Emotional Intelligence and Performance

Can emotional awareness be developed as a sports skill?

Emotional intelligence why your head should rule your heart

In recent years, sports psychology research has seen the rise of a concept named emotional intelligence. But what is it, how can it help sports performance and how can we enhance our own emotional intelligence? Andy Lane explains.

Emotional intelligence is a relatively new concept that has emerged over the last decade, which to date has principally been studied in business settings (1). It is defined as the capacity to recognise and utilise emotional states to change intentions and behaviour. Emotional intelligence can be measured using pen and paper tests(2); in such tests, the responses to statements such as When I experience a positive emotion, I know how to make it last and I motivate myself by imagining a good outcome to tasks I take on are recorded and assessed. Emotional intelligence can be summarised thus:

The ability to recognise different emotional states; Assessing the effects of emotions on subsequent behaviour; The ability to switch into the best emotional state to manage a particular situation.

Not surprisingly many businesses have used emotional intelligence ratings as part of their selection processes, but the ability to recognise the emotional states in others in the sporting context is clearly desirable, and the skill of raising the emotions of the team is a potentially priceless asset.

Research

In a recent study, we looked at emotional states associated with success and failure in sport competition and academic examinations (3). The expansion of sport science as an academic study means that growing numbers of students experience the dual stresses of taking examinations and participating in competition. The results of this study are depicted in figure 1 which shows that a) emotions are strongly associated with success, and b) emotional profiles linked with success are somewhat different between sports competition and an examination.

Compared to exams, success in sport was associated with vigour and anger. Importantly, emotionally intelligent people can get themselves into the appropriate emotional states for the demands of the situation. If the situation requires high arousal, as in the case of athletes in our study, emotionally intelligent people are good at getting themselves psyched up. Equally, if the situation requires calmness, emotionally intelligent people are good at relaxing themselves.

Our research group has conducted a number of studies looking at the nature of emotional intelligence (4). We have found that emotionally intelligent people use psychological skills such as imagery, goal setting and positive self-talk more often than their less emotionally intelligent counterparts. We have found that emotionally intelligent people are mentally tough and also that they find exercise enjoyable. Importantly, it seems that emotional intelligence can be enhanced through suitably developed intervention packages. What follows is a six-stage approach to assessing and implementing strategies that people can use to enhance their emotional intelligence:

Stage 1: Developing emotional self-awareness

The capability to change emotional states and learning how to change emotions in relation to performance requires self-awareness. We need to be able to identify when our emotions are influencing our performance and how our emotions change over time. We need also to be able to assess the emotional states that other people are feeling, picking up on their body language, verbal and nonverbal gestures.

There are many possible ways in which to assess emotions, including standard psychometric tests; however, athletes often find repeated completions of standardised scales to be a tiresome task. An alternative approach is to use an open-ended diary type approach such as a video or an audio diary.

Assessment of emotions should start by asking the athlete to think carefully about a situation in which performance was very important. It helps if the athlete spends some time rehearsing this situation in their mind, and tries to remember how they felt. The athlete then writes down all of the emotions they experienced. They should also rate how they performed in the situation to allow comparisons between successful and unsuccessful performance.

Emotions such as anxiety can be positive and negative. It is the combination of emotions, and the thoughts that are linked with these combinations, that determines whether these emotions are motivational or demotivational.

Emotional states experienced with successful performance

Emotional states experienced when performance was poor

Happy. Felt that this was my opportunity to demonstrate an excellent performance. Felt I could beat anybody

Could not concentrate due to feeling nervous

Could not get nerves out of my mind and started to question my confidence

Calm and nervous. Felt nervous but really at ease with these feelings. I accepted and expected to be nervous but felt ready to start

Started thinking of negatively and started feeling emotionally drained, fatigue

Felt nervous, went to the toilet and started worrying that I was not hydrated enough, so drunk more, and went to toilet more. Started worrying that I would need to go to toilet during competition

Anxious but excited. Felt so ready to compete but a little nervous. Nerves and excitement come together

Confident. I remembered all the successful training sessions, previous best performances

The table shows an example of the interpretation of a teams emotions. This is a typical response; athletes tend to use similar constructs to explain success and failure in the individual or team setting for instance good performance being associated with high self-confidence and poor performance with low self-confidence.

