют лишь внешнее
сходство с такими признаками живых существ, как рост и обмен веществ с
окружающей средой. Поэтому возникновение коацерватов рассматривают
как стадию развития преджизни.
Коацерваты претерпели очень длительный отбор на устойчивость
структуры. Устойчивость была достигнута вследствие создания ферментов,
контролирующих синтез тех или иных соединений. Наиболее важным этапом
в происхождении жизни было возникновение механизма воспроизведения
себе подобный и наследования свойств предыдущих поколений. Это стало
возможным благодаря образованию сложных комплексов нуклеиновых
кислот и белков. Нуклеиновые кислоты, способные к самовоспроизведения,
стали контролировать синтез белков, определяя в них порядок аминокислот.
А белки-ферменты осуществляли процесс создания новых копий
нуклеиновых кислот. Так возникло главное свойство, характерное для жизни,
- способность к воспроизведению подобных себе молекул.
Живые существа представляют собой так называемые открытые
системы, то есть системы, в которые энергия поступает извне. Без
поступления энергии жизнь существовать не может.
По способам потребления энергии организмы делятся на две большие
группы: автотрофные и гетеротрофные. Очевидно, первые организмы были
гетеротрофными, получающими энергию путем бескислородного
расщепления органических соединений. На заре жизни в атмосфере Земли не
было свободного кислорода. Возникновение атмосферы современного

59
химического состава теснейшим образом связано с развитием жизни.
Появление организмов, способных к фотосинтезу, привело к выделению в
атмосферу и воду кислорода. В его присутствии стало возможным
кислородное расщепление органических веществ, при котором получается во
много раз больше энергии, чем при бескислородном.

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 Unit 6
Biotechnology

Introduction
I. In groups of four answer the questions:
1. What is the definition of biotechnology?
2. What are the goals of genetic engineering?
II. Share your ideas with the class.
III. Check if you know the following words:
alteration yeast selective breeding rind wild prehistoric remains
utilize threefold disorders valuable
IV. Listen to the abstract answering these two questions and decide how close your
answers were to the information you‟ve heard.

Reading

Read and translate the text. Summarize some of the methods of biotechnology.

A DNA Library

Within the past few years, the technologies of recombinant DNA have
mushroomed. We will follow a typical sequence of procedures that might be used
to solve a particular problem or to produce a specific product.
The first task in recombinant DNA technology is to produce a DNA library –
a readily accessible, easily duplicable assemblage of all the DNA of a particular
organism. The entire set of genes carried by a member of any given species is
called a genome. Why build a DNA library of a species‟ genome? A DNA library
organizes the DNA in a way that researchers can use it. restriction enzymes,
plasmids, and bacteria are the most commonly used tools in assembling a DNA
library.

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 Many bacteria produce restriction enzymes, which sever DNA at particular
nucleotide sequences. In nature, restriction enzymes defend bacteria against viral
infections by cutting apart the viral DNA. (The bacteria protect their own DNA,
probably by attaching methyl groups to some of the DNA nucleotides.)
Researchers have isolated restriction enzymes and use them to break DNA into
shorter strands at specific sites.
Most restriction enzymes recognize and sever palindromic sections of DNA,
in which the nucleotide order is the same n one direction on one strand as in the
reverse direction on other strand. (A palindrome is a word that reads the same
forward and backward, such as “madam”.) These single-stranded cut pieces of the
DNA fragment are called „sticky ends‟, because they will stick to (form hydrogen
bonds with) other single-stranded cut pieces of DNA with the complementary
series of bases. If the appropriate DNA repair enzyme (called DNA ligase) is
added, DNA from different sources cut by the same restriction enzyme can be
joined as if the DNA had occurred naturally. Segments of DNA from
fundamentally different types of organisms, such as bacteria and humans, can be
joined if they have complementary sticky ends.
Many different restriction enzymes have been isolated from various species of
bacteria. Each cuts DNA apart at different but specific palindromic nucleotide
sequences. The variety of restriction enzymes has enabled molecular geneticists to
identify and isolate specific segments of DNA from many organisms, including
humans.
Suppose now that human DNA is isolated from white blood cells and is cut
apart into many small fragments with a restriction enzyme. The same restriction
enzyme is then used to sever the DNA of bacterial plasmids. Now both human and
plasmid DNA have complementary sticky ends that, when mixed, form hydrogen
bonds. When DNA ligase is added, it bonds the sugar-phosphate backbones
together, inserting segments of human DNA into plasmids.
The new rings of plasmid-human DNA (recombinant DNA) are mixed with
bacteria, which take up the recombinant DNA. Millions or billions of plasmids

62
collectively could incorporate DNA from the entire human genome. Usually, 100
to 1000 times more bacteria than plasmids are used, so that no individual
bacterium ends up with more than one recombinant DNA molecule. The resulting
population of bacteria containing recombinant plasmid-human DNA constitutes a
human DNA library.

Language focus 1

Types of Infinitives

I. Read the sentences below and discuss them with your partner: are they true for
you?
1. I was grown up to believe that life was a gift, and that I had to treasure it.
2. If there is some work to do, I prefer to do it alone.
3. Relatives can never become a source of problems.
4. I don‟t mind seeing a film, even if it is thought of as a bore.
5. I am looking forward to finding a good job with an international laboratory.
6. It‟s fun to be working together on one problem.
7. My best friend is thought to have studied in a biologically-biased class at
school.
8. One of my teachers is known to have been working on the same problem for
ten years.
9. If you are in university to study, most work is to be done at home.
10. I always suggest choosing the shortest way in solving any problem.

II. What do you know about the Infinitive? What is its typical form?

III. Now find the Infinitives in the sentences above. There are three sentences
without an Infinitive. There may be more than one infinitive in a sentence.

63
IV. Now fill in the gaps in the following table. Put in the table the number of
sentences where each type of the infinitive has been used. Can you guess why
passive progressive infinitives are not commonly used?

INFINITIVES
Simple № Perfect №
Active to do to have …..
Passive to …. done to have …
done
Active to be doing to … been
progressive doing
Passive - -
progressive

Types of Infinitives

Infinitives are forms like (to) write, (to) stand. Unlike verb tenses, (for example,
writes, stood), infinitives do not usually show the actual times of actions and
events. They usually refer to actions and events in a more general way, rather like
–ing forms.

Beside simple infinitives like (to) write, there are also progressive infinitives (for
example, (to) be writing), perfect infinitives ((to) have written) and passive
infinitives ((to) be written). Perfect progressive and perfect passive are also
common.
The progressive infinitive is used to suggest that actions and events are/were/will
be continuing around the time we are talking about:
It’s nice to be sitting here with you.
This time tomorrow I’ll be passing my final exam in English.

64
Perfect infinitives can have the same kind of meaning as perfect tenses:
It’s nice to have finished work. (= It’s nice that I have finished work).
I’m sorry not to have come on Tuesday. (=I am sorry that I didn’t come…)
We often use perfect infinitives to talk about „unreal‟ past events: things that did
not happen or may not have happened:
I meant to have telephoned, but I forgot.
You should have told me you were coming.

V. Choose the correct option in the sentences given below:

1. I always try to be/to have been as good as I can.

2. He is thought to leave /to have left the army because of a quarrel with an
officer.
3. Everything should be done/have done very carefully.
4. I suggest going/to go to the cinema in the evening.
5. She was trained to help/to be helping the disabled.
6. I am looking forward to see/seeing you soon.
7. My friend is said to go/have been going in for yoga for quite a long time.

Can you now say which expressions or words are not followed by the
Infinitive?

VI. Make three sentences from these words that have been jumbled. The first and
the last words are given.
1. are The the students be not universities early too said of to religious.
2. your silly have not You locked were to car.
3. be is working, like supervisor my he to When doesn‟t disturbed.

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Negative infinitives are normally made by putting not before the infinitive:
Try not to be late.
You are not to skip classes.

Language focus 2

Infinitives in grammatical structures

I. Explain the difference in the use of the infinitive in the following two sentences.
a. Scientists want to get a solution for practically every problem they face.
b. The scientist used two different ways to get this particular solution of the
problem he had faced.
Which of the infinitives allows us to put “in order to/so as to” instead of “to”
before it?
II. Mark the sentences below by “a” if the use of the infinitive in it corresponds to
that in sentence (a) from I, and “b”, if you can use “in order to/so as to” instead of
“to” in this sentence.
1.  We expect to solve all major problems in biology by the end of the century.
2.  Genetic engineering was created to use the most of the nature‟s resources.
3.  To be domesticated, a species needs more than one generation of breeding in
captivity.
4.  Scientists claim to have understood the whole of the human genome.
5.  Research on human genome must be stopped not to interfere with that shrine
of Nature.
6.  A classic is something which nobody wants to read, but everybody wants to
have read. (This saying is supposed to belong to M. Twain.)

Do you agree with the ideas expressed in these sentences?

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Infinitive of purpose

We often use the infinitive to talk about a person‟s purpose – why he or she does
something.
I sat down to rest. (not for to rest or for resting!)
He went abroad to study.
In this case we can also use in order to or so as to. They are normal before „stative‟
verbs like be, know and have.
I watched him in order to know more about him.
In order to/so as to are normally used before a negative infinitive.
I am going to leave now, so as not to be late.

III. Compare the meaning of the infinitive in the following two sentences:

1. This book has been written to broaden our knowledge of genetic engineering.
2. These concepts were immediately applied to practice to give rise to a new
branch of science.
Change the structure of these sentences in order to clarify the difference in the
meaning of the infinitive.

“Infinitive of Consequence”

Infinitives can be used to say what consequences the fact expressed by the verb of
the main clause had. The infinitives commonly used in this way in scientific
language are:
to bring about – вызывать, порождать
to give – давать, порождать
to give rise to – порождать, приводить к
to form – образовывать, давать
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to make – производить, делать
to produce – производить, давать
to yield [ji:ld]– производить, давать
For example: The new book was soon published to produce a storm of criticism. =
The new book was soon published and it produced a storm of criticism.

IV. Give sentences equivalent to these:

1. Three oxygen atoms combine to form an ozone molecule.

2. The new substance reacts well with most metals to give rise to alloys which
have useful characteristics.
3. A new theory was publicized at this stage, to produce a revolutionary change in
the understanding of the Earth‟s global processes.
4. Careful selection has taken place, to yield a pure albino dove.
5. The analysis was too far-fetched, to bring about many critical reviews in
scientific journals.

V. Translate into English:

1. Чтобы облегчить понимание данной проблемы, были выпущены несколько

научных трудов.
2. Были защищены две диссертации по проблеме генной инженерии, и это
вызвало бурю недовольства в научных кругах.
3. Что нужно сделать, чтобы отделить железо от примесей?
4. Этот сплав был вскоре использован в ракетостроении, и это стало началом
новой эпохи аэронавтики.
5. Для того чтобы начать заниматься наукой, нужно, прежде всего, иметь
желание познать окружающий мир.

68
6. Чтобы не выглядеть несведущим, оппонент прочитал пару работ по теме
диссертации, написанной молодым ученым.
7. Две эти идеи столкнулись, породив новую область знания.

Language focus 3

Infinitive Constructions Equivalent to Clauses

I. Think of rephrasing the following sentences:

a) I expect that this method will open a new perspective for further research. –
I expect this method …
b) I saw how a great scientist turned into a wreck in a week as a result of exposure
to severe radiation.
I saw a …
c) Professor Jason does not object to young scientists staying in the laboratory in
the evening.
Professor Jason allows …

The sentences you have created are examples of the so called Objective Case with
the Infinitive.

Subj.…Verb…Object… Infinitive
Example: We found this method to yield amazing results.
I made you leave on purpose.
Remember the verbs commonly used in this structure:
(1) Verbs of mental and sensual perception and estimation:
to believe, to consider, to estimate, to expect, to find, to hate, to know, to regard as,
to show, to suppose, to think;
to feel, to hear, to see, to watch – followed by an infinitive without to

69
(2) Verbs of causation and initiation:
to allow, to cause, to enable, to force, to get (добиваться), to permit, to require, to
want;
to have (добиться желаемого), to make (заставить) + inf. without to

II. Match two parts of the sentences:

1) One can assume this a) move into biology from other branches
2) We expect the scope of the of science.
research b) to be far from ordinary life.
3) Most people consider science c) clear the room after the party.
4) I made my roommate d) such course of events to be a disaster.
5) One can watch more and more e) to expand greatly.
people f) realize the consequences of tampering
6) You begin naturally to think with nature
7) The author‟s major concern is to g) to be a very simple question.
make the reader

III. Not only simple infinitives can be used in this construction. Translate the
following sentences into Russian1.
1. The history of the last 30 years shows him to have done very well. 2. This
allowed the rules to be followed. 3. We know him to have established a school of
his own. 4. They considered all water on the surface of the planet to have been
liberated by volcanic action. 5. This analysis permitted them to tackle the problem
directly. 6. This information enabled forecasts for the next few years to be made. 7.
We know him to have objected to this style of research on previous occasions. 8.
We do not expect such an opportunity to be thrown away by him like this.

1
Упражнение цитируется по учебнику “Learn to Read Science”, ex.8, 9, p. 67.

70
Words, Words, Words

Complete the text with the correct option A-C. Consult the dictionary if necessary.

DNA Fingerprinting: A Tool for Medical Detective

The use of (1) ______ fragment length (2) ______ (RFLPs) in DNA
fingerprinting has caused a (3) ______ in many fields of biology. Nowhere has the
impact of this technique been felt more than in forensics, the (4) ______ of
information to be used as evidence in court proceedings. First used in a court case
in 1986 in which blood (5) ______ from males in an entire British village were
tested to solve the rape and murder of two young women, DNA testing has since
entered the mainstream of forensic science. Because the PCR (polymerase chain
reaction) technique allows (6) ______ of minute quantities of DNA, enough DNA
to produce a NDA fingerprint can easily be obtained from a semen stain, cells at
the base of a (7) ______, skin fragments found under a victim‟s fingernails after a
struggle, or a speck of dried blood. Forensic scientists have recently discovered
that they can swab off objects regularly handled by a suspect, such as a telephone
handset, a briefcase handle, or the inside of vinyl gloves, and use DNA
fingerprinting on the collected “fingerprints” themselves.
Some fascinating cases have used DNA from other species to solve murders.
When a Phoenix, Arizona, woman was found strangled near a palo verde tree in
1992, the prime suspect denied having been at the crime scene. However, palo
verde (8) ______ were found in the bed of the suspect‟s pickup truck. Homicide
(9) ______ turned to Dr. Timothy Helentjaris, then at the University of Arizona. In
his research on the evolution of crop plants, he had found considerable differences
of the DNA fingerprints of (10) ______ plants.
Helentjaris was given the seeds from the suspect‟s truck along with seeds
collected from a dozen palo verde trees in the area, only one of which was near the
body. Without knowing which was which, Helentjaris (11) ______ DNA from the

71
seeds and used PCR to amplify it. DNA fingerprinting showed that the pattern
from the seeds found in the truck exactly matched the pattern from only one of the
dozen trees – the one nearest the body. In an important additional test, Helentjaris
found that this pattern was also different from that of seeds collected from 18 trees
at random sites around Phoenix. This information was (12) ______ in (13) ______
the suspect‟s alibi, and he was found guilty of first-degree murder.
DNA fingerprinting, combined with PCR, promises to revolutionize other
areas of biology and medicine as well. For instance, a group of British and Russian
scientists used PCR to identify the remains of the Russian royal family, Tsar
Nicholas Romanov II, his wife, Alexandra, and three of their five children.
In 1997, Oxford researchers using DNA fingerprinting were able to (14)
______ the longest (15) ______ (16) ______ ever traced. They extracted DNA
from the bones of a 9000-year-old skeleton found in 1903 in a (17) ______ near
the town of Cheddar, England. Wondering if (18) ______ of the “Cheddar Man”
might still live in the area, they analyzed DNA from local families; amazingly,
they found a match in a Cheddar schoolteacher.

1 A destruction B restriction C retraction

2 A polymerisms B polymorphisms C polylithisms
3 A revolution B revolt C revolt
4 A collocation B gathering C collection
5 A examples B species C samples
6 A amplification B implication C simplification
7 A shaft of bone B shaft of feather C hair shaft
8 A weeds B reeds C seeds
9 A researchers B investigators C explorers
10 A individual B separate C detached
11 A elicited B derived C extracted
12 A critical B crucian C crucial
13 A demolishing B embellishing C abolishing

72
14 A pounce B renounce C announce
15 A humane B human C humanistic
16 A lineage B linkage C linage
17 A cave B cavity C hollow
18 A descendants B ancestors C ascendants

Language focus 4

Infinitives and the structure of argumentation

I. Read the title of the text below and say what you think it is about. Any
associations?
II. Read the text. Do you agree with the author?

A Throw-away Society

I entered a big supermarket to shop: I needed several cans of drinks, a few

chocolates, a disposable tablecloth and some paper tissues, plastic glasses and
plates (not to wash the dishes afterwards) and a number of items one would buy
when their friends are coming to your place to relax and have fun. I packed
everything into big celluloid bags, free to be taken by anyone, and left carrying
with me two dozens of objects wrapped in various kinds of plastic to throw away
40% of what I had bought as rubbish.
I think it doesn‟t surprise anyone nowadays that we have to throw many
things away after using them. We do not know what to do with a colourful
wrapping or an empty box of chocolates. These things can be easily bought next
time you are in a shop. So we throw them away. We do not know where to put
industrially used materials. So we pour them into the sea or deposit them in huge
cemeteries of rubbish. A human being has become so used to having everything

73
new and shining that one would spend all his or her money to buy a new mobile
phone even if the old one is still working. It is fashionable. It is reliable.
For a society to become environmentally aware, more than just a course of
lectures at a school or college is needed. One may listen to a hundred lectures but
what can he do if he is made to throw away half of the things he‟s bought? We do
not pay attention to that – it has become normal. Dustbins are being filled every
day with new tons of rubbish.
Recycling has become a major issue in the previous century and no doubt it is
being much thought about today. Most European and some Asian countries have
started recycling programs, and one can find three dustbins for different kinds of
waste products in the garden of the average Englishman. The garbage is then
collected and sent to special factories that use recycled materials to produce new
things. To recycle is to survive.
As far as Russia is concerned ….

III. In groups of four discuss a current situation of utilizing waste products in

Russia. Think of some examples. Your task will be to complete the text with your
ideas in writing.

Before writing, look at the expressions given below:

We often use different expressions to connect ideas in our texts. Here are some of
them:
To begin with - прежде всего, начнем с того, что…; во-первых, для начала
To mention smth. – если упомянуть…
Not to mention – не говоря уже о… (To begin with, I don‟t agree with the writer
at all.)
To say nothing of – не говоря уже о…
To put it briefly – короче говоря
So to say – так сказать
To illustrate – для иллюстрации, например

74
To make a long story short – короче говоря
To put it another way – иначе говоря, иными словами
To take an example – например
To tell the truth – по правде говоря
To conclude – в заключение
To generalize – обобщая, в общем, если обобщить вышесказанное
To sum up – подводя итог, если подвести итог; итак

IV. Now write a short text summing up your discussion and use at least 5
expressions from those given above.

Render in English

Программа «геном человека»: что это такое?

Основными задачами международного проекта "Геном человека"
(Human Genome Project - HGP) являются секвенирование (sequencing)– то
есть определение последовательности нуклеотидов суммарного набора
молекул ДНК клетки человека и картирование (mapping) (идентификация
генов и локализация места их расположения на хромосомах).
Идентифицировано множество генов, ответственных за многие болезни
человека: онкологические, наследственные, нейродегенеративные, сердечно-
сосудистые и пр. Поэтому полное выполнение программы «Геном человека»
может кардинальным образом изменить здравоохранение. В последнее время
активно прогрессирует медицинское приложение геномики - медицинская
геномика, в частности, геномная диагностика. Ученые и врачи смогут больше
узнать о происхождении конкретных заболеваний и о причинах
предрасположенности тех или иных людей к этим заболеваниям. В свою
очередь, фармацевтические и биотехнологические фирмы смогут намного
быстрее и дешевле создавать новые лекарства, которые будут вызывать
гораздо меньше побочных эффектов (например, аллергических реакций).

