The cell theory states that:

IB Biology Syllabus Action Verbs

These action verbs indicated the depth of treatment required for a given assessment statement. These verbs will be used in examinatio so it is important that you familiarize yourself with the following definitions. Analyze Annotate Apply Calculate Comment Compare Construct Deduce Define Derive Describe Design Determine Discuss Interpret data to reach conclusions. Add brief notes to a diagram or graph. Use an idea, equation, principle, theory or law in a new situation. Find a numerical answer showing the relevant stages in the working (unless instructed not to do so). Give a judgment based on a given statement or result of a calculation. Give an account of similarities and differences between two (or more) items, referring to both (all) of them throughout. Represent or develop in graphical form. Reach a conclusion from the information given. Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or physical quantity. Manipulate a mathematical relationship(s) to give a new equation or relationship. Give a detailed account. Produce a plan, simulation or model. Find the only possible answer.

Give an account including, where possible, a range of arguments for and against the relative importance of various facto comparisons of alternative hypotheses.

Distinguish Give the differences between two or more different items. Draw Estimate Evaluate Explain Identify Label List Measure Outline Predict Show Sketch Solve State Suggest Represent by means of pencil lines. Find an approximate value for an unknown quantity. Assess the implications and limitations. Give a detailed account of causes, reasons or mechanisms. Find an answer from a given number of possibilities. Add labels to a diagram. Give a sequence of names or other brief answers with no explanation. Find a value for a quantity. Give a brief account or summary. Give an expected result. Give the steps in a calculation or derivation. Represent by means of a graph showing a line and labelled but unscaled axes but with important features (for example, clearly indicated. Obtain an answer using algebraic and/or numerical methods. Give a specific name, value or other brief answer without explanation or calculation. Propose a hypothesis or other possible answer

aaaa1. Cells are the smallest unit of life aaaa2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells aaaa3. All cells come from preexisting cells Discuss the evidence for the cell theory The cell theory states that: aaaaaa1. Cells are the smallest unit of life aaaaaa2. All organisms are composed of one or more cells aaaaaa3. All cells come from preexisting cells

The cell theory cant be proven true because that would require us to examine every single cell, which would be an impossible task. However the theory would be proven false if a scientist made a discovery that violated the existing cell theory. Evidence for the cell theory comes from observation and experimentation. When observed with a light microscope, every kind of cell - from every kind of organism has so far upheld the central tenets of the cell theory. Whenever scientists attempt to separate cells into their component parts, none of those parts can sustain the characteristics of life. Therefore life is an emergent property, which means that it arises from the interaction of the component parts: the whole is greater than the sum of the parts The statement that all living cells come from pre-existing cells does not mean that life has always existed; biologists believe that self-replicating molecules gradually evolved into the earliest cells. Some cell types (e.g. certain muscle, fungal and algal cells) are relatively large with multiple nuclei. This is not really evidence against the cell theory; it just shows that cells can come in a variety of forms.

State all

error bars are a graphical representation of the variability of data the 'standard deviation' summarizes the spread of values around a 'mean'. 68% of the values fall within one standard deviation of the mean.

all unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life within one standard deviation of the mean. stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways. prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission tumors are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue. interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur. the metabolic activities of interphase include: protein synthesis/DNA replication/reproduction of mitochondria/chloroplasts. growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis the names of the four bases in DNA are: Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine. DNA replication is semi-conservative. in cell respiration, glycolysis in (cytoplasm) breaks glucose into pyruvate with a small yield of ATP photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths (colors) chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment light energy is used to produce ATP, and to split water molecules (photolysis) to form O2 and H+. ATP and H+ (from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon dioxide to make organic molecules.

eukaryotic chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei. in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their size and structure. karyotyping is performed for the purpose of prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities. karyotyping uses cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis. some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles) many genes on the X chromosomes are absent from the shorter Y chromosome in humans. human females can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes. in gel electrophoresis, DNA fragments move in an electric field and separate according to their size. gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling. genes can be transferred between species because the genetic code is universal. a gene transferred to a new species it produces the same polypeptide (same amino acid sequence) BT Corn and Golden Rice are two examples of the current uses of genetically modified crops. light is the initial energy source for almost all communities energy transformations are never 100% efficient

populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. the coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients. blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets the blood transports the following: nutrients/oxygen/carbon dioxide/hormones/antibodies/urea/heat. the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves. the nervous system is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses. the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood. homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits. examples of homeostasis include: blood pH/ CO2 concentration/blood glucose concentration/body temperature/water balance. saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients. the members of a species show variation multicellular organisms show emergent properties nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons. the most common chemical elements in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen & nitrogen; other elements are needed by organisms, including sulfur, calcium, phosphorus, iron & sodium.