The team description of emotions linked with success talks about the need for common goals even though each individual has a specific goal. Note the emotions that derive from feeling that some

players put more effort into training and performance than others. Team cohesion will not develop without a sense of common purpose, for example achieving a common goal, and believing that every player needs to contribute 100% effort to that goal. If team members believe some make more effort than others, this can lead to a blame culture and scapegoating.

Key point: The athlete should assess both their own emotions and those of their team-mates (using mental imagery to help recreate the situations) and note which were associated with best performance and which with poor performance.

Stage 2: Developing self-awareness of emotional states during daily performance

Stage 2 builds upon stage 1. If stage 1 provides the extreme emotions linked with success and failure, stage 2 provides the running commentary of emotions on a daily basis. Here is a small sample of the emotions experienced in a professional soccer player:

Felt furious during the drive into training. Too many people on the road. Why do bad drivers follow me to work?

Felt tired this morning. Struggled with training this morning. Became frustrated and felt a little angry when I made mistakes

Felt happy with overall effort made in training Became irritated later in the day over trivial matters and cannot think why, but was angry nonetheless

Notice how emotions from things other than sport can influence how we interpret new situations, whether sport or otherwise.

In this example, the player was frustrated and felt angry during the drive into training, and as a consequence, became angry during training. Its likely that his poor tolerance of errors (by others and himself) was in part because of feeling angry and tired at the onset of training.

Stage 3: Identification of strategies to regulate emotion

It is important to remember that there are ways of dealing with emotions such as anger and anxiety without the need for intervention by a sport psychologist. For example, research has found that listening to music is effective at changing a range of emotions (4).

For example, a soccer player recognises that he preferred to release feelings of anger publicly with the result that everyone around him knew he was annoyed. However, while anger might have been helpful to him, it might not have been helpful to the team who might not have understood why he was angry, especially as they were not aware that he started getting angry on the drive in to training. Equally, he uses the team for emotional support and is seemingly unaware of the influence his expressions of anger alter his team-mates emotions.

Stage 4: Set emotionally focused goals

Once an athlete becomes aware of emotions he or she has experienced, the effect these have on teammates and, importantly, whether the emotions were helpful or unhelpful, the next step is to try to change these emotions. For example, identifying that the athlete may experience dysfunctional anger when tired can lead to effective strategies designed to control these feelings. Goal setting has been found to be an effective intervention strategy in a plethora of different skills, but the desire for change is crucial. Resistance to the notion of the adverse effects of negative emotions on others will only serve to maintain a lack of cohesion in a team setting.

Stage 5: Engage in positive self-talk

Once the individual has identified a need for change, developing an appropriate self-talk diary that can run alongside a diary used to record emotions can be helpful. We cannot change our emotions immediately, but we can change the dialogue that runs through our mind when we experience emotions

It is often difficult to engage in self-talk that is counter to the emotion being experienced. For example, depressed individuals find it difficult to engage in positive self-talk. By contrast, happy individuals find it easy to maintain positive mood. Positive self-talk statements are best conducted when the athlete is calm and when the emotion diary or performance diary is being evaluated. Asking an athlete to think of a sentence that they can say to themselves when they recognise the beginning of detrimental emotion can be a helpful way of preventing that emotion from starting. We have found

that athletes quickly grow in confidence in their ability to recognise and control emotion through selftalk, and the early stages of raising emotional intelligence can be rewarding for the athlete and consultant.

Stage 6: Role-play to develop emotional control competencies

Role-play can be a very effective method of working with emotions and can also be an enjoyable activity for those taking part. Role-play works effectively when a situation described in the daily diary is re-enacted.

A good starting point is to deal with specific emotions that are frequently experienced in the person or group of persons youre working with. In keeping with the soccer data presented above, it appears that our athlete frequently experiences anger and publicly releases this anger as a strategy to control or change it. Someone could therefore act as the referee to try to frustrate the player, while others play the role of team-mates, where the aim is to frustrate the player further.

At the end of the role-play, the build-up of anger can be examined, particularly the warning signals that could be used to prevent the player becoming dysfunctional. Feedback from other players on the consequences of their team-mate getting angry and how this affects them can also provide a valuable source of information.