75
 Геном человека, или совокупность всех его генов и межгенных участков
ДНК, составляет более 3 млрд. нуклеотидных пар или пар оснований. Ранее
эта величина казалась очень большой, и, учитывая прошлый уровень
развития техники секвенирования и информационных систем обработки
данных, предположения о прочтении генома человека выглядели
фантастически. Тем не менее, в 1988 г. один из первооткрывателей
знаменитой двойной спирали ДНК, лауреат Нобелевской премии Дж. Уотсон,
публично высказал мысль о реальности возможности полного раскрытия
нуклеотидной последовательности ДНК человека. В том же самом 1988 с
аналогичной идеей выступил выдающийся российский молекулярный биолог
и биохимик, академик А.А. Баев. Сначала эта идея была встречена весьма
скептически. Критики считали, что решение данной задачи мало реально и
нецелесообразно в научном отношении, к тому же потребует разорительных
затрат. Однако время шло, и очень скоро научное сообщество во всем мире
стало обсуждать ее всерьез.
Для координации национальных исследовательских программ возникла
Международная организация по изучению генома человека (HUGO). Ученые
шести стран мира (сейчас стран-участниц больше) договорились о работе с
различными хромосомами и фрагментами генома человека и совместном
определении полной структуры генома. На долю российских ученых
пришлось исследование структур 3 и 19 хромосом человека. С самого начала
работ по геномному проекту мир договорился об открытости, доступности
всей получаемой информации для его участников независимо от их вклада и
государственной принадлежности. Сейчас существуют общедоступные базы
данных, в которых аккумулирована информация о структуре генома
человека.

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 Unit 7
The Double Helix

Introduction

I. Listen to the text “Red Bread Mold Provided Insight into the Role of Genes”.
Are these sentences true or false? Correct the false sentences.
1 Neurospora is very independent because it can synthesize the organic compounds
it needs. T /F
2 Neurospora cannot grow on a minimal medium. T / F
3 Neurospora has just one copy of each gene that is why it is very useful in
experiments. T / F
4 George Beadle and Edward Tatum wanted to see the DNA of Neurospora with
the help of X-ray diffraction. T / F
5 The mutations caused by X-rays caused Neurospora to need more nutrients. T / F
6 The experiment of Beadle and Tatum proved that each enzyme is encoded by one
gene. T / F
7 The experimental mutant mold could not grow unless citrulline was added to the
medium. T / F
8 The experimental mutant mold lacked many enzymes. T / F

II. Are the following definitions correct? Change the wrong ones.
a A gene is a functional segment of DNA located at a particular place of a
chromosome.
b Nucleic acid consists of four very similar subunits called nucleotides.
c Each nucleotide of DNA consists of three parts: a phosphate group,
deoxyribose and a nitrogen-containing base that has a single-ringed structure.
d Chromosomes are long strands of DNA which are in eukaryotes complexed
with lipids.

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 e Replication is a process of copying DNA to produce two identical DNA
double helices.
f In transcription, the information contained in the whole of the DNA is copied
into messenger RNA (mRNA).
g In translation, transfer RNA (tRNA) and ribosomal RNA (rRNA) convert
the information of the base sequence in messenger RNA into a specific amino acid
sequence and so help synthesize the protein.

Reading

Read the text. The exercise after the text will help you with the new words.

The Discovery of the Double Helix

I In the early 1950s, many biologists realized that the key to understanding
inheritance lay in the structure of DNA. They also knew that whoever deduced the
correct structure of DNA would receive recognition from fellow biologists, fame in
the popular press, and very possibly the Nobel Prize. Less obvious were the best
methods to employ and who would be the person to do it.
II The betting favorite in the race to discover the structure of DNA had to be
Linus Pauling of Caltech. Pauling probably knew more about the chemistry of
large organic molecules than did any person alive, and he had realized that
accurate models could aid in deducing molecular structure. Like Rosalind Franklin
and Maurice Wilkins, Pauling was an expert in X-ray diffraction techniques.
Finally, he was almost frighteningly brilliant. In 1950s, he demonstrated these
traits by showing that many proteins were coiled into single-stranded helices.
Pauling, however, had two main handicaps. First, for years he had concentrated on
protein research, and therefore he had little data about DNA. Second, he was active
in the peace movement. During the early 1950s, some government officials,

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 including Senator Joseph MrCarthy, considered such activity to be potentially
subversive and possibly dangerous to national security.
III The second most likely competitors were Wilkins and Franklin, the English
scientists who had set out to determine the structure of DNA by the most direct
procedure, namely the careful study of the X-ray diffraction patterns of DNA.
They were the only scientists who had very good data about the general shape of
the DNA molecule. Unfortunately for them, their methodical approach was also
slow.
IV The door was open for the eventual discoverers of the double helix, James
Watson and Francis Crick, two young scientists (American and English,
respectively) with neither Pauling‟s tremendous understanding of chemical bonds
nor Franklin and Wilkins‟s expertise in X-ray analysis. They did have three crucial
advantages: (1) the knowledge that models could be enormously helpful in
studying molecular structure, a lesson learned from Pauling‟s work on proteins; (2)
access to the X-ray data; and (3) a driving ambition to be first.
V Watson and Crick did no experiments in the ordinary sense of the word;
rather, they spent their time thinking about DNA, trying to construct a molecular
model that made sense and fit the data. Because they were based in England and
because Wilkins was very open about his and Franklin‟s data, Watson and Crick
were familiar with all the X-ray information relating to DNA. This information
was just what Pauling lacked. Because of Pauling presumed subversive tendencies,
the U.S. State Department refused to issue him a passport to leave the United
States, so he could neither attend meetings at which Wilkins presented the X-ray
data nor visit England to talk with Franklin and Wilkins directly.
VI Watson and Crick knew that Pauling was working on DNA structure and were
terrified that he would beat them to it. In his book „The Double Helix‟, Watson
recounts his belief that, if Pauling could have seen the X-ray pictures, “in a week at
most, Linus would have the structure.”
VII You might be thinking now, “But wait just a minute! That‟s not fair. If the
goal of science is to advance knowledge, then everyone should have access to all

79
 the data. If Pauling was the best, he should have discovered the double helix first.”
Perhaps so. But science is an activity of scientists who, after all, are people too.
Although virtually all scientists want to see the advancement and benefit of
humanity, each individual also wants to be the one responsible for that
advancement and to receive the credit and the glory. The ambition to be first helps
inspire the intense concentration, the sleepless nights, and the long days in the
laboratory that ultimately produce results.
VIII Linus Pauling remained in the dark about the correct X-ray pictures of DNA
and was beaten to the correct structure. When Watson and Crick discovered the
base-pairing rule that was the key to DNA structure, Watson wrote a letter about it
to Max Delbruck, a friend and advisor at Caltech. He asked Delbruck not to reveal
the contents of the letter to Pauling until their structure was formally published.
Delbruck, perhaps more of a model scientist, firmly believed that scientific
discoveries belong to the public domain and promptly told Pauling all about it.
With the class of a great scientist and a great person, Pauling graciously
congratulated Watson and Crick on their brilliant solution of the DNA structure.
The race was over.

Words, Words, Words

I. In paragraphs I-VIII of the text find words meaning the following:

praise, respect or admiration (I) ………

the person or animal who is expected to win the competition (II) ………
correct or true in every detail (II) ………
very intelligent (II) ………
a disadvantage that prevents you from doing something well (II) ………
intended to destroy the power of the government (II) ………
to start working in order to achieve an aim (III) ………

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in the order in which they were mentioned (IV) ………
special skill or knowledge that you get from experience, training or studying (IV)
………
to do something before someone else (VI) ………
to say what happened (VI) ………
praise for something you have done or achieved (VII) ………
after a process or activity has ended (VII) ………
to make known (something secret or hidden) (VIII) ………

II. As you learned from “The Discovery of the Double Helix”, scientists in
different laboratories often compete with one another to make new discoveries. Do
you think this competition helps to promote scientific discoveries? Sometimes,
researchers in different laboratories collaborate with one another. What advantages
does collaboration offer over competition? What factors might provide barriers to
collaboration and lead to competition?

Advantages of Collaboration: Advantages of Competition:

1. 1.

2. 2.

3. 3.

Factors providing barriers to collaboration and leading to competition:

1.

2.

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Language focus 1

Modal Auxiliary Verbs: Overview

Modal auxiliary (“helper”) verbs are: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall,
should, must and ought to. Sometimes verbs be, dare, have and need act as modal
verbs, too.
Modal verbs
a) do not add –s in the third person singular;
b) form questions, negatives, question tags and short answers without do;
c) need an infinitive without to after them (except for be to, need to, ought to);
d) do not have infinitives or participles (to may, maying, musted);
e) can be followed by perfect or continuous infinitives (must have been, could be
doing, etc.) to express ideas of past or progressive;
f) have contracted forms (can’t, won’t, ‘d (for would), ‘ll (for will), etc.).
Modal auxiliary verbs have many meanings. Among them are: 1) ability 2)
obligation to do something, 3) permission, 4) degrees of certainty, 5) conditional
meaning.

I. Determine the meaning of the modal verb in each of the sentences.

1. Can swim ten lengths of the swimming pool without stopping.
2. You should be more attentive during the test: you can make 5 mistakes in one
word!
3. You are a princess and you must never say such words!
4. May I come in?
5. He might have missed the last train and is now stranded at the station.
6. How could I be such a fool?
7. That must have been a mistake!
8. You can borrow my car, if you want.
9. If I hadn‟t been such a snob I might have stayed with my parents.
10. The text can‟t be so small! It is just an introduction.

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II. Work with a partner. Use the phrases below in situations of your own:
1. He might have seen you wrapping it!
2. How long must I stand here like a statue?
3. You should do it as quickly as you can.
4. Can you show me the way?

Language focus 2

Can and Could: Ability

To express the notion of ability, modal verbs can/could are used in English. The
meaning of ability is the primary meaning of these verbs. For example:
I can read Italian, but I can’t speak it.
Can gases freeze?
When I was 5 years old, I could swim two lengths of the swimming pool. My
friends couldn’t swim so far.
However, we can not use these two verbs in every tense. That is why the
expression to be able to is used in other tenses:
Present: I can climb trees. – I am able to climb trees. (No difference in meaning,
can sounds better.)
Past: I could draw people when I was 5. = I was able to draw people when I was
5. (General ability.) BUT: I was able to draw that man (was able to = managed to,
succeeded in)
Future: You’ll be able to walk soon. (Only one form is used for future abilities.)
Infinitive: I like to be able to run fast. (Can is not used in the infinitive.)
Perfect: I’ve always been able to play games well. (Can is not used in the perfect.)
Gerund: Being able to practice parachute-jumping is very important for me. (Can
is not used in the –ing form.)
Participle: Being able to collect a lot of money by singing, he decided to do so.

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I. Interview your group-mates and find the person who:

(name)
a) was able to read when he was three ………….…………………………….
(Ask everybody: Were you able to read when you were 3?)
b) can drive a car …………….………………………..……….
c) has always been able to fight well ……….………………………………..…….
d) will be able to visit Europe in summer …………………….………………….
e) could watch horror movies when he was five .………………………..……….

II. Write in your notebook five words or expressions on the following in random
order.
1. Something you used to be able to do but can‟t do now.
2. Something you would like to be able to do in the future.
3. Something that you like being able to do.
4. Something you‟ve been able to do this week.
5. Something you‟ll be able to do when you graduate from the University.

Now swap your notes with your partner and ask questions looking at his/her notes.
(For example: Did you use to be able to play the piano well?)

III. Read the following dialogue. Who is speaking? Finish the dialogue. Act similar
dialogues in class, changing the names and other information.
- Hello, Mr. Parker. I am John Stevens.
- Hello, Mr. Stevens. So, you are applying for the position of …
- Of a photographer. I can write small articles to the photographs as well.
- Good. We‟re always in a hurry here. Are you able to act quickly and
efficiently?
- Yes, I am. In my previous job I was able to act very quickly.
- What did you do?

84
- I… er… was a scuba diving photographer. When you dive, you know, you must
be very attentive and make decisions quickly. I was able to get away from that
shark… and even save my camera.
- Oh!..
- I can also climb mountains, sail a boat, and fly a small airplane…
- That will do, thank you. Can you develop films?
- Oh yes, sir.
- Our magazine is a comic one. So we need comic photographs. Can you make
comic photographs? …

Can or Will Be Able to

We use can to talk about future actions which we will be able to do because of
present ability, present circumstances, present decision, etc. Will be able to is
used specially to indicate future ability to do something.

IV. Fill in the gaps with can or will be able to.

1. I …………. give you a hand with this work, if you like.
2. I …………. solve this problem in an hour or two.
3. I …………. explain it to you once again.
4. I …………. lend you my notebook for a few days, to prepare for the test.
5. I …………. spend more time with my husband when I leave the university.

Language focus 3

Ability: Could Have Done

1 Could have done is a special structure to talk about unrealized past ability or
opportunities – to say that somebody was able to do something, but did not try to
do it; or that something was possible, but did not happen.
I could have married anybody I wanted to. (Unrealized past ability.)

85
That was a bad place to go skiing – you could have broken your leg. (It was
possible, but it didn‟t happen.)
I couldn’t have won, so I didn’t go in for the race. (In negatives – inability in the
past.)
NB: I couldn’t win the race. (It is uncertain whether I took part in it.)
I couldn’t have won the race even if I had tried. (I did not take part in the race at
all.)

2 Sometimes could have done is used to criticize actions:

You could have helped me – why did you just sit and watch?! (Criticism of a past
action.)

3 The same forms are used in past and present conditionals:

I could have given up all research, if I hadn’t met that professor. (Unrealized
condition in the past.)
I could give up all research, if I was not interested in it. (Unrealized condition in
the present.)

These forms exist in both active and passive voice:

Active Passive
Present could do could be done
Past сould have could have been done
done

I. Put the verb in brackets into the correct form.

1. You could (kill) the bird! You were not careful when you took it!
2. You could (listen) to what I am saying.
3. The book could (read) more attentively if everything had been explained
beforehand.

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4. The work could (do) with more precision if the techniques we used had been
more accurate.
5. You could (eat) first and (play) after.
6. I could (be) in prison now if not for you.
7. That could (be) an ideal solution if we didn‟t know of the existence of that
factor.
8. The experiment could (conduct) with due care if the second laboratory assistant
was present.
9. The event could (place) into the list of the most wonderful discoveries in world
history if it had been known to anybody but the scientist who died the next day.
10. I could (produce) a better impression! But I began to worry long before I saw
the employer and couldn‟t (do) better.

II. Use the following word combinations in phrases of your own.

1. … could possibly revise …
2. … can‟t determine …
3. I can replace …
4. … couldn‟t have decided …
5. … was able to calculate …
6. …could have counted …
7. … could have been achieved if …
8. I could try ……..

Language focus 4

Uncertainty, Doubt, Improbability

1 Can it be true? Неужели это правда?
Could (more uncertain)

Can/ Could she be telling lies? (The continuous infinitive is used)

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Can/Could she have said it? (To show that something happened in the past use
the perfect infinitive)
Can/Could she really have been waiting for us so long? (The action began in the
past and continues into the present)

2 It can’t be true Не может быть, чтобы это было правдой!

couldn’t

He can’t be telling lies!

couldn’t

He can’t have said this! (Something happened in the past)

couldn‟t

She can’t/couldn’t have been waiting for us so long! (The action began in the
past and continues into the present.)

I. Substitute an English verb in the correct form for the Russian one in the brackets.
1. He can‟t (сказал) that to your mother!
2. Can it (происходит) every day in our faculty?
3. Could he (работал и до сих пор работает) in this strange organization?
4. We couldn‟t (видели) this so many times!
5. You can‟t (смотришь) at these things and not (делаешь) anything with that!
6. Could you (ждал) so long?
7. They couldn‟t (были) there.

II. Use two or more of the phrases from I in situations of your own.

III. Translate into English.

1. Не может быть, чтобы он это написал!

88
2. Ты мог бы переписать дискету, пока был у меня дома.
3. Вы не могли бы подержать мою сумку?
4. Он умел плавать в три года!
5. Она смогла только подняться с постели и сделать три шага.
6. Можно мне взять твою расческу?
7. Разве такое может случиться в нашей семье?
8. Неужели вы столько лет исследуете одну только плесень?
9. Он мог отдать вам все материалы и больше никогда не вспомнить об этом,
но он этого не сделал.
10. Ты мог бы сейчас загорать где-нибудь в Испании…
11. Из нашего окна можно увидеть только каменную стену и маленький
кусочек голубого неба.
12. Разве он до сих пор проводит подобные эксперименты?
13. Не может быть, чтобы новое средство не подействовало! Мы его
опробовали, и оно дало хороший результат.
14. Разве вы не искали меня?
15. Ты не мог бы быть внимательнее, когда решаешь такие сложные задачи?
16. Эту книгу можно купить в любом магазине.

Render in English.

Образование и-РНК по матрице ДНК

Биосинтез белков идет в каждой живой клетке. Наиболее активен он в

молодых растущих клетках, где синтезируются все виды белков. Основная
роль в определении структуры белков принадлежит ДНК. Участок молекулы
ДНК, содержащий информацию о структуре одного белка, называют геном.
Поэтому информацию, которая содержит ДНК, называют генетической.
Информация, содержащаяся в ДНК, переписывается на и-РНК. Этот
процесс называют транскрипцией. Специальный фермент – РНК-полимераза,

89
двигаясь по ДНК, подбирает по принципу комплементарности нуклеотиды и
соединяет их в единую цепочку. Если в нити ДНК стоит тимин, то
полимераза включает в цепь и-РНК аденин, если гуанин – включает цитозин,
если аденин – то урацил (в состав РНК не входит тимин).
По длине каждая из молекул и-РНК в сотни раз короче ДНК.
Информационная РНК – копия не всей молекулы ДНК, а только части ее,
одного гена или группы рядом лежащих генов, несущих информацию о
структуре белков, необходимых для выполнения одной функции.
В начале каждой группы генов находится своего рода посадочная
площадка для полимеразы. Только присоединившись к ней, полимераза
способна начать синтез и-РНК. В конце группы генов фермент встречает
сигнал (в виде определенной последовательности нуклеотидов), означающий
конец переписывания. Готовая и-РНК отходит от ДНК, покидает ядро и
направляется к месту синтеза белков – рибосоме, расположенной в
цитоплазме клетки.
В клетке генетическая информация передается только от ДНК к белку.

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 Unit 8
Inheritance

Introduction

Read the following passage and listen to the story about Gregor Mendel‟s life. Find
six false facts in the story you hear.

Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn

(now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several
pursuits, including health care and teaching. To earn his teaching certificate,
Mendel attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and
mathematics, among other subjects. This training proved crucial to his later
experiments, which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St.
Thomas in the mid-1800s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and a
groundbreaking series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea.
Although Mendel worked without knowledge of genes or chromosomes, we can
more easily follow his experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic
concepts.

Reading

I. Read the extract from a textbook and write out all the terms relevant to the topic
of the unit and their definitions contained in the text.