Object Size Eukaryotic cell Nucleus Prokaryotic cells & Eukaryotic organelles Virus Membrane Molecules 20-100 m 10-20 m 1-10 m 100 nm 10 nm 1 nm

Measuring a cell It is possible to estimate the diameter of a cell in the following way: 1. Measure the diameter of the field of view (FOV) using a ruler (lets say it is 0.5mm). 2. Judge the diameter of the cell compared to the diameter of the FOV (lets say it is 1/10) 3. Do a little math to approximate the cells diameter: 1/10 of 0.5mm = 0.05mm = 50m.

Drawing a cell When you make a drawing of a cell it is important to state the magnification (i.e. how much larger the drawing is than the actual specimen).

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaMagnification = size of drawing / size of specimen

1. Measure the diameter of your cell drawing (lets say it is 15cm) Explain the relationship between cell size and "surface area to volume ratio"

Nutrients and wastes are moved across a cells surface by the process of diffusion. Diffusion works well for small cells but not for large cells. The reason for this is explained by geometry. When a cell grows its rate of metabolism increases at the same rate as its volume. This means that the rate of diffusion which provides the materials for metabolism -must increase proportionally with a cells growth. However, this cant happen because a cells surface area increases at a much slower rate than its volume. Therefore, as a cell grows and its surface-to-volume ratio decreases - it becomes increasingly difficult for the cell to obtain nutrients and expel wastes by diffusion. And at some point it simply becomes impossible. When cells grow too large they can divide in two by the process of mitosis. Thus cells are small because they cant be large. A large cell if one existed would have a big volume requiring lots of nutrients, and producing lots of wastes but its surface area would be too small for diffusion to be able to meet the cells needs.

2. Measure diameter of the actual specimen as shown above (50m) Convert the units of one so both are the same (50m = 0.005cm) 3. Divide the diameter of the drawing by the diameter of the specimen (15cm/0.005cm = 3000X ) Now you need to add a 1cm scale bar beneath your drawing to indicate the cells size. You need to do a little algebra to calculate the length (in m) that the scale bar represents. In our example; 1cm / 15cm = x / 0.005cm x = 0.005cm / 15cm = 0.00033cm =

3.33m Explain that cells of multicellular organisms differentiate

The different types of cells in a multicellular organism result from 'cellular differentiation', which can be defined as the divergence in structure and function of different types of cells as they become specialized during an organisms development. Each cell contains the entire genome (set of genes) of an organism. So how is it that some cells become a certain type and others become another type? The answer is that different kinds of cells express different genes. In other words, cells differentiate by expression of some genes and suppression of others. Cells know which genes to turn on and which to keep turned off by receiving chemical information from their surroundings.

Cellular differentiation is important for multicellular organisms because the presence of many cooperating cell types enables organisms to perform functions that are beyond the reach of a single cell type. In other words, multicellular organisms show emergent properties. Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells A number of stem cell treatments already exist, although most are still experimental and/or costly, with the notable exception of bone marrow transplantation.

Bone marrow transplants use stem cells derived from the bone marrow or blood. The stem cells are infused intravenously to repopulate the bone marrow and produce new blood cells. Collecting stem cells provides a bigger graft, and does not require that the donor be subjected to general anesthesia to collect the graft. Bone marrow transplant remains a risky procedure and is reserved for patients with life threatening diseases of the blood, bone marrow, or certain types of cancer.

Important features of diagram:

IIdentify the structures of a liver cell from an electron micrograph

Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotes Naked DNA Eukaryotes DNA associated with proteins

DNA in the cytoplasm Mitochondria absent Smaller than 5 m 70S ribosomes Internal membranes lacking

DNA in a nucleus Mitochondria present Larger than 10 m 80S ribosomes Internal membranes compartmentalize different cellular functions

Distinguish between plant and animal cell structures Water vacuole Plants have a large sac in their cytoplasm that stores and breaks down waste products. It fills with water to enlarge plant cells providing turgor. Animal cells lack a large water vacuole. Plants have a medium-sized organelle called a chloroplast that performs photosynthesis to make glucose. Animal cells do not have chloroplasts.

Chloroplast Cell wall

Plant cells have an outer layer called a cell wall that is made of cellulose. The cell wall protects plant cells from mechanical damage. Animal cells do not have a cell wall. Outline two roles of extracellular components. aaaaThe Cell Wall

The plant cell wall is a rigid structure that surrounds cells. It protects and maintains the shape of plant cells as well as providing a filtering mechanism to keep the cells from over-expanding with water. And the cell walls provide support to plants holding them upright against gravity.

aaaaGlycoproteins

Animal cells secrete glycoproteins, which are composed of a protein and a carbohydrate. Glycoproteins are used in proteins that are located in the extracellular matrix (the space outside the cell). One example of glycoproteins found in the body are mucins, which are secreted in the digestive tracts. The sugars attached to mucins make them resistant to proteolysis by digestive enzymes. Glycoproteins on the surface of lymphocytes allow them to stick to other types of cells and move across their surfaces.