Anger typically follows a pattern, and anger control involves teaching strategies to recognise the building frustration and strategies to deal with these feelings. One strategy might be to try to reinterpret the cause of the anger, but this is very difficult for people prone to anger, who usually find it difficult to think beyond the immediate and highly intense feelings of rage.

An alternative strategy is to try to increase physical effort to alter the situation that is causing frustration. However, this might not be compatible with the arousal levels that are required for the task. If the task requires calmness and planning, increasing effort can produce further frustration. For example, if a football team goes behind, one player madly chasing the ball might be counterproductive to the required tactics!

One possible strategy is to teach players to manage their anger internally and not to show anger to the opposition or to other team-mates. Players typically buy into this approach because they are aware

that poor emotional control can lead to poor performance or poor discipline. In this approach, players are taught to visualise releasing the anger externally and to play this image in their mind when they feel angry. The player effectively releases the anger but does not affect team-mates or provide impetus to the opposition in doing so.

Summary

Emotional intelligence is concerned with the awareness, appraisal and utilisation of emotions for individuals and for teams. Emotional intelligence can be altered through training that focuses on the role of emotions in our behaviour.

References 1. J of Vocational Behaviour 2004: 65, 71-95 2. Mood and human performance: Conceptual, Measurement, and Applied issues. Nova Science Publishers 2006: 1-35. 3. Journal of Sports Sciences: 2005; 23, 1254-1255 4. Tuning up performance music and video as ergogenic aids. Peak Performance April 2006; issue 228:

Negative mood regulation expectancies and sports performance: an investigation involving professional cricketers

Purchase $ 31.50 P. Totterdell, and D. Leach Institute of Work Psychology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK Received 13 September 2000; revised 10 January 2001; accepted 17 May 2001 Available online 13 September 2001. Abstract

Objectives: To test whether the performance of professional sports competitors is related to their expectancy of improving an unpleasant mood. Method: Two related studies of professional cricketers were conducted. In Study One, 46 players completed a battery of questionnaire scales, including a measure of negative mood regulation (NMR) expectancy. In Study Two, 19 participants from Study One took part in a time-sampling study in which they rated their mood on a pocket computer throughout a competitive match. Results: The results from Study One showed that NMR was significantly correlated with players' batting average for the season. In contrast, reflexivity, well-being, and age were significantly associated with NMR but not with batting average. The results from Study Two showed that players who had greater NMR had significantly higher ratings for happy mood, smaller negative changes in happy mood, and greater batting averages during the match. Conclusions: Results of regression analysis supported an explanation of the association between NMR and performance in terms of a mediating effect of happy mood. Overall, the findings suggest that NMR expectancy can facilitate professional sports performance. ..

Emotional Intelligence Scores Predict Team Sports Performance in a National Cricket Competition
Journal International Journal of Sports Science and Coaching Multi Science Publishing 1747-9541 Psychology, PhysioTherapy, Coaching and Sp orts Science Volume 4, Number 2 / June 2009 Original 209-224 10.1260/174795409788549544

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David Crombie, Carl Lombard, Tim Noakes

Abstract

The relationship between team emotional intelligence (Team EI) of six cricket teams and their sports performanc African national cricket competition over two consecutive seasons was investigated. Team EI was based on crick measured prior to the start of the competition in each season using the MSCEIT ability test and averaged over all that season. This was correlated with a team sports performance measure, the final log points standing for the tea end of a competition. The results showed that Team EI was positively associated with the sports performance of teams. Further, Team EI was shown to be a significant predictor of sports performance, with 61% of the variation points explained. This finding suggests that EI may contribute to the success of teams participating in complex sp cricket. Keywords
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Emotional intelligence and psychological skills use among athletes

Authors: Lane, Andrew M.; Thelwell, Richard C.; Lowther, James; Devonport, Tracey J. Source: Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, Volume 37, Number 2, 2009 , pp. 195-201(7) Publisher: Scientific Journal Publishers < previous article | view table of contents | next article >

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Abstract: Relationships between self-report trait emotional intelligence and psychological skills were investigated. Male athletes (54) completed the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS; Schutte et al., 1998) and the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS; Thomas, Murphy, & Hardy, 1999). Canonical correlation results suggested psychological skills used in both competition and in practice relate to perceptions of emotional intelligence (Practice: Canonical R = .69, p < .001; Competition: Canonical R = .67, p < .01). Specifically, self-talk, imagery, and activation in both practice and competition were associated with perceptions of the appraisal of others' emotions and the ability to regulate emotions. The direction of relationships showed that individuals reporting frequent use of psychological skills also reported stronger perceptions of emotional intelligence. Future researchers should seek to establish the direction of relationships by investigating whether increased psychological skills use is associated with enhanced emotional intelligence or vice versa.