A gene‟s specific physical location on a chromosome is called a locus (plural,

„loci‟). Homologous chromosomes carry the same genes, located at the same loci.
Although the nucleotide sequence at a given gene locus is always similar on
homologous chromosomes, it may not be identical. These differences allow
different nucleotide sequences at the same gene locus on two homologous

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chromosomes to produce alternate forms of the gene, called alleles. Human A, B,
and O blood types, for example, are produced by three alleles of the same gene.
If both homologous chromosomes in an organism have the same allele at a
given gene locus, the organism is said to be homozygous at that gene locus.
(“Homozygous” comes from Greek words meaning “same pair”.) If two
homologous chromosomes have different alleles at a given gene locus the
organism is heterozygous (“different pair”) at that locus and is called a hybrid.
During meiosis, homologous chromosomes are separated, so each gamete receives
one member of each pair of homologous chromosomes. Therefore, all the gametes
produced by an organism that is homozygous at a particular gene locus will contain
the same allele. Gametes produced by an organism that is heterozygous at the same
gene locus are of two kinds: half of the gametes contain one allele, and half contain
the other. (…)
Mendel‟s choice of the edible pea as an experimental subject was critical to
the success of his experiments. In plants, a male gamete, which for simplicity we‟ll
call the sperm, is contained in each pollen grain. The structure of the pea flower
normally prevents another flower‟s pollen from entering. Instead, each pea flower
normally supplies its own pollen, so the egg cells in each flower are fertilized by
sperm from the pollen of the same flower. This process is called self-fertilization.
Even in Mendel‟s time, commercial seed dealers sold many types of peas that were
true-breeding. In true-breeding plants, all the offspring produced through self-
fertilization are homozygous for a given trait and are essentially identical to the
parent plant.
Although peas normally self-fertilize, plant breeders can also mate plants by
hand, a process called cross-fertilization. Breeders pull apart the petals and remove
the stamens, preventing self-fertilization. By dusting the carpels with pollen they
have selected, breeders can control cross-fertilization. In this way, two true-
breeding plants can be mated to see what types of offspring they produce.
In contrast to earlier scientists, Mendel chose to study traits – heritable
characteristics – that are unmistakably different forms, such as white flowers

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versus purple flowers, and he worked with one trait at a time. These factors
allowed Mendel to see through to the underlying principles of inheritance. Equally
important was the fact that Mendel counted the numbers of offspring with each
type of trait and analyzed the numbers. The use of statistics as a tool to verify the
validity of results has since become an extremely important practice in biology.

II. Add to the list of terms the following and write their definitions in English.

first-generation offspring
second-generation offspring
parental generation
Mendel‟s law of segregation
dominant allele
recessive allele
genotype
phenotype
the Punnett square method (by R.C.Punnett)
test cross
linkage
crossing over

III. In certain cattle, hair colour can be red (homozygous RR), white (homozygous
R‟R‟), or roan (a mixture of red and white hairs, heterozygous RR‟).
a. When a red bull is mated to a white cow, what genotypes and phenotypes of
offspring could be obtained?
b. If one of the offspring in (a) were mated to a white cow, what genotypes and
phenotypes of offspring could be produced? In what proportion?

Explain the solution of the problems in English.

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Language focus 1

May and Might: Possibility and Degrees of Certainty

1 May and might are used mainly to express the uncertainty of something
happening, and to ask for and give permission.
I may see you tomorrow. (Perhaps a 50% chance)
Peter might phone. (Perhaps, a 30% chance). If he does, ask him to ring later.
Do you think I might borrow your typewriter? (Permission, very polite)

In the majority of cases might is not the past form of may!

I felt very hot and tired. Perhaps I was ill. (NOT …I might be ill.)

2 Uncertainty in the past – use might have done:

What was that noise? – It might have been a cat (we don‟t know and just guess)
Chances in the present or future with by:
I’ll try phoning him, but he may have gone out by now. (present)
By the end of this year I might have saved some money. (future)

3 Something was possible but did not happen – use might have done or could have
done:
If she hadn’t been so bad-tempered, I might/could have married her .

4 In scientific and academic language, may is often used to talk about typical
occurrences – things that can happen in certain situations.
A female crocodile may/can lay 30-40 eggs. (can is less formal)
The flowers may have five or six petals, pink or red on colour.
With this meaning might can be used to talk about the past:
In those days, a man might/could be hanged for stealing a sheep. (could is less
formal)

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May and Might: Degrees of Certainty

He may (might) (not) be at home. Может быть (возможно), он

(не) дома.
(might is more uncertain)

He may (might) come soon. Может быть (возможно), он скоро

придет.
He may (might) be reading now. Может быть (возможно), он
сейчас читает.
He may (might) have come already. Может быть (возможно), он уже
пришел.
He may (might) have been waiting for us for an hour. Может быть
(возможно), он ждет нас уже
час.

I. Say what the meaning of may (might) is in the following sentences:

1. I have found a screwdriver! That may work!
2. Might I possibly see the director?
3. You may not be late for the meeting.
4. You might have come home earlier. We were waiting for you to have dinner.
5. He might be killed on the street if he had taken part in the demonstration of
protest.
6. They might need your help. Ask them if you could help with anything.
7. You might listen to me more attentively.
8. May I use your telephone, please?
9. I may go to Austria on holidays.
10. They were told they might see the boy if they wore special clothes.

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II. Fill in the gaps with the most appropriate form of the infinitive.
1. The students might ……………… (wait) for half an hour already for the lecture
to begin, but the professor is still talking to another professor who does not have a
lecture at the moment.
2. Look! He may …………….. (come) already. There is no one in the hall.
3. It may …………….(rain) today. The clouds are so dark.
4. She might …………….. (be) at home, so call her and ask. I will give you her
telephone number.
5. I might ……………. (not lose) my temper when I speak to her, I don‟t know.
6. They may ………………. (tell) him everything about me. What will he think of
me?!
7. I don‟t let her know my secret because she may ……………… (tell) everybody.
8. Look! It may ………………….. (rain) for several hours. The roads are so wet.
9. Mum might ………………….. (talk) to her friend. She‟s been in the other room
for an hour. Or she might ………………… (go) out.

III. Translate into English.

1. Возможно, вчера еще были лекции, но я остался дома.
2. Может быть, он пошел к врачу. Я сегодня не видела его на занятиях.
3. Может, он гуляет сейчас где-то со своими знакомыми, но я не уверена.
4. Он может уехать в любой день, так что свяжись с ним сегодня.
5. Возможно, я не приду завтра. Что-то я плохо себя чувствую.
6. Он, возможно, уже два часа спит. Надо его будить.
7. Я, может, и соглашусь, но только когда узнаю все условия.
8. Мы могли бы подождать тебя. Иди и поговори с ним, пока он здесь.
9. Он, возможно, ждет твоего звонка. Позвони ему!
10. Быть может, он не сможет сегодня навестить тебя. Не расстраивайся.

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IV. Make up situations of your own using one or several of the following
sentences:
1. May I see your hand?
2. You might have been cleverer!
3. I may close my eyes and jump if you want.
4. They might have chosen the wrong one, if not for me!
5. Might I possibly see the one you‟re holding?

Language focus 2

Permission, Offer

1 Several forms are used to ask for and give permission to do things. These forms
differ in formality, or politeness.
Most used and not very formal:
Can I borrow your car, Dad? – Sorry, you can’t. I am going to need it soon.
Could I ask for something? – Yes, of course, you can.
Could I possibly ask for something? – Sure, please do.
Do you think I could borrow your bike? – OK, but be careful.
More formal/polite:
May I take this book home, please? – No, you may not. It is for library use only.
Might I possibly borrow your pen for a moment, Professor? – Please do.
Do you mind if I smoke in here? – Sorry, it is a non-smoking area.
I wonder if I could possibly have something to eat. – Make yourself at home!

2 When you offer to do things, you may sound more or less definite.
I’ll get you a taxi. – Thanks! (more definite)
Can I carry your bag? – Oh, thank you.
Would you like to have a cup of coffee? – Yes, that would be very nice.
I could mend your bicycle for you, if that would help. (less definite)

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I. Fill in the gaps with a suitable word or expression.
a) - Could I ……………… borrow your textbook till tomorrow?
- Sorry, you ……………. . I‟ve not yet done the home task.
b) …………………………. if I take a look at your notes?
- Please …………….. . Always welcome.
c) (on the phone) - May I speak to Professor Snow, ………………?
- Sorry, he is now at the meeting. Will you leave a message for him?
d) Do ……………………. I could go to that party with you?
- Well, I think everybody would be just happy if you did.
e) - …………………… if we could go out tonight.
- Oh, I think it is a good idea.

II. Choose the characters and situation and prepare a dialogue using at least two of
the expressions from exercise I.

A father and a daughter

A customer and a shop assistant
A customs officer and a smuggler
A police officer and a hippie
A secretary and a visitor
A doctor and a patient

III. Think of situations where the following sentences could be said. Act out the
situations
1. Would you like a brown or a yellow one?
2. I think I could handle it for you.
3. I‟ll send you one.
4. Can I help you out?

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Words, Words, Words

I. First, fill in the gaps in the extract with appropriate words. Second, after
checking the words formulate with your partner five true statements and five false
statements based on the text. Read them to another pair so that they determine
which ones are true/false.

Sex-Linked Genes are Found Only on the X or Only on the Y Chromosome

Genes that are on one _______ chromosome but not on the other are said to be
sex-linked, or X-linked. In many animals, the Y chromosome carries relatively few
genes other than those that determine _______, whereas the X chromosome bears
many _______ that have nothing to do with specifically female traits. The human
X-chromosome, for example, contains genes for colour vision, _______ clotting,
and certain structural proteins in muscles that have no counterpart on the Y
chromosome. Therefore, because they have two X-chromosomes, _______ can be
either homozygous or _______ for genes on the X chromosome. Normal _______
versus recessive relationships among alleles will be expressed. _______, in
contrast, most fully express all alleles they have on their single X chromosome,
whether those _______ are dominant or recessive. For this reason, in humans, most
cases of colour _______, hemophilia, and certain types of muscular dystrophy
occur in males.
How does the sex linkage affect inheritance? Let‟s look at the first example of
sex linkage to be discovered, the inheritance of eye color in the fruit _______
Drosophila. Because these flies are small, have a rapid reproductive rate, and have
few chromosomes, _______ have been favoured subjects for genetic studies for
more than a century. Normally, Drosophila have red eyes. In the early 1900s,
researchers in the laboratory of Thomas Hunt Morgan at Columbia University
discovered a male fly with _______ eyes. This white-eyed male was mated to a
virgin, true-_______ red-eyed female. All the resulting offspring were red-eyed

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flies, suggesting that white colour ( r ) is _______ to red ( R ). The second
generation, however, was a surprise: there were nearly equal numbers of red-eyed
males and white-eyed males but no females with white eyes! A test cross of the
first-generation red-eyed females and the original white-eyed male yielded roughly
equal numbers of _______ and white-eyed males and females.

II. From the data above, could you explain the case?

Language focus 3

May and Can

1 these two verbs can both express possibility due to circumstances:
He may find the book at the library = He can find the book at the library. (present
or future)
But in questions and negatives only can is used.
Might in this meaning does not express past. It is found only in reported speech.
He said you might find the book at the library.
Could, however, expresses a past action.
He could find the book at the library yesterday.
2 asking for permission, we use both can and may but may is more formal:
May (might = more formal) I speak to you for a moment, professor?
Can (could) I have a cup of tea, Mum?
3 for uncertainty in affirmative sentences, use only may (might = more
uncertain):
He might have gone home, if he’s not here.
4 for uncertainty in questions, use only can (could = more uncertain):
Could he have said that?
5 to say that you don‟t believe something is true, use can’t or couldn’t (more
uncertain):
He simply can’t have said that!

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I. Add one sentence to each of the ones given here to clarify the situation they are
used in.
1. You might have come earlier!
2. They could have called me.
3. He can sing and dance.
4. I may go to the Urals on holiday.
5. Can it be true?
6. Could he have said that?
7. You may go.
8. You might decide now!
9. He might be at home.
10. They could have been waiting for us for half an hour.
11. They can‟t have done that!
12. Could I come tomorrow?
13. You could be more attentive.
14. How could you say that?
15. He may have been here for two hours, waiting.

II. Translate into English.

1. Может быть, наша группа и собиралась вчера, но я об этом не знаю.
2. Мы могли бы увидеться завтра, часов в пять.
3. Не может быть, чтобы ты это написал!
4. Можно, я возьму свои книги?
5. Он может и сообщить заведующему кафедрой обо всем.
6. Разве сейчас у другой группы идет лекция?
7. Он смог достать эту книгу в одном маленьком магазинчике.
8. Неужели вы уже все написали!
9. Может быть, мы всю жизнь его ждали.
10. Не может быть, чтобы мы всю жизнь ждали его.

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11. Он мог там быть в двенадцать. Я не знаю, был ли он там.
12. Ты сможешь зайти ко мне завтра?
13. Разве она сможет сделать это?

Words, Words, Words

I. Fill in the gaps with appropriate modal verbs.

A DNA Probe ___ be Used to Locate the Gene within the DNA Library

Researchers find genes of interest by using DNA probes, sequences of

nucleotides that are complementary to those genes. DNA probes are generated in
specific ways. For example, if you know the amino acid sequence of the protein
encoded by a gene, you ___ work backward through the genetic code to determine
the corresponding DNA nucleotide sequences. Researchers synthesize a
complementary copy of the nucleotide sequence for all or part of the gene,
incorporating a marker such as radioactivity. This synthetic sequence ___ then be
used to identify bacteria from the DNA library that contain a plasmid with the gene
in question.
Messenger RNA ___ also be used as a DNA probe. Immature red blood
cells, for example, synthesize lots of hemoglobin, so mRNA for hemoglobin ___
easily be extracted from them. This mRNA is complementary to the DNA of the
hemoglobin gene and ___ be labeled and used as a DNA probe to locate the
plasmid-containing bacteria. The amino acid sequences for many human hormones
are known; these sequences ___ be used to create DNA probes for the genes for
human hormones.
Once mRNA for the desired gene is obtained, it ___ also be used to generate
the corresponding complementary strand of DNA (cDNA) by using a viral enzyme
called reverse transcriptase. Geneticists ___ then use the cDNA as a DNA probe to
identify the bacterium that contains the appropriate plasmid. The cDNA ___

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instead serve as a template for generating double-stranded DNA, which ___ then
be copied (…).

After checking the modal verbs look through parts of sentences below describing
the synthetic sequence that can be used to identify bacteria from the DNA library.
Match parts of the sentences and translate the resulting text into both Russian and
English.

1 Bacteria from the DNA library are A …последовательность

sparsely distributed over a culture…
2 Each bacterium multiplies into a
visible bacterial population (called a
colony)…
3 A sheet of special filter paper is
pressed…
4 It picks up a few bacteria from each
colony,…
5 The original culture dish…
6 The filter paper is placed in a basic
solution, breaking open the bacteria,
freeing the plasmids, and…
7 The paper is bathed in solution of
neutral pH that contains a DNA probe
(yellow),…
8 The probe hydrogen-bonds only to
plasmid DNA that is complementary to
the nucleotide sequence of the probe
нуклеотидов, комплементарных
нужному гену.
B …на чашку для культивирования.
C …чашках, воспроизводя нужный
ген.
D …местоположением
бактериальных колоний на
первоначальной чашке для
культивирования.
E …содержащей питательную среду.
F …содержащую единичный тип
комбинации «плазмида – ДНК
человека».
G …бактерий, содержащих плазмиды
с нужным геном.
H …разделяя двунитевую ДНК
плазмид на одиночные нити.

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and… I …следовательно, содержит
9 The locations of radioactivity on the человеческий ген.
paper are matched to the…
10 Colonies in the same position consist J …остается в сохранности.
of…
11 Samples of these bacteria are now K …сохраняя позиции колонии.
cultured in new…

II. Choose the correct modal verb.

Most Human Genetic Disorders are Caused by Recessive Alleles

The human body depends on the integrated actions of thousands of enzymes

and other proteins. A mutation in the gene coding for one of these enzymes almost
always impairs or destroys enzyme function. However, the presence of one normal
allele (could/may) generate enough functional enzyme or other protein that
heterozygotes with a defective allele are phenotypically indistinguishable from
homozygous normals. Therefore, most normal alleles are inherited as dominant
traits and mutant alleles as recessive traits. In other words, both alleles (must/can)
be defective for the problem to show up in the offspring.
Heterozygous carriers are phenotypically normal but (can/may) pass on their
defective recessive allele to their offspring. Although many people are carriers of a
serious genetic defect, an unrelated man and woman who marry are unlikely to
possess the same defective allele and to produce a homozygous child with the
disorder. Related couples, however (especially first cousins or closer), have
inherited some of their genes from recent common ancestors. Therefore, they are
much more likely to carry the same defective allele and, if they bear children, to
pass on the defect.

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III. Eugenics is a term applied to the notion that the human condition might be
improved by improving the human genome. Do you think there are both good and
bad sides to eugenics? What examples can you think of to back up your stand?
What would a eugenicist think of the medical advances that have ameliorated the
problems of hemophilia?

IV. Using the data that follow, give a brief description of some genetic diseases.

Genetic Disorders Caused by Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes and

Autosomes

Trisomy X (XXX)
1/1000 women no detectable defects higher incidence of below-
normal intelligence fertile bear normal children

XYY Males
1/1000 males below-average intelligence above-average height
2/3 of XYY males are over 6 feet tall average height is 5 feet 9 inches
genetically predisposed to violence
a rather high percentage of men in prison but only a tiny percent of them commit
crimes

Trisomy 21, or Down syndrome

1/900 births extra copy of the 21st chromosome weak muscle tone
small mouth held partially open distinctively shaped eyelids
low resistance to infectious diseases heart malformation mental retardation
1/25 learns to read 1/50 learns to write

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Render in English.

Признаки, сцепленные с полом

У человека Х-хромосома содержит много генов, тогда как в Y-

хромосоме их очень мало – это главным образом гены, определяющие
мужской пол. Признаки, контролируемые генами, локализованными в X-
хромосоме, называются сцепленными с полом, так как наследование их
связано с наследованием пола. Потомки мужского пола получают свою
единственную X-хромосому от матери; поэтому от матери же они наследуют
и все гены, определяющие признаки, сцепленные с полом. Потомки женского
рода получают по одной Х-хромосоме от матери и от отца. В мужской
зиготе, имеющей лишь одну Х-хромосому, содержится только по одному
гену из каждой пары генов, локализованных в Х-хромосоме.
У человека гены гемофилии и цветовой слепоты находятся в Х-
хромосоме и наследование этих аномалий сцеплено с полом. Гемофилия –
болезнь, при которой нарушено свертывание крови, так что даже небольшой
порез приводит к обильному кровотечению. Мутантный ген гемофилии
обусловливает отсутствие так называемого антигемофилического глобулина
– одного из веществ, участвующих в механизме свертывания крови. Этот
сцепленный с полом рецессивный ген встречается сравнительно редко;
гемофилия обычно проявляется у мужчин, так как у женщин для ее
проявления должно быть два аномальных гена. Однако даже среди мужчин
это очень редкое заболевание; у женщин оно вообще оставалось неизвестным
до 1951 года, когда был описан один-единственный случай. Английская
королева Виктория была гетерозиготна по гену гемофилии и передала его
некоторым из своих детей и внуков.
Сцепленным с полом заболеванием, наследуемым по рецессивному
типу, является также одна из форм цветовой слепоты, при которой человек
неспособен отличать красный цвет от зеленого. Этим дефектом зрения

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страдает около 4% мужского населения, но менее 1% женского. Так же как и
в случае гемофилии, для его проявления у женщины необходимы два гена, а
у мужчины – только один.

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 Unit 9
Fungi

Introduction
How do fungi affect humans? Listen to the text and answer the question.