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The relationship between psychological skills usage and competitive anxiety responses

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David Fletchera and Sheldon Hanton

a

,b

Department of Physical Education, Sports Science and Recreation Management, Loughborough University, Loughborough, UK
b

School of Sport, Physical Education and Recreation, University of Wales Institute, Cardiff, Cyncoed, Cardiff, UK

Received 25 January 2000; revised 1 June 2000; accepted 8 August 2000 Available online 7 May 2001.

Abstract
Objectives. To investigate equivocal findings within the literature addressing the relationship between competitive anxiety responses and psychological skills. Intensity (i.e. level) and direction (i.e. interpretation of intensity as facilitative or debilitative) dimensions of competitive state anxiety and self-confidence were examined in performers with different levels of psychological skills usage.

Design. Cross-sectional design assessing psychological constructs during competition. The independent variable was psychological skill usage (high and low groups) and dependent variables were competitive anxiety responses. Method. Non-elite competitive swimmers (N=114) completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) which examined both intensity and direction dimensions prior to racing. Following the event these participants completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) which measures psychological skills usage. Based on the TOPS scores the swimmers were dichotomised using post-hoc median-split into high and low usage groups for certain psychological skills. Results. MANOVAs revealed significant differences in the CSAI-2 scores between the high and low usage groups for the skills of relaxation, self-talk and imagery. ANOVAs indicated significant differences on all CSAI-2 subscales for relaxation groups, and differences on cognitive intensity, somatic direction and self-confidence for self-talk groups, and self-confidence for the imagery groups. Conclusions. Non-elite swimmers, in contrast with previous research examining elite swimmers (Hanton, S. & Jones, G. (1999a). The acquisition and development of cognitive skills and strategies: I. Making the butterflies fly in formation. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 121), primarily use relaxation strategies to reduce and interpret their anxiety intensity levels as facilitative, relying minimally on other psychological skills.

Article Outline ..
Emotional intelligence in the National Hockey League. Perlini, Arthur H.; Halverson, Trevor R. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science/Revue canadienne des sciences du comportement, Vol 38(2), Apr 2006, 109-119. doi: 10.1037/cjbs2006001

1.

ABSTRACT The purpose of the present study was threefold: a) to evaluate the standing on emotional intelligence of National Hockey League players, relative to the general population, b) to evaluate the relationship of draft rank and emotional intelligence (EI) measures to hockey performance, and c) to evaluate the relative predictive value of these measures to performance indices: total NHL points and NHL games played. During the 2003-04 hockey season, 79 players across 24 NHL teams completed the Bar-On EQ-i. The findings indicated that years-since-draft was the strongest predictor of performance and draft rank was the weakest predictor of performance. With respect to EI, both intrapersonal competency and general mood added significant variance to predictions of number of NHL points and games played. Implications for predicting performance in the NHL, amongst draft prospects, is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)

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Journal of Applied Sport Psychology Volume 14, Issue 3, 2002

Psychological Characteristics and Their Development in Olympic Champions

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DOI: 10.1080/10413200290103482 Daniel Gould, Kristen Dieffenbach & Aaron Moffett pages 172-204 Available online: 30 Nov 2010