Reading
I. After reading the text below fill in the Table 8.1.
Table 8.1. The Major Divisions of Fungi
Common Name Reproductive Cellular Economic and Health Representative
(Division) Structures Characteristic Impacts Genera
s
Zygote fungi Produce sexual Cell walls Cause soft fruit rot _________________
(Zygomycota) diploid contain chitin; and black bread mold _________________
zygospores septa are
absent
Sac fungi _____________ Cell walls _________________ Saccharomyces
(___________) _____________ contain chitin; _________________ (yeast); Ophiostoma
septa are (causes Dutch elm
present disease)
_____________ Sexual Cell walls _________________ _________________
(Basidiomycota) reproduction contain chitin; _________________ _________________
involves septa are _________________ _________________
production of present
haploid
basidiospores
on club-shaped
basidia
Imperfect fungi _____________ Cell walls _________________ Penicillium (produces
(____________) _____________ contain chitin; _________________ penicillin);
septa are Arthrobotrys
present (nematode predator)

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 Although nearly 100,000 species of modern fungi have been described,
biologists have only begun to comprehend the diversity of these organisms – at
least 1000 additional species are described each year. Like plants, fungi are
grouped into divisions, which are comparable to animal phyla. The major divisions
of fungi are the Zygomicota (zygote fungi), Ascomycota (sac fungi),
Basidiomycota (club fungi), and Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi) (Table 1).
The zygomycetes, also called the zygote fungi, include about 600 species.
Familiar – and annoying – zygomycetes are those of the genus Rhizopus, which
cause soft fruit and black bread mold. The haploid hyphae of zygomycetes appear
identical but are actually two different mating types. The two types “mate
sexually”, fusing their nuclei to produce diploid zygospores. These resistant
structures are dispersed through the air and can remain dormant until conditions
are favorable for growth. Zygospores then undergo meiosis and germinate into
structures that bear haploid spores. The spores then give rise to new hyphae. These
hyphae may reproduce asexually, by forming haploid spores in black spore cases
called sporangia, or sexually, by fusing to produce more zygospores.
The 30,000 species of ascomycetes, also called sac fungi, are named after the
saclike case, or ascus (plural, asci), in which their spores form during sexual
reproduction. Some ascomycetes live in decaying forest vegetation and form
beautiful cup-shaped reproductive structures or corrugated, mushroomlike fruiting
bodies called morels. This division also includes many of the colorful molds that
attack stored food and destroy fruit and grain crops and other plants. Some
ascomycetes secrete the enzymes cellulase and protease, which can cause
significant damage to cotton and wool textiles, especially in warm, humid climates
where molds flourish. Ascomycetes cause both Dutch elm disease and chestnut
blight, but other ascomycetes are a boon to plants, forming mutually beneficial
associations with plant roots. A gastronomic delicacy, the truffle, is also a member
of this diverse division.
Claviceps purpurea, an ascomycete that attacks rye plants, produce structures
called ergots that release several toxins, one of which is the active ingredient in the

109
drug LSD. If infected rye is made into flour and consumed, the toxins can lead to
ergot poisoning – convulsions, hallucinations, and ultimately death. This happened
frequently in northern Europe in the Middle Ages, but modern agricultural
techniques have essentially eliminated the disease. Another Claviceps toxin has
medicinal effects if administered in low doses; that toxin is currently used in drugs
that induce labor and control hemorrhaging after childbirth.
Among the ascomycetes we also find the yeasts, some of the few unicellular
fungi. The yeasts include both the parasitic yeast that is a common cause of vaginal
infections and the baker‟s and brewer‟s yeasts that make possible the proverbial
loaf of bread and jug of wine. Some yeasts form hyphae when nutrients are scarce;
the hyphae can elongate and reach distant food sources.
Basidiomycetes are called the club fungi because they produce club-shaped
reproductive structures. The division Basidiomycetes consists of about 25,000
species, including the familiar mushrooms, puffballs, and shelf fungi, sometimes
called monkey-stools. Although several mushrooms species are considered
delicacies, mushrooms can be deadly. Some members of the genus Amanita
contain potent toxins that are among the most deadly poisons ever found.
Basidiomycetes can also be dangerous to plants; they include some devastating
plant pests descriptively called rusts and smuts, which cause billions of dollars
worth of damage to grain crops annually. Some members of this group, however,
enter into mutually beneficial relationship with plants.
Basidiomycetes typically reproduce sexually. Mushrooms and puffballs are
actually reproductive structures: dense aggregations of hyphae that emerge under
proper conditions from a massive underground mycelium. On the undersides of
mushrooms are leaflike gills that produce specialized club-shaped diploid cells
called basidia. Basidia give rise to haploid reproductive basidiospores by meiosis.
These are released by the billions from the gills of mushrooms or the inner surface
of puffballs and are dispersed by wind and water.
Falling on fertile ground, a mushroom basidiospore may germinate and form
haploid hyphae of two different mating types. When the two types meet, some of

110
the cells fuse and produce an underground mycelium. These hyphae grow outward
from the original spore in a roughly circular pattern as the older hyphae in the
center die. The subterranean body periodically sends up numerous mushrooms,
which emerge in a ringlike pattern called a fairy ring. The diameter of the fairy
ring can reveal the approximate age of the fungus – the wider the ring diameter, the
older the mushrooms, and their average rate of growth is known. Some fairy rings
are estimated to be 700 years old.
Deuteromycetes are called the imperfect fungi because none have been
observed to form sexual reproductive structures. In some species the sexual stage
has been lost during evolution; in others it may exist but has not yet been observed.
This large division includes about 25,000 described species of great diversity and
considerable importance to humans. It was a member of this division that
contaminated and killed the bacterial cultures of the microbiologist Alexander
Fleming by accident. His keen observations led to the isolation of penicillin, the
first antibiotic, from the fungus Penicillium. We also owe to deuteromycetes the
indescribable flavor and aroma of Roquefort and Camembert cheeses. Other
imperfect fungi are human parasites, causing diseases such as ringworm and
athlete‟s foot. Some are not content to live on dead organisms or even to parasitize
live ones – they act as predators, laying deadly traps for unsuspecting roundworms.

II. What are the terms that correspond to the following definitions?
1 a structure in which spores are produced
2 a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and the roots of a land plant that
facilitates mineral extraction and absorption
3 a threadlike structure that consists of elongated cells, typically with many haploid
nuclei; makes up a fungus body
4 the body of a fungus, consisting of a mass of hyphae
5 a sexual spore formed by members of the fungal division Basidiomycota
6 a saclike case in which sexual spores are formed by members of the fungal
division Ascomycota

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Language focus 1

Must: Necessity and Obligation

1 Must is used to say what is necessary, and to give strong advice and orders to
ourselves or other people.
Plants must get enough light and water if they are to grow properly.
I really must stop smoking.

2 We use must not / mustn’t to say that it is wrong to do things, or tell people not
to do things.
The government mustn’t expect people to work for no money.
You mustn’t open this parcel until Christmas Day.

3 Mustn’t and needn’t / don’t have to

Mustn’t implies prohibition. This idea of the absence of necessity is expressed by
needn’t, don’t need to or don’t have to.
You needn’t work tomorrow if you don’t want to. OR You don’t have to work…
(NOT You mustn’t…)…if you don’t want to.
You don’t need to get a visa to go to Scotland. OR You don’t have to get a visa…
(NOT You mustn’t get a visa…)
BUT: You mustn’t eat when you are lying on the sofa. (prohibition)

4 Must has no past tense. In the past, had to is used.

I had to cycle three miles to school when I was a child.
My parents had to work very had to build up their business.

I. Match sentences to the rules formulated in Language Focus 1.

1. I must lose some weight.
2. You needn‟t worry – he‟ll be back in a few minutes.

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3. He has to call me tomorrow morning and report on the outcome of the
experiment.
4. I don‟t have to do all the work myself – my laboratory assistant is very good.
5. You have to be more careful. We need you alive.
6. Must I wear all these clothes? They look horrific.
7. He can‟t have eaten all the chocolate on his own!
8. You mustn‟t talk unless you‟re asked to.

II. Translate into English.

1. Фред не любит вставать рано, но ему приходится, так как занятия в
университете начинаются в девять часов.
2. Вы должны отправить посылку немедленно.
3. Он не должен идти в институт завтра.
4. Вам не надо звонить в лабораторию, все образцы уже здесь.
5. Тебе нельзя курить. У тебя слабые легкие, и вообще это вредно.

Language focus 2

Must, Need not to, Do not Have to: Degrees of Certainty

1 Must can be used to say that something is certain or highly probable.

If A is bigger than B, and B is bigger than C, then A must be bigger than C.
I’m in love. – You must be very happy. (about 100% sure)

2 We normally use cannot/can’t to say that something is certainly not the case,
because it is logically or practically impossible, or extremely improbable.
She’s not answering the phone. She can’t be at home.

3 Need not / needn’t is used to say that something is not necessarily so; do not have
to can also be used. Must not is not used in this sense.

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Look at those tracks. That must be a dog. – It needn’t be – it could be a fox. (OR -
It doesn’t have to be…) (NOT - It mustn’t be…)

4 Must have done expresses certainty about the past.

We went to Rome last month. – That must have been nice.
Tony’s lights are out. – He must have gone to sleep. (He probably went to sleep.)
If you want to say that something was improbable in the past, use can’t/couldn’t
have done.
Sandra failed the test. – She can’t have studied. (She probably didn’t study.)

I. Use a number of the following phrases in dialogues of your own.

- He can‟t have eaten all the samples!
- It doesn‟t have to be a man, an animal is enough.
- You needn‟t try, you‟ll never do that.
- It must be a dreadful thing to see.
- I must have left my purse somewhere between London and Glasgow!

II. Translate into English.

1. Джон опаздывал в офис: поезда долго не было. Должно быть, водители
объявили забастовку.
2. - Вы впервые летите «Аэрофлотом»? Вам не нужно волноваться, пилоты
очень опытные.
3. Мы не должны были менять нашу квартиру на загородный дом. Дорога на
работу стала значительно длиннее.
4. Мы сделали все покупки в прошлые выходные, так что нам не нужно было
ходить в магазин в течение недели.
5. Ты читаешь книгу уже четыре часа. Должно быть, она очень интересная.

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Language focus 3

Must and Have to

1 To talk about an obligation that comes from „outside’ (for instance a regulation,
or an order from somebody else), we usually prefer have to. Compare:
- I must do some more work; I want to pass my exam.
In my job I have to work from nine to five.
- I must stop smoking. (I want to.)
I have to stop smoking. (Doctor‟s order.)
- Must you wear dirty old jeans all the time? (Is it personally important for you?)
Do you have to wear a tie at work? (Is there a regulation?)

2 Talking about the past: had to and must have.

In the past, instead of must implying obligation, we use had to. Compare:
Edna isn’t in her office. She had to go home. (= It was necessary for her to go
home.)
Edna isn’t in her office. She must have gone home. (= It seems certain that she has
gone home.)

I. Write sentences including these Expressions (use one expression in one

sentence):
… have to drink …
… must pull the cord …
… must have dropped …
… had to be brave …
… must have a good …

II. Translate into English.

1. Должно быть, я оставила зонтик в метро. Его нигде нет!

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2. Майкл очень способный человек, ему необходимо продолжать
образование.
3. Каждый президент США должен приносить присягу (to swear an oath) на
Библии.
4. Вам когда-либо приходилось общаться с господином Х.?
5. Сегодня вы должны сделать доклад.

Language focus 4

Be to
1 We use be to in a formal style to talk about official and other plans and
arrangements.
The President is to visit Spain next month.
We are to get a 10 per cent scholarship rise in June.

The past form of be to is used to say about an action which was planned in the
past.
The data were to be collected for my research.

Was/were to have done can be used to show that a planned event did not happen.
I was to have started the experiment last week, but I had to postpone it.

2 If + smb. + be to: something must happen first, and only then a thing we want
will happen.
If we are to get there by lunchtime we should hurry.
He knew he would have to work hard if he was to pass his exam.

3 The structure is used to give orders, often by parents speaking to children.

You are to do your homework before you watch TV.
She can go to the party, but she is not to be back late.

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I. Translate into English.
1. Поезд должен прийти вовремя.
2. Вы не должны покидать школу без моего разрешения
3. Лекарство нужно принимать после еды
4. Я должен был послать ему письмо.
5. Они должны были встретить нас (но не встретили).
6. Чтобы выиграть золото на следующих Олимпийских играх, Джону нужно
будет вначале улучшить технику.
7. Чтобы справедливость могла восторжествовать, нужно прежде изменить
законы.

Grammar Review

I. Fill in the blanks with must or can’t.

1. You‟ve been working all day. You ……….. be very tired.
2. That café ……….. be very good. It‟s always full of people.
3. That cafe ……….. be very good. It‟s always empty.
4. It rained every day during her vacations, so she ……….. have had a very good
time.
5. Sam got here very quickly. He ……….. have walked very fast.
6. My family go away on holiday very often, so they ……….. be short of money.

II. Read the situation and use the words in brackets to write sentences with must
have and can’t have.

1. The bag you bought is very good quality. (it/very expensive)

………………………………………………………………………………………
2. I haven‟t seen one of my mates for ages. (he/go away)

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………………………………………………………………………………………
3. I can‟t find my passport. (I/leave/somewhere)
………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Mary passed the exam without studying for it. (the exam/very difficult)
………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Simon did the opposite of what I asked him to do. (he/understand/what I said)
………………………………………………………………………………………
6. I was woken up in the middle of the night by the noise next door. (the
neighbours/have/a party)
………………………………………………………………………………………

III. Complete the sentences with mustn’t or don’t/doesn’t have to.

1. I ……….. eat too much. I‟m supposed to be on a diet.
2. Don‟t make so much noise. We ……….. wake the baby.
3. John can stay in bed tomorrow morning because he ……….. go to work.
4. You ……….. forget what I told you. It‟s very important.
5. I don‟t want anyone to know. You ……….. tell anyone.
6. Whatever you do, you ……….. touch that switch. It‟s very dangerous.

IV. Complete the sentences with must, mustn’t or needn’t.

1. George gave me a letter to post. I ……….. remember to post it.
2. George gave me a letter to post. I ……….. forget to post it.
3. I‟ve got plenty of time. I ……….. hurry.
4. I haven‟t got much time. I ……….. hurry.
5. This is a valuable book. You ……….. look after it carefully and you ………..
lose it.
6. You ……….. double-check it. I‟ve already done it.

V. Write two sentences for each situation. Use needn’t have in the first sentence
and could have in the second.

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1. Why did you keep silent? Why didn‟t you say anything to prove your
innocence?
………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Why did you stay in a hotel? Why didn‟t you stay with us?
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Why did he call me in the middle of the night? Why didn‟t he call me in the
morning?
………………………………………………………………………………………

Words, Words, Words

I. Using the words given, tell the class about lichens.

symbiotic relationship normally ascomycetes fungus

unicellular green algae cyanobacteria newly formed volcanic islands
the first living things to colonize from the
deserts to the Arctic slow rate of growth
attachments anchor to a surface
a layered structure algal layer fungal hyphae

II. Complete the text with the correct option A-C.

Mycorrhizae are Fungi Associated with the Roots of Many Plants

Mycorrhizae (sg., mycorrhiza) are important (1) ______ associations between
fungi and plant roots. Over 5000 species of mycorrhizal fungi (mostly
basidiomycetes) are known to grow in intimate (2) ______ with the roots of about
80% of all plants that have (3) ______, including most trees. These associations (4)
______ both the plant and its fungal partner. The (5) ______ of mycorrhizal fungi
surround the plant root and commonly invade the root cells. The fungus digests
and absorbs minerals and organic nutrients from the soil, passing some of them

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directly into the root cells. The fungus also absorbs water and passes it to the plant
– an advantage in dry, sandy soils. In return, sugar produced photosynthetically by
the plant is passed from the root to the fungus. Plants that participate in this unique
relationship, especially those in poor soils, tend (6) ______ and more vigorously
than do those deprived of the fungus. (7) ______ new data suggest that
mycorrhizae and other types of fungi may be undergoing a (8) ______ decline that
could threaten the health of forests and the communities of plants and animals that
rely on them.
Some scientists believe that mycorrhizal associations may have been
important in the invasion of land by plants more than 400 million years ago. Such a
relationship between an aquatic fungus and a green alga ((9) ______ to terrestrial
plants) could have helped the alga (10) ______ the water and mineral nutrients it
needed to survive out of water.

1 A symbolic B symbiotic C symptomatic

2 A association B assortment C assimilation
3 A stems B branches C roots
4 A benefit B do harm C destroy
5 A hyphal B hyphen C hyphae
6 A to grow larger B to grow together C to grow lean
7 A Exciting B Encouraging C Disturbing
8 A tragic B dramatic C bad
9 A ancestral B predecessor C ancestor
10 A require B quire C acquire

Render in English.
Лишайники

Лишайник представляет собой не один организм, а состоит из гриба и

одноклеточной водоросли или цианобактерии, связанных тесными и

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взаимовыгодными отношениями, известными под названием
мутуалистических. (Мутуализм часто рассматривают как одну из
разновидностей симбиоза – буквально «совместная жизнь»; этим термином
обозначают тесную взаимосвязь между двумя видами.) Фотосинтезирующий
партнер образует пищу как для себя, так и для гриба; а гриб, как полагают,
обеспечивает снабжение водой и минеральными веществами. Лишайники
весьма живописны, напоминая мазки густой краски, небольшие кустики или
изогнутые листья.
Растут лишайники очень медленно, однако они могут существовать во
многих местах, где не живут никакие другие фотосинтезирующие растения:
на голых скалах, на холодных горных вершинах, в тундре; здесь они подчас
оказываются единственной пищей, доступной животным. Однако при
загрязнении воздуха лишайники быстро погибают, поэтому состояние
лишайников в данной местности может служить показателем качества ее
воздуха.
Лишайникам находят и другие довольно необычные применения.
Археологи определяли возраст загадочных каменных голов, обнаруженных
на острове Пасхи, измеряя размеры растущих на них лишайников. А
получаемые из лишайников красители используются для окраски одного из
типов твида.

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 Unit 10
The Evolution of Hormones

Introduction

I. In pairs check the Russian translation of the words and phrases below.
peptides amino-acid derivatives
steroids prostaglandins
target cells bind to receptors intracellular second messengers
cyclic AMP diffuse through the plasma membranes
the hormone-receptor complex the transcription of specific genes.
thyroid hormones negative feedback
to inhibit further secretion of hormone the mammalian endocrine system
clusters of cells a network of capillaries
the thyroid and parathyroid glands the pancreas
the adrenal glands the pineal gland
thymus the hypothalamus – pituitary complex

Now listen to the summary of key concepts concerning the endocrine system of the
animal body, make notes and get ready to retell it.

II. Give your own definitions to the following words. Read the definitions to your
partner. Can he/she guess the word defined?
amino acid
blood
cyclic AMP
hormone
kidney
pineal [pınıəl] gland

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small intestine
target cell
thyroid [Өaıro:ıd] gland

III. In the USA some parents who are interested in college sports scholarships for
their children are asking physicians to prescribe growth hormone treatments.
Farmers also have an economic incentive to treat cows with growth hormone,
which can now be produced in large quantities by genetic-engineering techniques.
What biological and ethical problems do you foresee for parents, children,
physicians, coaches, college scholarship boards, food consumers, farmers, the U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, and biotechnology companies?

Reading

I. Look through the text. Put all the paragraphs in order.

The Evolution of Hormones

Thyroxine regulates the seasonal molting of most vertebrates. From
snakes to birds to the family dog, surges of thyroxine stimulate the shedding
of skin, feathers, or hair. In humans (who neither migrate regularly,
A metamorphose, nor molt), thyroxine regulates growth and metabolism.
The use of chemicals to regulate cellular activity is extremely ancient.
The diversity of life on Earth rests upon a conservative foundation: a relative
handful of chemicals coordinate activities within single cells and among
groups of cells. Life‟s diversity originated in part by changing the systems
used to deliver the chemicals and by evolving new types of responses. Early
B in their evolution, animals developed a complemented to hormonal
communication that provides faster, more precise delivery of chemical
messages: the nervous system. The nervous system permits rapid responses
to environment stimuli, flexibility in response options, and ultimately

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 consciousness itself.
Not long ago, vertebrate endocrine systems were considered unique to
our phylum, and the endocrine chemicals were thought to have evolved
expressly for their role in vertebrate physiology. In recent years, however,
physiologists have discovered that hormones are evolutionarily ancient.
Insulin, for example, is found not only in vertebrates but also in protists,
C fungi, and bacteria, although research has not yet determined the function of
insulin in most of those organisms. Protists also manufacture ACTH, even
though they have no adrenal glands to stimulate. Yeasts have receptors for
estrogen but no ovaries. Thyroid hormones have been found in certain
invertebrates, such as worms, insects, and mollusks, as well as in vertebrates.
Even among vertebrates, the effects of chemically identical hormones,
secreted by the same glands, may vary dramatically from organism to
organism. Let‟s look briefly at the diverse effects that the thyroid hormone
thyroxine has on several different organisms.
In amphibians, thyroxine has the dramatic effect of triggering
metamorphosis. In 1912, in one of the first demonstrations of the action of
any hormone, the tadpoles were fed minced horse thyroid. As a result, the
D tadpoles metamorphosed prematurely into miniature adult frogs. In high
mountain lakes in Mexico, where the water is deficient in the iodine needed
to synthesize thyroxine, natural selection has produced one species of
salamander that has the ability to reproduce while still in its juvenile form.
Some fish undergo radical physiological changes during their lifetimes.
A salmon, for example, begins life in fresh water, migrates to the ocean, and
returns to fresh water to spawn. In the stream where the salmon hatched,
fresh water tends to enter the fish‟s tissues by osmosis; in salt water, the fish
E tends to lose water, becoming dehydrated. The salmon‟s migrations,
therefore, require complete revamping of salt and water control. In salmon,
one of the functions of thyroxine is to produce the metabolic changes
necessary to go from life in streams to life in the ocean and back.

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II. Give a summary in writing of the final version of the text.

Language focus 1

Should: Obligation, Degrees of Certainty

1 We often use should to talk about obligation, duty and similar ideas. It is less
strong than must.
Everybody should wear car seat belts.
Applications should be sent before December 30th.
In questions, should is used to ask for advice or instructions:
Should I go and see the police, do you think?
What should we do?

2 We can use should to say that we know something is probable (because it is

logical or normal in the circumstances).
She’s away but she should be back tomorrow. (= I have good reasons to believe
that she will be back tomorrow.)
We’re spending the winter in Florida. – That should be nice. (It is about 70%
likely.)

3 should have done

It can be used to talk about past events which did not happen, but which were
planned or supposed to happen. It is also used to express criticism. (Someone
didn‟t do it but it would have been the right thing to do.)
I should have phoned Ed this morning, but I forgot.
Ten o’clock: she should have arrived in the office by now.

I. Translate into English.

1. Сейчас весна. Все должны принимать витамины.

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2. Результаты будут готовы к вечеру.
3. Нам не стоило уезжать в отпуск, пока эксперимент не закончен.
4. Мне стоит сесть на диету?
5. Тебе следовало позаботиться об этом заранее!

Language focus 2

Should, Ought to, Must

1 Should and ought to are very similar: they are both used to talk about obligation
and duty, to give advice; also, ought to, like should, is used to talk about
probability. Should is much more frequent than ought to.
You should / ought to see ‘Daughter of the Moon’ – it’s a great film. (advice)
I’ve bought three loaves – that should / ought to be enough. (The speaker is 70%
sure.)
Ought is always used with to:
You ought see this film. – This is INCORRECT.

2 Must is stronger than should/ought to.

Must has similar meanings to should and ought, but is stronger or more definite.
It expresses greater confidence that something will happen, or that something is
true; should and ought to express less confidence. Compare:
- The doctor said I must give up smoking. (An order which the patient most
probably will obey.)
You really ought to give up smoking. (A piece of advice which may or may not be
followed.)
- Rob must be at home by now. (= I‟m sure he is at home.)
Rob should be at home by now. (= I think he is probably at home.)

Should can be used instead of must to make instructions more polite.

This form should be filled in ink.

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3 Should have done and ought to have done can be used to talk about unfulfilled
obligations in the past. Must is not used like this.
You ought to/ should have been nicer to Annie. (BUT NOT You must have been
nicer to Annie.)

I. Translate into English.

1. Тебе не следовало разговаривать с ней таким тоном.
2. При обнаружении бесхозных вещей обратитесь к водителю.
3. Эксперимент должен быть завершен к апрелю.
4. К опыту нужно готовиться более тщательно.
5. Если ты встретишь Ника, тебе стоит пригласить его в клуб.

II. Use the following word combinations in situations of your own.

1. It shouldn‟t be difficult to…
2. … so she should pass.
3. You should have come. Why… ?
4. … . I shouldn‟t have eaten so much….
5. Do you think I ought to …
6. “Should we… ?” – “Yes, I think we should”.
7. The government should…
8. You look tired. You should…

Words, Words, Words

I. Think through the topic of the unit and choose the right answer.

1 Steroid hormones
a. alter the activity of genes

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b. trigger rapid, short-term responses in cells
c. work via second messengers
d. initiate open channels in plasma membranes
e. bind to cell-surface receptors

2 Examples of posterior pituitary hormones are

a. FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) and LH (luteinizing hormone)
b. prolactin and parathormone
c. secretin and cholecystokinin
d. melatonin and prostaglandin
e. ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin

3 Negative feedback to the hypothalamus controls the level of _____________ in

the blood.
a. thyroxine
b. estrogen
c. glucocorticoids d. insulin
e. all of the above

4 The primary targets for FSH are cells in the

a. hypothalamus
b. ovary
c. thyroid gland
d. adrenal medulla
e. pituitary gland

5 The kidney is a source of

a. thyroxine and parathormone
b. calcitonin and oxytocin
c. renin and erythropoietin

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d. ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide) and epinephrine
e. glucagon and glucocorticoids

6 Hormones that are produced by many different body cells and cause a variety of
localized effects are known as
a. peptide hormones
b. parathormones
c. releasing hormones
d. prostaglandins
e. exocrine hormones

II. Match the words in column A with their definitions in column B and translate
them into Russian.

A B

1 homeostasis a a multilayered sheet of nerve tissue at the rear of camera-type

eyes, composed of photoreceptor cells plus associated nerve
cells that refine the photoreceptor information and transmit it to
the optic nerve

2 salivary b a situation in which a change initiates a series of events that

gland tend to counteract the change and restore the original state.
Negative feedback in physiological systems maintains
homeostasis

3 pituitary c a ductless, hormone-producing gland consisting of cells that

gland release their secretions into the extracellular fluid from which
the secretions diffuse into nearby capillaries

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 4 retina d an exocrine gland that releases saliva into the mouth

5 endocrine e a region of the brain that controls the secretory activity of the
gland pituitary gland; synthesizes, stores, and releases certain peptide
hormones; directs autonomous nervous responses

6 f an endocrine gland, located at the base of the brain, that

hypothalamus produces several hormones, many of which influence the
activity of other glands

7 negative g the maintenance of a relatively constant environment required

feedback for the optimal functioning of cells, maintained by the
coordinated activity of numerous regulatory mechanisms,
including the respiratory, endocrine, circulatory, and excretory
systems

Language focus 3

Other Uses of Should

1 It’s important that… should…

In formal British English, should can be used after: It is important (necessary,
vital, essential) that…
It’s important that somebody should talk to the police.
Is it necessary that my uncle should be informed?
This also happens after some verbs expressing similar ideas of importance of an
action, especially in sentences about the past.
He insisted that the contract should be read aloud.
I demanded that he should apologize.
In a less formal style, other structures are preferred.

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It’s important that she talks to me when she gets here.
Was it necessary to tell my uncle?

2 After the verb to suggest three constructions are possible:

I suggest that you should stop the experiment.
I suggest that you stop (he stop, we stop) the experiment.
I suggest that he stops the experiment.

I. Translate into English.

1. Преподаватель рекомендовал, чтобы студенты прочитали дополнительно
два источника.
2. Я предлагаю, чтобы вы тоже участвовали в исследовании.
3. Важно, чтобы все красители соответствовали нормативам.
4. Желательно, чтобы ученый совет (Science Board) настаивал на
продолжении эксперимента в течение следующего семестра.
5. Странно, что ты пьешь так много кофе вечером.

II. Write a sentence that means the same as the first sentence.
1. „I think it would be a good idea to do some more exercises,‟ the teacher said to
us.
The teacher said that ………………………………………………………………
2. „You really must pay more attention to the accuracy of your calculations,‟ she
said to me.
She insisted that …………………………………………………………………...
3. „Why don‟t you eat your apple after the lesson?‟ I said to him.
I suggested that ……………………………………………………………….……
4. „You must complete your term paper by March,‟ my scientific supervisor said to
me.
The scientific supervisor demanded that …………………………………………..

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III. Are these sentences correct or incorrect?
1 a Mary suggested that I should look for another job. C/I
b Mary suggested that I look for another job. C/I
c Mary suggested that I looked for another job. C/I
d Mary suggested me to look for another job. C/I
2 a When do you suggest I go on a business trip? C/I
b When do you suggest me to go on a business trip? C/I
c When do you suggest I should go on a business trip? C/I

Render in English.

Железы как эффекторные органы

Секрет слюнных, слезных и многих других желез проходит (часто по

специальным протокам) очень короткий путь от места образования до места
действия. В отличие от этого гормоны, синтезирующиеся в лишенных
протоков эндокринных железах, разносятся с током крови часто в самые
отдаленные уголки организма.
Гормональная регуляция различных процессов в организме служит
дополнением к нервной. Вообще говоря, нервные импульсы вызывают
ответы значительно быстрее, чем гормоны, но эндокринные влияния более
длительны и всеобъемлющи.
Гормоны позволяют организму реагировать на изменения внешней и
внутренней среды. Некоторые гормоны регулируют постоянство состава
жидких сред организма. Для того чтобы подобные гомеостатические
механизмы функционировали нормально, гормоны должны поступать в
кровь только тогда, когда в них возникает необходимость. Секреция таких
гормонов регулируется по принципу отрицательной обратной связи, то есть
является процессом, который автоматически ограничивает собственное
развитие.

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 Но секреция гормонов может происходить и в ответ на изменения во
внешней среде. Многие животные, например, маскируются, изменяя свою
окраску в зависимости от фона. Этот процесс связан с изменением размеров
хроматофоров – клеток кожи, содержащих различные пигменты; в результате
меняется цвет и характер окраски всего животного. У некоторых рыб,
амфибий и рептилий характер световых стимулов, достигающих сетчатки,
контролирует выброс гипофизом меланоцитстимулирующего гормона, а этот
гормон, в свою очередь, вызывает изменение размеров хроматофоров.
Каким же образом органы чувств, реагирующие на изменения внешней
среды, связаны с железами внутренней секреции, например, с гипофизом? В
качестве посредника в данном случае выступает нервная система,
собирающая информацию от органов чувств и передающая ее в жизненно
важную область мозга – гипоталамус. Группы клеток гипоталамуса
обусловливают ответы на такие ощущения, как боль, удовольствие, чувство
голода или жажды и сексуальную потребность. Гипоталамус связан с
другими участками нервной системы, а также с гипофизом – важнейшей
эндокринной железой, в которой синтезируется множество гормонов.
Каждый из этих гипофизарных гормонов вызывает изменения в деятельности
одного или нескольких органов.

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 Unit 11
The Immune Response

Introduction

I. What are the key characteristics of the immune response? Listen to the text and
say whether the following sentences are true or false.

1. The Greek physician Thucydides [Өju:saıdıdıs] recognized the essential

features of the immune response to the infection more than 2000 years ago. T / F

2. Immunity to one disease always confers no protection against other diseases. T /

F

3. We refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion. T / F

4. Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood. T / F

5. T cells and B cells play similar roles in the immune response. T / F

II. Use the following pairs of words in sentences of your own, compose 2-3
sentences with each of the pairs. Ask your partner to translate them into Russian.

invasion – prevent defenses – impregnable

response – mount protection – confer
immune – become lymphocytes – clustered
bloodstream - released

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III. Working in small groups fill in the Table 10.1.

Table 10.1. The Major Molecules and Cells of the Immune Response
Molecules
_________________ Large organic molecules, normally proteins, polysaccharides, or
glycoproteins, that can trigger an immune response, typically located
on the surface of cells.
Antibodies _______________________________________________________
Major histocompatibility A set of proteins found on the surface of cells that “label” the cell as
complex (MHC) belonging to a unique individual organism.
Effector molecules A diverse group of molecules, including histamine and the cell-
destroying proteins of killer cells and complement (soluble proteins
found in blood).
_________________ Hormonelike molecules produced by cells of the immune system that
regulate the immune response.
Cells
Macrophages _______________________________________________________
____________________ Lymphocytes that produce antibodies; when stimulated, certain of
their daughter cells (plasma cells) secrete large quantities of
antibodies into the bloodstream.
____________________ A set of lymphocytes that regulate the immune response or kill
certain types of cells.
Cytotoxic T cells Destroy specific targeted cells, normally either foreign eukaryotic
cells, infected body cells, or cancerous body cells.
Helper T cells Stimulate immune responses by both B cells and killer T cells.
Suppressor T cells Inhibit immune responses by other lymphocytes.
____________________ A subset of the offspring of B and T cells that are long-lived and
provide future immunity against a second invasion by the same
antigen.

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Reading

I. Read and translate the following text.

Cellular Communication during the Immune Response

The immune system is a strange “system”. Unlike the nervous system, for
example, it is not composed of physically attached structures. Instead, as befits its
mission of patrolling the entire body for microbial invaders, the immune system
consists of an army of separate cells. Nevertheless, the army is highly coordinated.
This coordination requires complex communications involving antigens,
antibodies, hormones, receptors, and cells. For example, when a virus invades the
body (step 1), it sets off a cascade of events that can be loosely divided into three
components.

I. Activation of Helper T Cells.

One component of the immune response begins when macrophages ingest the
virus (step 2) and digest it. Antigens that have been “chewed off” the virus become
attached to certain proteins of the macrophage‟s major histocompatibility complex
(MHC) and are displayed, or presented, on the surface of the macrophage. These
antigen-MHC complexes are recognized by virgin helper T cells (step 3). Next,
receptors on helper T cells release a hormone called interleukin-2 (step 4). This
hormone stimulates cell division and differentiation (step 5) in both the releasing
cell and in any other T cells that have bound to an antigen-MHC complex. Some of
the resulting daughter helper T cells become memory cells that provide future
immunity (step 6); other daughter cells become mature T cells that assist in
activating – that is, stimulating the immune response of – cytotoxic T cells and B
cells (step 7).

II. Activation of Cytotoxic T Cells: Cell-Mediated Immunity.

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 Meanwhile, other copies of the virus are infecting ordinary body cells, such as
those lining the respiratory tract (step 8). Infected body cells display viral antigens
on their surfaces, bound to another set of MHC molecules. Virgin cytotoxic T cells
bind to the antigen-MHC complex on the body cells (step 9) and are
simultaneously activated by interleukin-2 released by the activated helper T cells.
This combination of binding and stimulation causes the cytotoxic T cells to
multiply and become activated (step 10). When activated cytotoxic T cells then
encounter infected cells presenting the antigen-MHC complex, the T cells release
toxic proteins that kill the infected cell by lysis (step 11).

III. Activation of B Cells: Humoral Immunity.

Some B cells bear antibodies on their surfaces that bind antigens on the
surface of free viruses that have not yet invaded a body cell (step 12). This antigen-
antibody binding stimulates some B cell division and maturation, but full
activation of B cells requires a boost from helper T cells. This boost is provided
when B cells that have bound antigen ingest that antigen (by receptor-mediated
endocytosis), attach the antigen to MHC molecules, and present the antigen-MHC
complex on their surfaces. The antigen-MHC complex is recognized by activated
helper T cells (step 13), which then release several types of interleukin hormones
that stimulate the division and differentiation of antigen-binding B cells (step 14).
Some of the progeny become memory cells (step 15); other become plasma cells
that secrete antibodies into the bloodstream (step 16).
As you can see, helper T cells are essential in turning on both phases of the
immune response. A loss of helper T cells, such as that caused by the virus that
causes AIDS, virtually eliminates the immune response to many diseases.

II. This interlocking communication network is quite complex. Try to summarize

its essentials in five generalizations.

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Language focus 1

Will and Shall

1 In offers, promises, orders and requests, will (or ‘ll) generally expresses
willingness or wishes (this is connected with an older use of will to mean „wish’ or
„want’).
This box looks heavy. I’ll help you with it. (offer)
I won’t tell anyone what happened. I promise. (promise)
Will you open the window, please? (request, wish)

Shall expresses obligation (like a more direct form of should) and is used mostly in
questions.
What shall we do now?

Compare Shall I …? and Will you… ?:

Shall I shut the door? (= Do you want me to shut it?)
Will you shut the door? (= I want you to shut it.)

2 We can use will to talk about typical behaviour.

She’ll sit talking to herself for hours.
Under these conditions the process will be irreversible.
The door won’t open.
Sulphuric acid will dissolve most metals.

Stressed will can be used to criticize people‟s typical behaviour.

She WILL always argue.
Well, if you WILL keep telling people what you think of them…

I. Complete the sentences with I’ll + a suitable verb.

1. „Are you coming with us?‟ „No, thank you. I think I‟ll ………. here‟.

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2. „Would you like tea or coffee?‟ „………. coffee, please.‟
3. „Do you want me to finish the experiment?‟ „No, it‟s all right. ………. it.‟
4. „We haven‟t got any samples.‟ „Oh, haven‟t we? ………. and get some.‟
5. Thank you for lending me your camera. ………. it back to you on Tuesday.

II. What do you say in these situations? Write sentences with Shall I…? or Shall
we…?
1. You and your classmates want to do something this evening but you don‟t know
what. You ask your friends:…………………………………………………….......?
2. It‟s your best friend‟s birthday. You want to give him/her a present but you
don‟t know what. Your ask another friend for advice:
What…………………………………….…………………………………………?
3. You and a friend are going out. You haven‟t decided whether to go by car or to
walk. You ask him/her:……………..……………………………………………..?
4. Your boss wants you to phone later. You don‟t know what time to phone. You
ask him/her:………………………………………………………………………..?

III. Use modal verbs shall and will in short dialogues of your own to express your
promise, suggestion, instruction, to say about decisions that have already been
made, to inform about some properties and someone‟s typical behaviour.