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This study was designed to examine psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Ten U.S. Olympic champions (winners of 32 Olympic medals) were interviewed, as were one of their coaches ( n = 10), and a parent, guardian, or significant other ( n = 10). A battery of psychological inventories was also administered to the athletes. It was found that the athletes were characterized by: (a) the ability to cope with and control anxiety; (b) confidence; (c) mental toughness/resiliency; (d) sport intelligence; (e) the ability to focus and block out distractions; (f) competitiveness; (g) a hard-work ethic; (h) the ability to set and achieve goals; (i) coachability; (j) high levels of dispositional hope; (k) optimism; and (l) adaptive perfectionism. Results also revealed that a number of individuals and institutions influenced the athletes' psychological development including the community, family, the individual himself or herself, non-sport personnel, sport environment personnel, and the sport process. Coach and family influences were particularly important. Ways in which these sources influenced the athletes were both direct, like teaching or emphasizing certain psychological lessons, and indirect, involving modeling or unintentionally creating certain psychological environments. Psychological characteristic findings verified current sport psychological research on psychological characteristics associated with peak performance (Williams & Krane, 2001). They also suggest that adaptive perfectionism, dispositional hope, and high levels of optimism are new variables to consider. Results are also discussed relative to Bloom's (1985), Ct's (1999) and Csikzentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong's (1993) talent development research. Practical implications focus on implementing parenting and coaching practices related to the development of psychological characteristics associated with athletic success.

Emotional Intelligence, Body Image and Disordered Eating Attitudes in Combat Sport Athletes

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Vassiliki Costarelli
a

, a,

and Dimitra Stamoua

Human Ecology Laboratory, Department of Home Economics and Ecology, Harokopio University, Athens, GREECE Available online 8 December 2009. The purpose of this study was to explore the possible differences in body image, emotional intelligence, anxiety levels and disordered eating attitudes in a group of Taekwondo (TKD) and Judo athletes and non-athletes. The interrelationships of the above parameters were also examined. A total of 60 subjects were recruited: 20 were national and international TKD and Judo athletes and 40 were non-athletes. Subjects completed the following questionnaires: the Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ), the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and the BarOn Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (BarOn EQ-

I). Athletes had higher levels of emotional intelligence compared to the control group, particularly in factors such as assertiveness (p < 0.01) and flexibility (p < 0.01). The differences were more pronounced in the female athletes compared with the non-athletes, with statistically significant differences in most of the intrapersonal factors (p < 0.01), including self-regard and self-actualization, in the adaptability factors and in most of the mood factors. There were no significant differences in terms of disordered eating attitudes (EAT-26) between the two groups. Regression analysis revealed that disordered eating attitudes were significantly positively correlated with anxiety levels (p < 0.001) and with self-classified weight (p < 0.001). Athletes had higher levels of emotional intelligence and a healthier body image compared to non-athletes, but there were no significant differences in terms of disordered eating attitudes. Keywords: anxiety; eating attitudes; emotional intelligence; sport

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Aggression
CROWD SIZE AND DENSITY IN RELATION TO ATHLETIC AGGRESSION AND PERFORMANCE

Author: Russell, Gordon W. Source: Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, Volume 11, Number 1, 1983 , pp. 9-15(7) Publisher: Scientific Journal Publishers < previous article | view table of contents | next article >

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Abstract: The records of 426 games played in the twelve team Western Hockey League provided the data for an investigation of the relationships between crowd size and density, and both player aggression (aggressive penalties) and performance (goals). Crowd size was negatively related to the aggression and performance of visiting teams while crowd density was negatively related to the overall performance of both teams. The present and earlier studies suggest an inverted-U function best describes the relationship between the full range of crowd size and player aggression. The importance of a game was negatively related to home team performance and positively related to that of the visitors. Player aggression increased with the number of times any two teams had previously met during the season while intradivisional rivalries were associated with more aggression than interdivisional games.

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CROWD SIZE AND DENSITY IN RELATION TO ATHLETIC AGGRESSION AND PERFORMANCE

Author: Russell, Gordon W. Source: Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, Volume 11, Number 1, 1983 , pp. 9-15(7)
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Abstract: The records of 426 games played in the twelve team Western Hockey League provided the data for an investigation of the relationships between crowd size and density, and both player aggression (aggressive penalties) and performance (goals). Crowd size was negatively related to the aggression and performance of visiting teams while crowd density was negatively related to the overall performance of both teams. The present and earlier studies suggest an inverted-U function best describes the relationship between the full range of crowd size and player aggression. The importance of a game was negatively related to home team performance and positively related to that of the visitors. Player aggression increased with the number of times any two teams had previously met during the season while intradivisional rivalries were associated with more aggression than interdivisional games.

Anger rumination: an antecedent of athlete aggression?