Words, Words, Words

I. Choose the appropriate modal verb while reading the essay.

Flu – The Unbeatable Bug

Every winter, a wave of influenza, or flu, sweeps across the world. Thousands
of the elderly, the newborn, and those already suffering from illness succumb,

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while hundreds of millions more suffer the respiratory distress, fever, and muscle
aches of milder cases. Occasionally, devastating flu varieties appear. In the great
flu pandemic of 1918, the worldwide toll was 20 million dead in one winter. In
1968, the Hong Kong flu infected 50 million Americans, causing 70,000 deaths in
6 weeks.
Flu is caused by several viruses that invade the cells of the respiratory tract,
turning each cell into a factory for manufacturing new viruses. The outer surface of
a flu virus is studded with proteins, some of which are recognized by the immune
system as antigens. This recognition ensures that most people survive the flu
because their immune systems inactivate the viruses or kill off virus-infected body
cells before the viruses finish reproducing. This is the same mechanism by which
other viruses, such as those that cause mumps or measles, are conquered. So why
(must/can‟t) we become immune to the flu, as we (can/may) to measles?
The answer lies in a flu virus‟s amazing ability to change. Flu virus genes are
made up of RNA, which lacks the proofreading mechanisms that reduce mutations
in genes made of DNA. Therefore, flu RNA genes mutate rapidly: on average, 10
mutations will appear in every million newly synthesized viruses. Most single
mutations do not change the properties of the viral antigens very much. Four or
five mutations in the same virus, however, (may/must) alter the surface antigens
enough that the immune system does not fully recognize the virus as the same old
flu that was beaten off last year. Some of the memory cells do not recognize it at
all, and the immune response produced by the rest of the memory cells does not
work as well as it (could/should). The virus although slowed down somewhat, gets
a foothold in the body and multiplies until a new set of immune cells recognizes
the mutated antigens and starts up a new immune response. So you get the flu
again this year.
Far more serious are the dramatically new flu viruses that occasionally appear,
as in the epidemic of 1918, the Asian flu of 1957, and the Hong Kong flu of 1968.
In these viruses, entirely new antigens seem to appear suddenly. The novel
antigens are not just slight variations of the old set, but they have distinctive

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structures that the human immune system has never before encountered. Where do
the genes that encode these new antigens come from? Believe it or not, they come
from viruses that infect birds and pigs. The intestinal tracts of birds, especially
ducks, (can/may) host viruses strikingly similar to human flu viruses, though
infected birds suffer from no noticeable disease. The human flu viruses do not
infect birds. But both human and bird viruses (can/might) infect pigs, so both
viruses (must/can) in some cases simultaneously infect the same pig cell. Once in a
great while (perhaps only three times during the twentieth century), new viruses
that spring from a double-infected pig cell end up with a mixture of genes from
human and bird viruses. Some of these hybrid viruses combine the worst genes (at
least from our perspective) of each: from the human virus, the deadly new viruses
pick up the genes needed to subvert human cellular metabolism to produce new
viruses; from the bird virus, they pick up genes for new surface antigens. The
hybrid viruses (can/could) move easily from pigs to humans, because pigs live near
humans and, like us, pigs cough when they have the flu.
Have you ever wondered why flu strains are called “Asian” or “Hong Kong”?
The reason is that Southeast Asia is usually the place where new strains crop up.
Many farmers in Asia, especially in southern China, have “integrated” farms.
Crops are grown to feed pigs and ducks, and the feces from the pigs and ducks are
used to fertilize fish ponds. This is a very efficient farming practice, but,
unfortunately, it also places ideal mixing vessels for flu viruses (pigs) in close
proximity to humans and ducks.
If a human is infected by a hybrid virus, the immune system (must/can) start
from scratch, selecting out entirely new lines of B cells and T cells to attack the
intruder. But in the meantime, the virus multiplies so rapidly that many individuals
die or become so weakened that they contract some other fatal disease. Other
individuals recover, with immune systems now primed to resist any further assault
from the new virus. In subsequent years, a few point mutations (can/might) allow a
slightly altered strain of the new virus to infect millions of people, but with a
partial immune response ready, few fatalities occur. Once again, for most of us, the

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flu becomes a routine annoyance. At least until the next time the improbable
happens again.

II. Find in the text English equivalents to the following Russian words and word
combinations:
 проносится по миру
 причиной гриппа являются
 внедряются в клетки дыхательных путей
 внешняя поверхность
 распознаются иммунной системой
 удивительная способность
 отсутствуют механизмы исправления ошибок (при копировании
матрицы)
 получает некую точку опоры в теле
 совершенно новые вирусы гриппа
 никогда ранее не сталкивалась
 поразительно похожие
 по крайней мере, мы так полагаем
 необходимые для разрушения
 совершенно новые линии
 готовые теперь к отражению новых атак
 слегка измененный штамм

III. The essay states that the flu virus is different each year. If that is true, what
good is it to get a “flu shot” each winter?

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Render in English.

Определены место рождения и возраст вируса птичьего гриппа

Место происхождения вируса птичьего гриппа H5N1 - юго-восток

Китая. Основной механизм его распространения - перевозка домашней
птицы. Однако в некоторых случаях переносить заболевание могут и
перелетные птицы. Эти выводы получены в результате анализа десятков
тысяч генетических проб, взятых у птиц в течение полутора лет. Группа И
Гуаня (Yi Guan) из Университета китайского города Шаньтоу (Shantou)
совместно с коллегами из Гонконга проанализировала образцы, взятые у 13
тысяч перелетных птиц и 50 тысяч домашних птиц на рынках в юго-
восточных провинциях Китая. Около 2% внешне здоровых домашних уток и
гусей оказались носителями вируса H5N1. Среди кур вирус встречался
гораздо реже, тем не менее, практически каждый месяц исследователи
выявляли зараженных кур. Забор образцов производился с января 2004 по
июнь 2005 года, когда китайское правительство запретило независимым
исследователям брать анализы у птиц. Хотя новые образцы поступать
перестали, собранного материала оказалось достаточно, чтобы сделать целый
ряд интересных выводов. Геном вируса в китайских провинциях Гуандун
(Guangdong), Хунань (Hunan) и Юньнань (Yunnan) демонстрирует
наибольшие генетические вариации по сравнению с другими территориями.
Разные версии вируса образуют географические кластеры. Однако все версии
эволюционно восходят к гуандунскому вирусу 1996 года. Все это говорит о
том, что в данном районе вирус появился раньше, чем в других, и не менее 10
лет назад. В то же время, само наличие географических кластеров с
генетически различными линиями вируса указывает на то, что инфекция
редко переносится птицами, совершающими дальние перелеты. Большая
часть заражений происходит при перевозке домашней птицы. Тем не менее, в
некоторых случаях переносчиками заболевания могут быть и перелетные

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птицы. Например, в январе-марте 2005 года в образцах, взятых у диких уток
на озере Поян (Poyang) в провинции Цзянси (Tzyansi), граничащей с
Гуандуном и Хунанем, была найдена особая форма одного из генов. Позднее,
при вспышке эпидемии в Турции, у вируса обнаружился такой же ген, что
говорит о практически прямом переносе вируса на значительные расстояния.

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 Unit 12
Animal Behaviour

Introduction

I. Check if you know the following words:

innate behaviour extensive designated appropriate random

elicit stimuli modify input response withdrawal

Listen to the text and determine the differences of innate and learned behaviour.

II. Try to apply the concepts stated and answer the following questions:

1. You are a police officer; your new partner is a German shepherd, which you are
assigned to train as a narcotics dog. You plan to use motivational techniques
rather than negative reinforcement. Which behaviour principles (processes)
would you use in your training? What are the advantages of positive over
negative reinforcement?
2. Your 3-year-old child persistently approaches the hot stove even though you
have told her not to touch it. Which type of learning is she attempting to use? Is
there any other learning process that might work that would not require her to
touch the hot stove?

Reading

Read and translate the following text.

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 Robot cricket finds her mate
The cheerful chirping of a cricket is actually the “call song” of the male as he
attempts to attract a female. The female follows the song unerringly, deftly
detouring around obstacles and ignoring other sounds en route to her prospective
mate. How intelligent is this apparently purposeful behaviour? Barbara Webb, a
psychologist at the University of Edinburgh, Scotland, attacked this problem in an
novel way; she built a robot female cricket. Webb‟s goal was to find out whether
mate-finding behaviour could be distilled down to taxes, relatively simple
responses to stimuli, such as responses that could be wired into an electronic robot
(and thus wired into genetically predetermined neural connections). Although its
tangle of wires appears bewildering, the circuitry of the robot is trivial when
compared with the potential complexity of neural connections – even in a cricket‟s
brain.
On the laboratory bench, a loudspeaker “male cricket” broadcasts its species-
specific call song: short, regularly repeating tones. As the robot rolls forward,
microphonic ears conduct the song to electronic circuitry that filters it from other
sounds and adds together the repeating syllables of the song that reach each ear.
The summed sounds in the ear closest to the loudspeaker reach a critical threshold
level first, activating a mechanism that turns the robot toward the sound. The
turning halts when an equal intensity of sound hits both ears. Sensory “bumpers”
help the robot detour around obstacles. The success of “robocricket” surpassed
Webb‟s expectations; it not only found its “mate” but it unexpectedly mimicked
other cricket-searching behaviours. Placed between two loudspeakers that
broadcast at equal volume, the robot, like a real cricket, arbitrarily chose one
speaker. If the repeating syllables of the song were altered between the two
speakers, the robot (again, like a real cricket) first positioned itself exactly between
them, then made an arbitrary choice. The electronic circuitry provides insights into
mechanisms that could be used by a simple nervous system to produce complex
adaptive behaviour.

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Language focus 1

Conditionals 1, 2 and 3
1 Conditional sentences are formed as follows:
Type 1: if + present tense, present tense or modal
I am sure you’ll understand the situation if I explain it to you.
If the scientist succeeds in confirming his repeated observations, it may be stated
that an empirical law or rule of nature has been discovered.
Type 2: if + past tense, would/could + verb
If we didn’t invite the rest of the group to the party, they would feel hurt.
Could this method be approached from a historical point of view if we gave a brief
account of the development of concepts and theories involved?
Type 3: if + had + past participle of verb, would/could have + past participle of
verb: If we had known about the problem, we would have done something.

2 Conditional type 1 has the following uses:

- cause and effect
If you criticize people, you’ll kill their creativity.
Students work harder if you motivate them.
- predict consequences of likely situations
We will fail to be on time if we don’t follow his advice.
- request action in the event of a likely situation
Tell me if you get any new ideas.
Let me know if you need additional data.
3 Conditional type 2 has the following uses:
- predict consequences of unlikely situations
If the grant were received, we would have the money to expand.
- talk about unreal and hypothetical situations
If we had more time, we’d be able to work more effectively.
4 Conditional type 3 has the following uses:

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- evaluate or analyse past actions
If we’d made the decision sooner, we could have saved a lot of money. (= We
should have decided sooner.)
- talk about hypothetical situations in the past
If we had had a different idea, we’d have been able to calculate the result of an
experiment in a shorter time.

I. Write the verbs in the appropriate form to make a conditional sentence with the
meaning that is given in brackets.
1. I (invite) _________ you for dinner if I (know) _________ you were free.
(hypothetical situation in the past)
2. If the experiment (be conducted) _________ earlier, we (have) _________ the
results now. (hypothetical)
3. If we (increase) _________ the data volume, we (improve) _________ the
validity of the research. (cause and effect)
4. If man (not develop) _________ his large brain, some other mammal, perhaps,
the raccoon, (do) _________ so in a few tens of millions of years. (hypothetical
situation in the past)
5. Our colleagues (get) _________ the grant if they (submit) _________ all
necessary documents before the deadline. (predicting likely situation)
6. Just (send) _________ me an email if you (have) _________ any problems.
(request)
7. It (be) _________ better if we (be) _________ honest about the situation with
samples. (tentative suggestion)
8. If we (fail) _________ to complete the study on time, we (have to) _________
miss the conference. (unlikely situation)
9. If we (install) the software last year, we (do) _________ the research. (analyse
past actions)
10 If he (go) _________ to university, he (get) _________ a better job.
(hypothetical situation in the past)

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Words, Words, Words

Complete the abstract with the correct option A-C. Consult the dictionary if
necessary.

Animals May Defend Territories that Contain Resources

In many animal (1) ______, (2) ______ for (3) ______ takes the form of
territoriality, the defense of an area where important resources are located. The (4)
______ resources may include places to mate, raise young, feed, or store (5)
______. Territorial animals generally (6) ______ most or all of their activities to
the defended area and (7) ______ their presence there. Territories may be defended
by males, females, a mated pair, or entire social groups (as in the case of defense of
their nest by social insects). However, territorial behaviour is most commonly seen
in adult males, and territories are normally defended against members of the same
species, who compete most directly for the resources being protected. For example,
they can be a tree where a woodpecker stores acorns, small (8) ______ in the sand
used as nesting sites by cichlid fish, a hole in the sand used as a home by a crab, or
an area of forest (9) ______ food for a squirrel.
(10) ______ and defending a territory require considerable time and energy,
yet territoriality is seen in animals as diverse as worms, arthropods, fish, birds, and
(11) ______. The fact that organisms as unrelated as worms and humans
independently (12) ______ similar behaviour suggests that territoriality provides
some important (13) ______ (14) ______. Although the particular benefits depend
on the species and the type of territory it defends, some broad generalizations are
possible. First (as with dominance hierarchies), once a territory is established
through aggressive interactions, relative peace (15) ______ as boundaries are
recognized and respected. The saying “good fences make good neighbours” also
applies to nonhuman territories. One reason for this (16) ______ is that an animal

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is highly motivated to defend its territory and will often defeat even larger,
stronger animals that attempt to invade it. (17) ______, an animal outside its
territory is much less secure and more easily defeated.
For males of many species, successful territorial defense has a direct impact
on reproductive success. In these species, females are attracted to a high-quality
(18) ______ territory, which might have features such as large size, (19) ______,
food, and secure nesting areas. Males who successfully defend the most desirable
territories have the greatest chance of mating and passing on their genes. For
example, experiments have shown that male sticklebacks that defend large
territories are more successful in (20) ______ mates than are males who defend
small territories. Females who select males with the best territories increase their
own (21) ______ success and pass their genetic traits (typically including their
mate-selection preferences) to their offspring.
Territories are advertised through (22) ______, sound, and (23) ______. If the
territory is small enough, the owner‟s mere presence (24) ______ by aggressive
displays at (25) ______, can be a (26) ______ defense. A mammal that owns a
territory but cannot always be present may use pheromones to scent-mark its
terrestrial boundaries. Male rabbits use pheromones secreted by glands in their
chin and by anal glands to mark their territories. Hamsters rub the areas around
their (27) ______ with secretions from special glands in their glands.

1 A specimen B species C samples

2 A competence B competition C competency
3 A resources B reserves C supply
4 A defended B defeated C deseeded
5 A meal B nourishment C food
6 A restrict B refrain C restore
7 A advise B adverse C advertise
8 A destinations B depressions C degressions
9 A supplying B procuring C providing

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10 A Acquiring B Requiring C Requiting
11 A mammas B mammoths C mammals
12 A evoked B evolved C involved
13 A adaptive B adoptive C abortive
14 A disadvantages B disabilities C advantages
15 A prevails B prevents C prewires
16 A aspect B extent C respect
17 A Inversely B Conversely C Diversely
18 A breeding B blooming C brooding
19 A abundant B redundant C excessive
20 A detracting B attracting C attributing
21 A creative B productive C reproductive
22 A seeing B sight C vision
23 A smell B scent C fragrance
24 A force B enforce C reinforce
25 A interveners B intruders C interrupters
26 A sufficient B suffocating C suffruticose
27 A fangs B teeth C dens

Language focus 2

“I Wish” Sentences
We use wish to say that we regret something, that something is not as we would
like it to be:
I wish he would take part in the project. = I want him to take part in the project.
I wish he took part in the project. = He is not taking part in the project and I regret
that.
I wish he had taken part in the project. = He didn‟t take part in the project, I can‟t
change anything.

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I. Choose the verbs in the appropriate form.
1. I wish I _________ a computer. It would make life so much easier.
A have B had C would have
2. I feel so tired. I wish I _________ less today.
A had worked B worked C work
3. I wish it _________ summer now.
A were B had been C is
4. I wish it _________ stop snowing.
A stops B stopped C would stop
5. I wish they _________ part in the competition but they refused.
A would take B took C had taken
6. I wish I _________ more friends.
A have B had C would have
7. I wish I _________ here. It is so noisy and boring here.
A don‟t come B hadn‟t come C didn‟t come

II. Translate sentences into English.

1. Если ты встретишь Петра, тебе следует попросить у него прощения.
2. Жаль, что вы не хотите сосредоточить свое внимание на одной задаче.
3. Желательно, чтобы эти эксперименты были проведены до начала новой
серии опытов.
4. Если бы он согласился на изменение условий эксперимента, успех был бы
гарантирован.
5. Я был бы очень благодарен, если бы вы прислали мне эти материалы как
можно скорее.
6. Человек может достигнуть исключительных результатов, если его
воодушевляет высокая цель.
7. Если бы проверка была проведена вовремя, были бы исключены
случайные ошибки и были бы получены надежные результаты.

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8. Теория была бы принята большинством ученых, если бы мы предоставили
новые доказательства в ее поддержку.
9. Жаль, что так мало внимания уделяется сравнению экспериментально
полученных результатов с результатами, предсказанными теоретически.
10. Если используется новая методика, специально разработанная для
данного эксперимента, подобные недостатки легко преодолеть.

Render in English

Игры животных: почему и зачем?

Что такое игра? Четкого определения игры до сих пор нет, хотя все
понимают, о чем идет речь. Невозможно не любоваться играющими щенками
или котятами. Игра - поведение типичное для развивающегося организма.
Для некоторых животных точно определен возраст, когда они играют.
Например, у лабораторных крыс игровое поведение наблюдается с 22-24 дня
по 60 день жизни, у хомяков - с 28 дня по 58-68. Часто игру начинает
взрослое животное (мать): львица побуждает львят ловить кончик ее хвоста,
обезьяны поворачивают на спину и щекочут своих малышей, кошки,
вылизывая котят, затевают с ними борьбу.
В играх различных животных можно выделить общие признаки.
Движения в игре не отличаются от тех, которые встречаются в иных
ситуациях: охота, умерщвление добычи, драка, погоня, половая активность.
Наблюдая за игрой котенка с клубком шерсти, нельзя не увидеть сходства с
охотой на мышей, а прыжки и движения лап при ловле подвешенной на
нитке бумажки такие же, как при охоте взрослой кошки на птиц. К. Лоренц
описывает, как взрослая кошка защищает своих котят от собаки: она идет на
нее характерным боковым движением на вытянутых лапах, взъерошив
шерсть и распушив хвост. Подобные характерные передвижения боком часто

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можно наблюдать у играющих котят, но они никогда не используются в
драке взрослых кошек. Несмотря на имитацию охоты или драки, животные
не наносят друг другу серьезного вреда. В игре часто сочетаются элементы
разных типов поведения, не связанных между собой во взрослой жизни,
например, охотничье и половое. Порядок, с которым движения следуют друг
за другом, также может не соответствовать поведению взрослого животного,
а иногда быть прямо противоположным. Элементы игры бывают
преувеличены, многократно повторяются, но часто не завершаются. Обычно
животное подает сигнал о том, что оно собирается начать игру. У макак-
резусов это "игровая мимика", у кошек и собак - припадание на грудь и
передние лапы. Иногда в игре животное использует совершенно новое
движение, которое не встречается у взрослых животных. Описано игровое
сальто у ручного барсука и кувырок через голову с изменением маршрута у
щенка, убегавшего от матери. Игровое поведение легко прерывается, и
животное возвращается к обычной жизни.
Ученые пришли к выводу, что в основе игрового поведения лежит
мотивация, отличная от мотивации того поведения, которое изображается в
игре (в охоте - мотивация голода, в половом поведении - мотивация
продолжения рода и т. д.). Мотивация, которая лежит в основе игры,
настолько сильная, что может конкурировать с другими желаниями
животного. Например, молодая самка шимпанзе, которую не кормили в
течение 15 часов, в 40% случаев выбирала игру с другими обезьянами, а не
пищу.
Зачем нужна игра? Прежде всего, игра - это тренировка для развития
мышечной, опорно-двигательной, дыхательной, сердечно-сосудистой и
нервной систем. Она способствует увеличению мышечной массы, массы
сердца, плотности капиллярного русла, повышению жизненной емкости
легких, скорости роста организма. Игра знакомит молодое животное с
окружающей средой. Котенок, играющий с клубком шерсти, начинает
понимать, что не все маленькие, мягкие, быстро передвигающиеся предметы

154
съедобны, как мыши. Лишение животного возможности играть имеет далеко
идущие последствия. Макака резус, выросшая изолированно от других
обезьян с манекеном матери, не умела впоследствии играть со сверстниками,
устанавливать нормальные отношения с сородичами и в дальнейшем -
спариваться. Сложности в период полового поведения наблюдали и у собак,
выросших без общения с другими собаками. Отдельные элементы полового,
охотничьего поведения отрабатываются в играх детенышей еще до
наступления половой зрелости, поэтому развитие поведения носит
опережающий характер.
Исследование энергетического обмена организма выявило обратную
зависимость между уровнем обмена веществ в покое и игровой активностью.
Так что игра восполняет дефицит энергетических затрат организма в
молодом возрасте.
Изучение активности нервных клеток теменной области коры мозга
показало, что их способность отвечать на несколько раздражителей (свет,
звук, прикосновение к коже) возрастает от 6 % клеток у 8-10 дневных котят
до 89 % у 49-50 дневных, то есть совпадает с развитием игрового поведения.
Следовательно, игра необходима для развития не только телесных, но и
мозговых структур организма.

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 Приложение

Unit 1
Life and Levels of Organization of Living Matter

Listening

Life
All of us have an intuitive understanding of what it means to be alive.
However, defining life is difficult, partly because living things are so diverse and
non-living matter looks like life in some cases. What‟s more, living things cannot
be described as the sum of their parts. The quality of life emerges as a result of
incredibly complex, ordered interactions among these parts. Among the
characteristics of living things that, taken together, are not shared by non-living
things are the following: living things consist of organic molecules, they acquire
and use materials and energy from their environment and convert them into
different forms, they grow and reproduce.

Unit 2
Biological Molecules

Protein Structure – a Hairy Subject

A single strand of human hair, thin and not even alive, is nonetheless a highly
organized, complex structure. Hair is composed mostly of a single, helical protein
called keratin. If we look closely at the structure of hair, we can learn a great deal
about biological molecules, chemical bonds, and why human hair behaves as it
does.

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 A single hair consists of a hierarchy of structures. The outermost layer is a set
of overlapping shingle-kike scales that protect the hair and keep it from drying out.
Inside the hair lie closely packed, cylindrical dead cells, each filled with long
strands called microfibrils. Each microfibril is a bundle of protofibrils, and each
protofibril contains helical keratin molecules twisted together. As a hair grows,
living cells in the hair follicle embedded in the skin whip out new keratin at the
rate of 10 turns of the protein helix every second.
Pull the ends of a hair, and you will notice that it is rather strong. Hair gets its
strength from three types of chemical bonds. First, the individual molecules of
keratin are held in their helical shape by many hydrogen bonds. Before a hair will
break, all the hydrogen bonds of all the keratin molecules in one cross-sectional
plane of the strand must break to allow the helix to be stretched to its maximal
extent. Second, each molecule is cross-linked to neighboring keratin molecules by
disulfide bridges between cysteines (particular amino acids). Some of these bridges
must break as the hair stretches. Finally, at least one peptide bond in each keratin
molecule must break the strand as a whole breaks.
Hair is also fairly stiff. The stiffness arises from hydrogen bonds within the
individual helices of keratin molecules together. When hair gets wet, however, the
hydrogen bonds between turns of the helices are replaced by hydrogen bonds
between the amino acids and the water molecules surrounding them, so the helices
collapse. Wet hair is therefore very limp. If wet hair is rolled onto curlers and
allowed to dry, the hydrogen bonds re-form in slightly different places, holding the
hair in a curve. The slightest moisture, even humid air, allows hydrogen bonds to
rearrange into their natural configuration, and normally straight hair straightens
out.
Pull gently, and you will discover still another property of hair. It stretches
and then springs back into shape when you release the tension. When hair
stretches, many of the hydrogen bonds within each keratin helix are broken,
allowing the helix to be extended. Most of the covalent disulfide bonds between
different levels of the helices, in contrast, are distorted by stretching but do not

157
break. When tension is released, these disulfide bridges contract, returning the hair
to its normal length.
Finally, each hair has a characteristic shape: It may be straight, wavy, or curly.
The curliness of hair is genetically specified and is determined biochemically by
the arrangement of disulfide bridges. Curly hair has disulfide bridges cross-linking
the various keratin molecules at different levels, whereas straight hair has bridges
mostly at the same level. When straight hair is given a “permanent”, two lotions
are applied. The first lotion breaks disulfide bonds between neighboring helices.
The hair is then rolled tightly onto curlers, and a second solution, which re-forms
the bridges, is applied. The new disulfide bridges connect helices at different
levels, holding the strands of hair in a curl. These new bridges are more or less
permanent, and genetically straight hair can be transformed into biochemically
curly hair. As new hair grows in, it will have the genetically determined
arrangement of bridges and will not be curly.

Unit 3
Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell

Introduction
Listen and answer the questions.
1. What is caused within a system by any use of energy (according to the second
law of thermodynamics)?
2. How does energy flow in chemical reactions?
3. Give an example of an exergonic reaction.
4. How is cellular energy carried between coupled reactions?

The flow of energy among atoms and molecules obeys the laws of
thermodynamics. The first law of thermodynamics states that, assuming there is no
influx of energy, the total amount of energy remains constant, although it may
change in form. The second law of thermodynamics states that any use of energy

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causes a decrease in the quantity of concentrated, useful energy and an increase in
the randomness and disorder of matter. Entropy is a measure of disorder within a
system.
Chemical reactions fall into two categories. In exergonic (Greek for “energy
out”) reactions, the product molecules have less energy than do the reactant
molecules, so the reaction releases energy. In endergonic (Greek for “energy in”)
reactions, the products have more energy than do the reactants, so the reactions can
occur spontaneously, but all reactions, including exergonic ones, require an initial
input of energy (the activation energy) to overcome electrical repulsions between
reactant molecules. Exergonic and endergonic reactions may be coupled such that
the energy liberated by an exergonic reaction drives the endergonic reaction.
Organisms couple exergonic reactions such as light-energy capture or sugar
metabolism with endergonic reactions such as synthesis of organic molecules.
Energy released by chemical reactions within a cell is captured and
transported about the cell by energy-carrier molecules such as ATP and electron
carriers. These molecules are the major means by which cells couple exergonic and
endergonic reactions that occur at different places in the cell.

Unit 4
Principles of Evolution

Introduction

Listen to a brief biography of a very famous scientist. A student first to say the
scientist‟s name will win the contest.
1. The son of a country parson who greatly loved flowers, in his youth he set himself the
task of establishing new system for describing and ordering animals, plants and minerals.
2. He studied at the university in Lund, Uppsala and in Harderwijk, Holland, where he
obtained his M.D.

159
3. In Holland worked as superintendent of George Clifford's botanical garden near Harlem;
published Systema Naturae, presenting his new system of taxonomy.
4. Having returned to his motherland, he was appointed a physician to the admiralty, helped
to found the Academy of Science, became a professor of medicine at the University of
Uppsala;
5. Renovated the university's botanical garden, where he lived for the rest of his life;
was elevated to the nobility.
6. Brought an urgently needed simplicity to the classification of plants; worked out a sexual
system, grouping plants in classes, according to the number and order of stamens, and then
into orders, mostly according to the number of pistils; although he realized that this was an
artificial structure, he did not fully work out a more "natural" system;
7. Was the first to work with species as a clearly defined concept;
8. Introduced binomial nomenclature based on genus and species; concluded that for
every natural plant order, only one species had been created originally.
9. Published his most influential work Philosophia botanica (an expansion of
Fundamental botanica)in 1751.
10. In Species plantarum he described about 8000 plant species; his definitive 10th edition of
Systema naturae appeared in 1758-59.
11. In Oeconomica naturae he developed concepts of the balance and competition in
nature among the insects, animals and plants.
12. Was less influential in the classification of the animal and mineral kingdoms but did
group man with the apes, and was the to recognize whales as mammals; his insect orders are
still recognized.
Based on the Concise Dictionary of Scientific Biography 2000 New York

Answer: Linneus (or von Linne), Carl.

Unit 5
The History of Life on Earth

160
Introduction

Listen to the account of the history of ideas concerning the generation of life on
Earth and discuss in pairs whether the following sentences are true or false.

How and when did life first appear on Earth? Just a few centuries ago, this
question would have been considered trivial. Although no one knew how life first
arose, people thought that new living things appeared all the time, through
spontaneous generation from both nonliving matter and other, unrelated forms of
life. In 1609, a French botanist wrote, “There is a tree… frequently observed in
Scotland. From the tree leaves are falling: upon one side they strike the water and
slowly turn into fishes, upon the other they strike the land and turn into birds.”
Medieval writings abound with similar observations and delightful recipes for
creating life – even human beings. Microorganisms were thought to arise
spontaneously from broth, maggots from meat, and mice from mixtures of sweaty
shirts and wheat.
In 1668 the Italian physician Francesco Redi disproved the maggots-from-
meat hypothesis simply by keeping flies (whose eggs hatch into maggots) away
from uncontaminated meat. Then in the mid-1800s, Louis Pasteur in France and
John Tyndall in England disproved the broth-to-microorganism idea. Although
their work effectively demolished the notion of spontaneous generation, it did not
address the question of how life on Earth originated in the first place.
For almost half a century, the subject lay dormant. Eventually, biologists
returned to the question of the origin of life and began to seek answers. In the
1920s and 1930s, Alexander Oparin in Russia and John B. S. Haldane in England
noted that the oxygen-rich atmosphere that we know would not have permitted the
spontaneous formation of the complex organic molecules necessary for life.
Oxygen reacts rapidly with other molecules, disrupting chemical bonds and thus
tending to keep molecules simple. Oparin and Haldane speculated that the
atmosphere of the young Earth was very low in oxygen and rich in hydrogen in the

161
form of hydrogen gas (H2), methane (CH4), and ammonia (NH3). Given these and
other conditions Oparin and Haldane proposed that life could have arisen from
nonliving matter through ordinary chemical reactions. This process is called
chemical evolution, or prebiotic evolution: that is, evolution before life existed.

1. Several centuries ago no one thought it difficult to answer the question of how
living things had arisen. T
2. Earlier people thought that life had appeared spontaneously from nonliving
things and other forms of life. T
3. In Medieval texts the authors suggested ways of creating nonliving things from
living things. F: “Medieval writings abound with similar observations and
delightful recipes for creating life – even human beings”
4. People thought that microorganisms had arisen from broth and wheat. F:
“Microorganisms were thought to arise spontaneously from broth, maggots from
meat, and mice from mixtures of sweaty shirts and wheat.”
5. Francesco Redi proved that maggots did not arise from rotting meat. T
6. Louis Pasteur‟s ideas did not answer the question of how life on Earth had
originated. T
7. Alexander Oparin thought that complex organic molecules could be formed
spontaneously only if oxygen was around. F: “Alexander Oparin in Russia and
John B. S. Haldane in England noted that the oxygen-rich atmosphere that we
know would not have permitted the spontaneous formation of the complex organic
molecules necessary for life.”
8. Oxygen keeps molecules simple. T
9. Oparin and Haldane argued that the primordial atmosphere consisted of
hydrogen gas, methane and free oxygen. F: “Oparin and Haldane speculated that
the atmosphere of the young Earth was very low in oxygen and rich in hydrogen in
the form of hydrogen gas (H2), methane (CH4), and ammonia (NH3).”
10. Prebiotic evolution means evolution of nonliving matter to become living
matter. T

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 Unit 6
Biotechnology

Introduction

Listen to the abstract and compare the answers with your ideas:
- What is a definition of biotechnology?
- What are goals of genetic engineering?

In its broadest sense, biotechnology is defined as any industrial or commercial

use or alteration of organisms, cells, or biological molecules to achieve specific
practical goals. By this definition, biotechnology is nothing new – it is as old as the
use of yeast to make bread rise or to ferment grape juice into wine, a process that
originated 10,000 years ago. It is as old as selective breeding of plants and animals
in agriculture. Squash fragments preserved in a dry cave in Mexico were recently
dated as 8000-10,000 years old. Their seeds are larger and their rinds thicker and
more colorful than those of wild varieties, providing evidence or selective breeding
– a very early form of genetic manipulation by humans. Prehistoric art and animal
remains suggest that dogs, sheep, goats, and camels were domesticated 10,000 –
12,000 years ago.
Modern biotechnology commonly utilizes genetic engineering, the modification
of genetic material to achieve specific goals. Genetically engineered cells may
have genes deleted, added, or replaced. The major goals of genetic engineering are
threefold:
1.to understand more about the processes of inheritance and gene expression;
2.to provide better understanding and treatment of various diseases, particularly
genetic disorders, and
3.to generate economic benefits, including improved plants and animals for
agriculture and efficient production of valuable biological molecules.

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 Unit 7
The Double Helix

Introduction
Listen to the text “Red Bread Mold Provided Insight into the Role of Genes”. Say
whether the following statements are true or false.

Red Bread Mold Provided Insight into the Role of Genes

The common red bread mold, Neurospora crassa, proved to be an ideal

organism for studying the relationship between genes and enzymes. Although we
commonly see this mold on stale bread, Neurospora is an extremely independent
organism that can synthesize almost all the organic compounds it needs. It can
grow on a simple nutrient solution (minimal medium) that contains a few minerals,
a single vitamin, and an energy source such as sucrose.
Besides being easy to grow, Neurospora is genetically ideal as an experimental
subject. For most of its life, Neurospora has just one copy of each gene. Most
plants and animals, in contrast, have two copies of each chromosome and thus two
copies of each gene. Consequently, the effects of a defective gene may be masked
by a normal gene on the second chromosome. In Neurospora the effects of a
defective gene cannot be masked, because it does not supply another copy of that
gene.
In the early 1940s, geneticists George Beadle and Edward Tatum bombarded
Neurospora with X-rays. The high energy of X-rays causes mutations, which are
changes in the base sequence of DNA. Eventually the X-rays produced hundreds of
different mutations that affected the nutritional requirements of the mold. Each
mutant mold was no longer able to grow on minimal medium unless a specific
nutrient – for example, one of the B vitamins or a certain amino acid – was added.
Beadle and Tatum concluded that each of these mutations inactivated a specific
enzyme that normally allowed the mold to synthesize a nutrient. Their experiments

164
supported the hypothesis that each gene codes for a single enzyme. A few years
later, to determine the series of chemical reactions by which normal molds
synthesize the amino acid arginine, biochemists used mutant Neurospora that
couldn‟t grow on minimal medium unless arginine was added. They found that the
mold uses the following biochemical pathway:

enzyme A enzyme B
ornithine -> citrulline -> arginine

By starting with minimal medium and then adding one precursor molecule in
the pathway of arginine synthesis at a time, the researchers found that the mutant
lacked a single enzyme that catalysed one specific step in arginine synthesis. This
finding further supported the hypothesis that each gene encoded the information
needed for the synthesis of a specific enzyme.
1 Neurospora is very independent because it can synthesize the organic
compounds it needs. T
2 Neurospora cannot grow on a minimal medium. F: “It can grow on a simple
nutrient solution (minimal medium) that contains a few minerals, a single vitamin,
and an energy source such as sucrose.”
3 Neurospora has just one copy of each gene that is why it is very useful in
experiments. T
4 George Beadle and Edward Tatum wanted to see the DNA of Neurospora with
the help of X-ray diffraction. T
5 The mutations caused by X-rays made Neurospora need no nutrients. F:
“Eventually the X-rays produced hundreds of different mutations that affected the
nutritional requirements of the mold. Each mutant mold was no longer able to
grow on minimal medium unless a specific nutrient – for example, one of the B
vitamins or a certain amino acid – was added.”
6 The experiment of Beadle and Tatum proved that each enzyme was encoded by
one gene. T

165
7 Some years later mutant Neurospora was used that could not grow unless
citrulline was added to the medium. F: “A few years later, to determine the series
of chemical reactions by which normal molds synthesize the amino acid arginine,
biochemists used mutant Neurospora that couldn‟t grow on minimal medium
unless arginine was added.”
8 The experimental mutant mold lacked many enzymes. F: “the researchers found
that the mutant lacked a single enzyme that catalysed one specific step in arginine
synthesis.”

Unit 8
Inheritance

Introduction
Read the following passage and listen to the story about Gregor Mendel‟s life. Find
six false facts in the story you hear.

An original text in Student‟s Book:

Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn
(now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several
pursuits, including health care and teaching. To earn his teaching certificate,
Mendel attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and
mathematics, among other subjects. This training proved crucial to his later
experiments, which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St.
Thomas in the mid-1800s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and a
groundbreaking series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea.
Although Mendel worked without knowledge of genes or chromosomes, we can
more easily follow his experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic
concepts.

Six false facts are given in bold:

166
 Before settling down as a monk in the monastery of St. Thomas in Brünn,
(now Brno, in the Czech Republic), Gregor Mendel tried his hand at several
pursuits, including teaching health care. To earn his medical certificate, Mendel
attended the University of Vienna for 2 years, where he studied botany and
mathematics only. This training proved very important to his later experiments,
which were the foundation for the modern science of genetics. At St. Thomas in
the mid-1700s, Mendel carried out both his monastic duties and broke ground in a
series of experiments on inheritance in the common edible pea. Although Mendel
knew little about genes or chromosomes, we can more easily follow his
experiments after a brief look at some modern genetic concepts.

Unit 9
Fungi

Introduction

How do fungi affect humans? Listen to the text and answer the question.
Edible mushrooms are the most obvious fungal contribution to human
welfare, but fungi have many other, less visible but more important impacts as
well. Many of these impacts are positive, and some fungal benefits extend far
beyond mere gastronomic concerns. For example, as decomposers, fungi make an
incalculable contribution to ecosystems. The extracellular digestive activities of
many fungi liberate nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus compounds
and minerals that can be used by plants. If fungi and bacteria were suddenly to
disappear, the consequences would be disastrous. Nutrients would remain locked
in the bodies of dead plants and animals, the recycling of nutrients would grind to a
halt, soil fertility would rapidly decline, and waste and organic debris would
accumulate. In short, ecosystems would collapse.
Although the health of ecosystems depends on the relentless nature of fungal
feeding, penetrating fungal filaments can have adverse consequences as well.

167
Parasitic fungi, for instance, cause disease. In humans, such fungi cause a range of
diseases such as ringworm and athlete‟s foot, which infect the skin; valley fever
and histoplasmosis, which infect the lungs; and common vaginal yeast infections.
Fungi also cause the majority of plant diseases. The fungi that cause chestnut
blight and Dutch elm disease have drastically reduced American chestnut and elm
tree populations. Fungal parasites also result in billions of dollars in crop losses
annually from diseases such as corn smut.
The fungal impact on agriculture is not entirely negative, however. Fungal
parasites that attack insects and other arthropod pests can be an important ally in
pest control. Farmers who wish to reduce their dependence on toxic and expensive
chemical pesticides are increasingly turning to biological methods of pest control,
including the application of “fungal pesticides”. Fungal pathogens are currently
used to control a variety of pests, including termites, rice weevils, tent caterpillars,
aphids, and citrus mites.
Fungi, of course, also make an important contribution to human nutrition.
This contribution goes far beyond the obvious use of wild and cultivated
mushrooms. Other fungi, such as the rare and prized truffle, are also consumed
directly. Of greater importance, however, are the less visible manifestations of
fungal activities. In particular, fungi are responsible for making bread rise, for
converting grape juice to wine, for the distinctive flavor of many cheeses, and for
the bubbles (and alcohol) in beer. Our diets would certainly be a lot duller without
the help we get form fungal partners.

Unit 10
The Evolution of Hormones

Introduction
Now listen to the summary of key concepts concerning the endocrine system of the
animal body and get ready to retell it.

168
Summary of Key Concepts
What are the characteristics of animal hormones?
A hormone is a chemical secreted by cells in one part of the body that is
transported in the bloodstream to another part of the body, where it affects the
activity of specific target cells. Four types of molecules are known to act as
hormones: peptides, amino-acid derivatives, steroids, and prostaglandins.
Most hormones act on their target cells in one of two ways: (1) Peptide
hormones and amino-acid derivatives bind to receptors on the surface of target
cells and activate intracellular second messengers, such as cyclic AMP. The second
messengers then alter the metabolism of the cell. (2) Steroid hormones diffuse
through the plasma membranes of the target cells and bind with receptor proteins
in the cytoplasm. The hormone-receptor complex travels to the nucleus and
promotes the transcription of specific genes. Thyroid hormones also penetrate the
plasma membrane but diffuse into the nucleus, where they bind to receptors
associated with the chromosomes and influence gene transcription.
Hormone action is commonly regulated through negative feedback, a process
in which a hormone causes changes that inhibit further secretion of that hormone.