J. P. Maxwell
,

Institute of Human Performance, University of Hong Kong, 111-113, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong Received 14 May 2002; Revised 18 September 2002; accepted 6 January 2003. Available online 18 April 2003.

Abstract
Objectives. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between anger rumination (the propensity to think almost obsessively over past experiences that have provoked negative affect in the form of anger) and athlete aggression. It was predicted that high levels of anger rumination would be associated with an increased propensity to aggress. Method. A questionnaire comprising the Anger Rumination Scale (Sukhodolsky, Golub, & Cromwell, 2001), aggression and demographic questions was distributed to 305 male and female competitive athletes of varying ability who represented several team and individual sports.

Results. Principal component factor analysis revealed a single rumination factor rather than the four-factor solution previously described. No differences in Anger Rumination Scale score were found between males and females, team and individual sport players or competitive level. Provocation and anger rumination were significantly correlated with athletes reported aggressive behaviour. Aggression was higher in males compared to females. Type of sport was also related to incidence of aggression; athletes who participated in individual sports reported lower levels of aggression than athletes who played team sports. Conclusions. It was concluded that provocation and anger rumination were significant predictors of subsequent aggression and suggestions for preventing rumination, such as thought stopping and thought switching, were made. Author Keywords: Rumination; Aggression; Sport; Gender; Provocation

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Perceived Motivational Climate and Observed Aggression as a Function of Competitive Level in Youth Male French Handball
Journal article by Olivier Rascle, Genevieve Coulomb-Cabagno, Aymeric Delsarte; Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 28, 2005

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Perceived Motivational Climate and Observed Aggression as a Function of Competitive Level in Youth Male French Handball. by Olivier Rascle , Genevieve Coulomb-Cabagno , Aymeric Delsarte It is now widely accepted that aggressive play is an important component of team sports (Mintah, Huddleston, & Doody, 1999: Ryan, Williams, & Wimer, 1990; Silva, 1983; Stephens, 2001). Despite the lack of consensus in the definition of sport aggression, an often accepted one is behavior which occurs outside the rules of the considered activity and with the intent to harm (Tenenbaum, Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997). Two types of aggression have been distinguished: instrumental and hostile aggression. The former is non-emotional and more focused on the aspects of the games (for instance in handball, holding back with arm or clothes). The latter is an emotional response usually involving frustration or anger, which is an end in itself; the main objective is the resultant pain or

suffering of the victim (for instance, hit or insult an opponent, Tenenbaum et al., 1997). The socio-cognitive theory of achievement motivation (Nicholls, 1989) suggested making a distinction between the dispositional (goal orientations) and the situational variables (motivational climate). In sport context, the influence of dispositional variables on affective and cognitive components of behaviors has been well documented, particularly for studies dealing with the motivationaggression relationships (Duda, Olson, & Templin, 1991; Dunn & Dunn, 1999; Rascle, Coulomb, & Pfister, 1998: Roberts & Ommundsen, 2000; Treasure, Carpenter, & Power, 2000). Studies previously cited have produced evidence that a high ego and/or a low task-oriented goal perspective is related to unacceptable achievement strategies such as the use of aggression. Ego-goal orientation refers to goals through which individuals want to prove their competence compared with others or with socially defined standards. Ego-oriented athletes are likely any means as feasible to achieve success by means of achieving a winning outcome (Nicholls, 1989). Task-goal orientation is concerned with demonstrating mastery at the task: this assessment is selfreferenced. Duda et al. (1991) were the first to note that ego orientation was positively related to the endorsement of unsportsmanlike acts and cheating. Treasure et al. (2000) found that a high ego/moderate task orientation was positively related to aggression and financial remuneration as significant purposes of rugby. Roberts and Ommundsen (2000) revealed that when children aged between 12 and 14 years who played competitive soccer were high in task orientation, they reported less likelihood to engage in inappropriate behaviors. Similarly. Dunn and Dunn (1999) noted that task-oriented athletes were higher in reported sportpersonship. To date and as suggested by authors (Mugno & Feltz, 1985; SavinWilliams, 1982), direct observation method has rarely been implemented in studying aggression in team sports. Without reviewing sport aggression measurements, one of the primary concerns in using self-report measures with an operational definition that includes the intentional aspect is to avoid the social desirability response set (Stephens, 1998). Furthermore, because of the inability to observe underlying intent, observed aggression measures could be based on operational definitions that exclude the intentional aspect of the aggression. In that perspective, Rascle et al. (1998) noted a positive correlation between measures of ego orientation and observed aggression; players classified as highly ego-oriented displayed more instrumental aggression than lower