What are the structures and functions of the mammalian endocrine system?
Hormones are produced by endocrine glands, which are clusters of cells embedded
within a network of capillaries. Hormones are secreted into the extracellular fluid
and diffuse into the capillaries. The major endocrine glands of the human body are
the hypothalamus – pituitary complex, the thyroid and parathyroid glands, the
pancreas, the sex organs, and the adrenal glands. Prostaglandins, unlike other
hormones, are not secreted by discrete glands but are synthesized and released by
many cells of the body. Other endocrine organs include the pineal gland, thymus,
kidneys, heart, and the stomach and small intestine.

169
 Unit 11
The Immune Response

Introduction
What are the key characteristics of the immune response? Listen to the text and say
whether the following sentences are true or false.

Phagocytic cells, natural killer cells, the inflammatory response, and fever are
all nonspecific defenses; their role is to prevent or overcome any microbial
invasion of the body. Unfortunately, however, these nonspecific defenses are not
impregnable. When they fail to do the job, the body mounts a highly specific
immune response directed against the particular organism that has successfully
invaded the body.
The essential features of the immune response to infection were recognized
more than 2000 years ago by the Greek historian Thucydides. He observed that
occasionally someone would contract a disease, recover, and never catch that
particular disease again – the person had become immune. With rare exceptions,
however, immunity to one disease confers no protection against other diseases.
Thus, the immune system attacks one type of microbe, overcomes it, and provides
future protection against that microbe but no others. This is why we refer to the
immune response as a specific defense against invasion.
The immune system consists of about 2 trillion lymphocytes, a kind of white
blood cell. Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood and
lymph, though many are clustered in specific organs, particularly the thymus,
lymph nodes, and spleen. The immune response arises from interactions among the
various types of lymphocytes and the molecules that they produce. The theatre of
the immune response has a large cast of characters and is difficult to follow
without a program. The table below provides a brief overview of the major actors
and their roles.

170
 The key actors in the immune response are two types of lymphocytes, called
B cells and T cells. Like all white blood cells, B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes
arise from precursor cells in the bone marrow. Some of these lymphocyte
precursors are released into the bloodstream and come to rest in the thymus, where
they complete their differentiation into T (for thymus) cells. In contrast, B cells
differentiate in the bone marrow itself. The two cell types play quite different roles
in the immune response, but immune responses produced by both B cells and T
cells consist of the same three fundamental steps: (1) recognizing the invader, (2)
launching a successful attack to overcome the invader, and (3) retaining a memory
of the invader to ward off future infections.

1 The Greek physician Thucydides recognized the essential features of the immune
response to the infection more than 2000 years ago. F: physician
2 Immunity to one disease always confers no protection against other diseases. F:
always
3 We refer to the immune response as a specific defense against invasion. T
4 Lymphocytes are distributed throughout the body in the blood. F: and lymph
5 T cells and B cells play similar roles in the immune response. F: similar

Unit 12
Animal Behaviour

Introduction

I. Listen to the text and determine differences of innate and learned behaviour.

Although all animal behaviour is influenced by both genetic and

environmental factors, it can be useful to distinguish between behaviours whose
development is not highly dependent on external factor and behaviours that require
more extensive environmental stimuli in order to develop behaviours in the first
category are sometimes designated as innate and can be performed properly the

171
first time an animal encounters the appropriate stimulus. Innate behaviours include
kineses, in which animals orient by varying the speed of essentially random
movements, stopping when they encounter favorable conditions. In contrast, taxes
are directed movements toward or away from specific stimuli. A fixed action
pattern is a complex innate behaviour elicited by a specific stimulus called a
releaser. Learning can in some cases modify the releasers for fixed action patterns.
Behaviour that changes in response to input from an animal‟s social and
physical environment is said to be learned. Learning is especially adaptive in
environments that are changing and unpredictable, and learning can modify innate
behaviour to make it more appropriate.
Among the diverse array of learning methods are imprinting, habituation,
conditioning, trial and error, and insight. Imprinting is a special kind of learning
that occurs during a limited sensitive period early in life. This form of simple
learning typically involves attachment between parent and offspring or learning the
features of a future mate.
Habituation is the decline in response to a harmless stimulus that is repeated
frequently. It commonly modifies innate escape responses or defensive responses.
During classical conditioning, an animal learns to make a reflexive response,
such as withdrawal or salivation, to a stimulus that did not originally elicit that
response. During operant conditioning, an animal learns to make a new response,
such as pressing a button, to obtain a reward or to avoid punishment.
Trial-and-error learning can modify innate behaviour or can produce new
behaviour as a result of rewards and punishments provided by the environment.
Insight, the most complex form of learning, can be considered a form of
mental trial-and-error learning. An animal showing insight makes a new and
adaptive response to an unfamiliar situation.
Although the distinction between innate and learned behaviour is conceptually
useful, the distinction is not sharp in naturally occurring behaviours. In virtually all
behaviours, learning and instinct interact to produce adaptive behaviour. Certain
types of learning, such as imprinting, occur instinctively, during a rigidly defined

172
time span. Instinctive responses are typically modified by experience. Learning
allows animals to modify these innate responses so that they occur only with
appropriate stimuli.

173
 Список литературы

1. Audesirk, Gerald, Audesirk, Teresa. Biology: Life on Earth. Fifth Edition. -

University of Colorado at Denver. Prentice Hall, 1999.
2. Lingvo 10. Англо-русский электронный словарь. ABBYY, 2005.
3. Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Third Edition. – Oxford University
Press, 2005.
4. Биология для поступающих в МГУ. – Изд-во МГУ, 2002.
5. Кемп П., Армс К. Введение в биологию. – Мир, М., 1988.
6. Материалы сайта www.elementy.ru.
7. Новый большой англо-русский словарь. - В 3-х тт. - Под. ред.
Ю.Д.Апресяна. - М., 1993.
8. Шахова Н.И. Learn to read science. Курс английского для аспирантов и
научных работников. – М., 2005.

174
 Англо-русский словарь

A
acorn желудь
acquire возникать из питательной среды
ACTH адренокортикотропный гормон, гормон коры надпочечников
adapt приспосабливаться
adenosine diphosphate АДФ
adenosine triphosphate АТФ
adrenal medulla мозговое вещество надпочечника, хромаффинная ткань
aeons века
aerobe [eərəub] аэроб
affect воздействовать
alert тревога
alga [ælgə](pl. algae) водоросли
allele (dominant, recessive) аллель (доминантный, рецессивный)
ameliorate улучшать
anaerobe [ænərəub] анаэроб
appropriate подходящий, соответствующий; адекватный
arthropod членистоногое
assault нападение, атака
assemblage скопление; группа
athlete‟s foot грибковое заболевание ног, микоз
atrial natriuretic peptide атриальный натрийуретический пептид
autosome аутосома

B
B cell базофильный инсулоцит (В-клетка)
base-pairing rule закон спаривания оснований
basidium (pl. basidia) базидия
beak клюв
become obvious становиться очевидным
biosphere биосфера
blood clotting свертывание крови
bond связь
bone marrow костный мозг
boon благо
breakdown распад
broth бульон; жидкая среда
bug клоп; мелкое насекомое
burrow нора
by-product побочный продукт

175
C
calcium [kælsıəm] кальций
Cambrian period кембрий
сarpel плодолистик
cast отпечаток
catalyst катализатор
catalyze катализировать
catalyzed reaction катализируемая реакция
centriole центриоль
chestnut blight каштановая гниль
chirp чирикать, щебетать
chitin хитин
chlorine хлор
chloroplast хлоропласт
cholecystokinin холецистокинин
chromatophore хроматофор
chromatophorotropic (гормон) меланоцитстимулирующий
cichlid fish цихлида
circulatory кровеносный
citrulline цитруллин
club fungi (basidiomycetes) базидиальные грибы, базидиомицеты
coach тренер, наставник; инструктор
coenzyme коэнзим
coiled скрученный, извитый
colour blindness цветовая слепота
community сообщество
compete
competition for survival and reproduction борьба за выживание и
продолжение рода
complex organic molecule сложная органическая молекула
complementarity комплементарность
conditioning соперничать, конкурировать
conduct water from roots to leaves проводить воду от корней к листьям
confer даровать, давать
conquer завоевывать, покорять
conversion of matter and energy превращение веществ и энергии
convert переводить, трансформировать (из одного состояния в другое)
corrugate сморщенный
couple with связывать, ассоциировать
cricket сверчок
crop up неожиданно обнаруживаться; возникать
cross-fertilization перекрѐстное оплодотворение
crossing over кроссинговер (перекрѐст хромосом)
cyanobacteria [saıənəbæktıərıə] цианобактерии
cytoplasm [saıtəplæzm] цитоплазма
176
D
decompose разлагаться
deftly ловко, искусно
dehydration synthesis [dı:haıdreı(ə)n] дегидратационный синтез
deoxyribose дезоксирибоза
derive from происходить от
devastate истощать, опустошать, разорять
differential reproduction неравное размножение
differentiate отличаться, видоизменяться, приспосабливаться
diffuse диффундировать
digestive [dıdзestıv] tract пищеварительный тракт
dimple желобок, выемка
diploid диплоид
disaccharide [dısəkəraıd] дисахарид
discrete раздельный, неслившийся
dissolve растворять(ся)
distinctively характерно
diverse [daıvə:s]/ diversity разнообразный/разнообразие
drive the synthesis of ATP from ADP стимулировать синтез АТФ из АДФ
draw attention привлекать внимание
droppings экскременты
ductless не имеющий выводного протока
dung fungus сордария навозная (Sordaria fumicola)
dusting опыление
Dutch elm disease голландская болезнь вязов
dye краситель

E
edible pea горошек обыкновенный
efficient действенный
embedded вставленный, вкопанный, внедренный
emerge появляться; возникать
encode кодировать
encounter столкновение
endergonic reactions эндотермическая реакция
enriched with обогащенный
entropy энтропия
environmental extremes экстремальные условия окружающей среды
enzyme function функция фермента
epinephrine адреналин, эпинефрин
ergot спорынья
erythropoietin эритропоэтин

177
escape спасаться, избегать
evaporate испаряться
evolution by natural selection эволюция путем естественного отбора
evolutionary transformations эволюционные преобразования
exergonic reactions экзотермическая реакция
exocrine внешнесекреторный
expose открывать
extinction вымирание

F
fascinating удивительный
fertile плодородный
finch вьюрок
fit приспособленный
flow of matter круговорот веществ
flu strain штамм гриппа
follicle фолликул
foothold точка опоры; устойчивое положение
forensic судебный
fossil (remains) ископаемое
fungus (pl. fungi) [fΛngəs, fΛndзı] гриб, плесень
fuse объединяться

G
gamete [gæmı:t] гамета
gauze марля, кисея
gene locus локус
generate порождать
generation поколение
genetic makeup генетический набор
genotype генотип
genus (pl. genera) род
German shepherd немецкая овчарка
germinate развиваться, прорастать
gill гимениальная пластинка, спороносный слой
give off energy выделять энергию
glucagon гипергликемический гормон поджелудочной железы
glucocorticoids глюкокортикоид
go extinct вымирать
groove углубление, впадина
gull чайка

178
H
habitat место/среда обитания
habituation привыкание (ослабление реакции при повторении воздействия
стимула)
hamster хомяк
haploid гаплоид
hatch вылупляться, выводиться
helium гелий
hemoglobin [hı:məugləubın] гемоглобин
hemorrhage кровоточить
heredity наследственность
heterozygous [het ərəuzıgəs] гетерозиготный
hind limbs задние конечности
histocompatibility гистосовместимость
histoplasmosis гистоплазмоз
homicide убийство
homologous nucleotide [nju:klıətaıd] гомологичный нуклеотид
homozygous гомозиготный
humanity человечество
hybrid [haıbrıd] гибрид
hyphae гифы

I
ignite воспламенять, зажигать
imperfect fungi (deuteromycetes) дейтеромицеты
impregnable неприступный; неуязвимый
incentive стимул
increase rapidly быстро возрастать
individual (n) (зд.) особь
inflammatory воспалительный
initiate начинать, приступать
innate врождѐнный; природный
insight инсайт
interaction взаимодействие
intruder непрошеный гость
invader захватчик, оккупант
invertebrates беспозвоночные
involve включать
iodine [aıəudı:n] йод

J
jar банка
juvenile молодой, юный

179
K
kinesis кинезис (движение)

L
lack backbone не иметь хорды
lacrimal слезный
leave offspring оставлять потомство
liberate высвобождать
linkage сцепление
living / non-living matter/ objects живая/неживая материя/объекты
lizard ящерица
luteinizing hormone лютеинизирующий гормон
lymphocyte [lımfəsaıt] лимфоцит

M
macrophage гистиоцит, макрофаг
maggot личинка насекомого
magnesium магний
maintain the level of pH поддерживать уровень pH
maintain a population поддерживать жизнь популяции
mate спариваться
measles [mi:zlz] корь
meiosis [mıəusıs] мейоз
Mendel‟s law of segregation закон расщепления Менделя
minced измельченный
mislead вводить в заблуждение
modification изменение
mold [məuld] плесень
monosaccharide моносахарид
morel сморчок
mRNA (messenger RNA) иРНК (информационная РНК)
multicellular многоклеточная
mumps свинка
mushroom (v) внезапно и быстро вырасти
mutualistic мутуалистический
mycelium [maısı:lıəm] грибница
mycorrhiza микориза

N
natural population естественная популяция
nematode, roundworm нематода, круглый червь
nutrients питательные вещества

180
O
observe наблюдать
observer наблюдатель
obtain resources добывать ресурсы
organelle органелла
organic molecule органическая молекула
origin of species происхождение видов
originally изначально
originate появляться, происходить
ovary яичник
overall genetic composition of a population общий генетический состав
популяции
oxygen-starved лишенный кислорода
oxytocin окситоцин
ozone layer озоновый слой

P
Paleozoic era палеозой
parathormone гормон околощитовидной железы, паратиреоидный гормон
parental generation родительское поколение
pass on genetic differences передавать генетические отличия
pathway путь
peat bog торфяное болото
perform a (single) function выполнять (общую) функцию
petal [petl] лепесток
petrified окаменевший
pest вредитель
phagocytic [fægəusaıtık] фагоцитарный
phenotype фенотип
phosphorus фосфор
photosynthetic organism фотосинтезирующий организм
phylum тип
plant resin древесная смола
plasma membrane плазматическая мембрана
plasmid плазмида
pollen пыльца
polymerase полимераза
polysaccharide полисахарид
population популяция
posterior pituitary hormones гормоны задней доли гипофиза
potassium калий
prebiotic до возникновения жизни
Precambrian period докембрий
precursor cell клетка-предшественник
predator хищник
181
preserve жертва
prickly pear cactus опунция (вид кактуса)
primeval [praımı:v(ə)l] Earth первобытная Земля
primordial первобытный
“primordial soup” «первичный бульон»
proofbreading исправление ошибок (при копировании матрицы)
properties свойства
provide обеспечивать
puffball дождевик
Punnett square method (by R.C.Punnett) метод Пуннетта

R
reach / achieve high concentrations достигать высоких концентраций
reactant molecule молекула-реагент
reduce сокращать
relatively относительно
release высвобождать
releaser пусковой механизм; пусковой раздражитель; стимул,
вызывающий осуществление инстинктивного действия
remain constant сохраняться постоянным
remnant остаток
rennin ренин, химозин
replication репликация, ауторепродукция
reproduce воспроизводиться
requisite требуемый
resemble напоминать
reserve заповедник
reside in the cytoplasm находиться в цитоплазме
respiratory distress расстройства внешнего дыхания
retina сетчатка
revamp перестраивать, реконструировать
reveal обнаруживать, показывать
reverse transcriptase обратная транскриптаза (РНК-зависимая ДНК-
полимераза)
ringworm обусловленный красным трихофитоном микоз
roam бродить
roan чалый
rock ledge уступ скалы
rudimentary рудиментарные
rust ржавчинный гриб

S
sac fungi (ascomycetes) аскомицеты
scholarship стипендия
scratch ссадина, царапина
182
seasonal molting сезонная линька
secretin оксикринин, секретин
sediments осадочных породах
self-fertilization самоопыление
sequence последовательность
septum септа, перегородка
set of substances комплекс веществ
severe суровый
sex-linked сцепленный с полом
shallow sea мелкое море
shed сбрасывать (кожу, рога)
shelf fungus (monkey-stool) берѐзовый гриб, чага
shell раковина, панцирь
Silurian period силур
single-stranded однонитевой, одноцепочечный (о нуклеиновых кислотах)
smut головнѐвый гриб
sodium натрий
soft fruit rot плодовая гниль
sparsely редко, негусто
spawn нереститься
spectator зритель
sperm семя
spleen селезѐнка
spontaneously спонтанно
sporangium [spərændзıəm] (pl. sporangia) спорангий
stamen [steımen] тычинка
steam пар
straightforward прямолинейный
stud усеивать, усыпать
subcellular structure субклеточная структура
substrate molecule молекула субстрата
subvert разрушать
succumb погибать
sulphur [sΛlfə] сера
survival of the fittest выживание наиболее приспособленного
swab off смазывать
swarm кишеть

T
T cell Т-клетка
tadpole головастик
taxis таксис
test cross опытный гибрид
thymine тимин
thyroxine тироксин
183
tissue ткань
tortoise сухопутная черепаха
trigger инициировать, дать начало
trisomy трисомия
true-breeding разведение гомозигот
turtle морская черепаха

U
undergo a series of reactions проходить через последовательность реакций
unerringly точно, безошибочно
universe вселенная
UV light / radiation ультрафиолетовый свет / излучение

V
valence валентность
variation in traits различия в признаках
vascular васкулярный
vast increase значительное увеличение
vessel сосуд, склянка
via [vaıə] посредством
vital жизненный

W
ward off отражать, отвращать (удар, опасность)
waste products отходы
water loss потери воды
waterproof coating водонепроницаемое покрытие
water-soluble водорастворимый
withstand противостоять
woodpecker дятел
worm червь

X
X-ray diffraction дифракция рентгеновских лучей

Y
yeast (baker‟s yeast, brewer‟s yeast) дрожжи (пекарские, пивные)
yield давать урожай, производить

Z
zygospore ascus (pl. asci [æsaı]) зигоспора
zygote fungi (zygomycetes) зигомицеты

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 Оглавление
Предисловие 3
Unit 1. Life and Levels of Organization of Living Matter 6
Grammar: Passive Voice
Unit 2. Biological Molecules 21
Grammar: The Use of Passive Structures
Unit 3. Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell 31
Grammar: Ved1 Forms
Unit 4. Principles of Evolution 39
Grammar: Ving2 Forms
Unit 5. The History of Life on Earth 52
Grammar: -Ing and –ed Participles; -ing and –ed Participle Constructions
Unit 6. Biotechnology 61
Grammar: Infinitive
Unit 7. The Double Helix 77
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Can and Could
Unit 8. Inheritance 91
Grammar: Modal Verbs: May and Might
Unit 9. Fungi 108
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Must, Need to, Have to and Be to
Unit 10. The Evolution of Hormones 122
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Should and Ought to
Unit 11. The Immune Response 134
Grammar: Modal Verbs: Shall and Will
Unit 12. Animal Behaviour 145
Grammar: Conditionals
Приложение 156
Список литературы 174
Англо-русский словарь 175

1
Ved means „past participle‟.
2
Ving means „present participle‟.

185