ego-oriented ones. All these findings are in concert with Nicholl's (1989) prediction that an high ego/low task goal orientation should correspond with a lack of concern about justice and fairness. Even if the influence of dispositional variables on the motivationaggression relationships in team-sports is widely accepted today, Biddle (2001) considers that "individual differences are sometimes difficult to influence directly, and it may not be cost effective to try to do so" (p. 115). For instance, Stephens and Bredemeier (1996) showed that participants' (aged 9 to 14) perceptions of their coaches' attitude in terms of ego-goal orientation were more efficient predictors than their own level of orientation towards that same type of goals as for their tendency to cheat or aggress an opponent. Nevertheless, the aim of the present study is not to determine which of dispositional or situational variables are the best predictor of the use (or perception of legitimacy) of aggression, but to examine the relationships between perceived motivational climate and observed aggression as a function of competitive level in youth male French handball. Perceived Motivational Climate and Aggression In the sport field, a growing body of literature exists to suggest that situational variables, particularly the motivational atmosphere created by the coach, play an important role in the constitution of athlete's perceptions of the motivational climate. As a ... ..
Relational Aggression and Psychosocial Adjustment in Intercollegiate Athletes
Journal article by Eric A. Storch, Nicole E. Werner, Jason B. Storch; Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 26, 2003

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Relational Aggression and Psychosocial Adjustment in Intercollegiate Athletes. by Eric A. Storch , Nicole E. Werner , Jason B. Storch

Aggression among athletes has received increasing attention from the media, school administrators, and researchers over the past decade (Humphrey & Kahn, 2000; Kerr, 1999; Rowe, 1998; Tenenbaum, Stewart, Singer, & Duda, 1997). From such reports, important information has been generated regarding the types of aggressive acts engaged in both on and off the field (e.g., instrumental versus hostile), as well as the societal consequences of such behavior (e.g., team dismissal, suspension, negative public image, arrest, etc.). However, two limitations plague the extant literature. First, the majority of past research with athletes has defined aggression in terms of physical or verbal acts, behaviors that are more characteristic of male's aggression than of female's, who are more likely to use relational aggression (Werner & Crick, 1999). Second, although clinical observations have linked physical aggression to emotional difficulties (e.g., depression) and substance use in athletes (Nicholi, 1987), little empirical attention has been given to internalizing and externalizing difficulties that may be associated with aggressive behavior in this population. The present pilot study was designed to address these limitations by examining the association between relational aggression and psychosocial adjustment in a sample of intercollegiate athletes. Recently, research by Crick and colleagues (Crick, 1996, 1997; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Grotpeter & Crick, 1996; Werner & Crick, 1999) extended the definition of aggression to include harmful acts such as social ostracism and spreading malicious rumors. Termed relational aggression, such behaviors attempt to harm others through social isolation and damage to interpersonal relationships. Notably, while conceptually similar to passive or indirect aggression (Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992; Olweus, 1993), relational aggression differs in that it encompasses a more circumscribed range of socially manipulative behaviors designed to specifically to isolate and damage interpersonal relationships. Importantly, this line of research has generated information showing that, overall, females engage in aggressive acts at similar rates as males, and that such acts are associated with significant psychosocial impairment among females and males. These findings have promoted a more accurate portrayal of aggressio n in community samples and directed developmental researchers' attention to alternate forms of aggression that may be associated with maladjustment. Some applied sport researchers have suggested that athletes are taught that aggression is an acceptable manner in which to settle conflict (Caron, Halteman, & Stacy, 1997; Mintah, Huddleston, & Doody, 1999; Rowe, 1998). Mintah et al., for example, found that

athletes felt justified in using aggression to achieve a desired performance outcome or reward. They suggested that the nature of intercollegiate athletics might alter attitudes towards aggression such that athletes do not experience a need to justify or defend aggressive behavior. Given this, aggressive behavior on the field may generalize to interpersonal relationships (Rowe, 1998). However, the societal consequences of direct physical aggression along with increased attention by the public on athletes' behavior may make relational aggression a safer alternative to physical assaults as a means of expressing anger. To date, no research conducted with athletes has examined forms of aggression other than physical or sexual assaults. Studies with children and adolescents, however, have shown relational aggression to be associated with emotional and interpersonal difficulties including peer rejection, depression, and maladaptive personality features (Crick, 1996; Crick, Casas, & Mosher, 1997; Crick & Grotpeter, 1995; Prinstein, Boergers, & Vemberg, 2001; Werner & Crick, 1999). In the only published study focusing on relational aggression among young adults, Werner and Crick (1999) showed that relational aggression was associated with higher levels of peer rejection, antisocial personality features, and borderline personality features, and with lower levels of prosocial behavior, for male and female college students. The central aim of the present study was to examine the association between relational aggression and psychosocial adjustment in a population that to date has received little attention - intercollegiate athletes. As stated previously, rates of physical aggression among athletes are high compared to those among nonathletes, and physical aggression has been shown to be linked with some forms of maladjustment in clinical studies (Humphrey & Kahn, 2000; Nelson, 1994; Nicholi, 1987; Rowe, 1998). Drawing on this literature, we hypothesized that relational aggression is an alternative form of aggression that is likely to be used by intercollegiate athletes. Furthermore, we expected relational aggression to be associated with maladjustment, as has been demonstrated in previous studies with non-athlete young adult populations (Werner & Crick, 1999) and with children (see Crick, Werner, Casas et al., 1999, for a review). Specifically, ... .

Quantitative Research on Aggression Mentality of Male Volleyball Players in P. E. Institutes of China

Wang Da-pei (Graduate Student Dept.,Shanghai Institute of P. E. ,200433,Shanghai,PRC) In the present paper,the author probes into the different aggression of the male volleyball players at various levels, of different positions and that of backbone and substitute players by using the method of psychological questionaire. At the same time, the difference of the backbone and substitute players' aggression is discussed by the testosterone indices. The results show that the difference of aggression and indices exist among the players of various levels,the players of different position,as well as the backbone and substitute players. Key Words P. E. institute men volleyball team aggression difference psychology CateGory Index G842 DOI cnki:ISSN:1000-5498.0.1994-04-009 Download(CAJ format) Download(PDF format) CAJViewer7.0 supports all the CNKI file formats; AdobeReader only supports the PDF format.

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Communication Research Reports Volume 16, Issue 3, 1999

Trait verbal aggression, sports fan identification, and perceptions of appropriate sports fan communication
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DOI: 10.1080/08824099909388723 Kelly A. Roccaa & Sally VoglBauerb pages 239-248 Available online: 06 Jun 2009

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This study attempted to further the preliminary research in the area of sports and communication. Specifically, communication constructs including verbal aggression and context appropriateness were applied to the sports setting. Participants (n 407) completed questionnaires based on a team sporting event that they had recently watched. It was found that fans who were high in trait verbal aggression were (a) more likely to see verbal communication directed at the players and coaches during sporting events as appropriate, and (b) less likely to see fan display of support for their teams as an appropriate form of communication at sporting events. Participants who were high in fan identification were more likely to see displaying the team's insignia and verbal communication toward players and coaches as appropriate. Limitations and future directions for the area of sports communication are discussed.

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Motivation, sportspersonship, and athletic aggression: a mediational analysis

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Yves Chantal

, Pierre Robin, Jean-Philippe Vernat and Iouri Bernache-Assollant

Department of Physical Education (Dpartement STAPS), Universit de Limoges, 123 Avenue Albert Thomas, 87065, Limoges cedex, France Received 17 March 2003; Revised 18 July 2003; accepted 31 October 2003. Available online 28 January 2004.

Abstract
Objectives: A growing body of literature associates sportspersonship to athletic aggression. The present set of studies tested a model based on three propositions: (a) self-determined sport motivation will be positively predictive of sportspersonship orientations, (b) sportspersonship orientations will mediate the relationship between selfdetermined sport motivation and athletic aggression, and (c) sportspersonship orientations will impact athletic aggression in two distinctive ways. That is, we anticipated a positive relationship between sportspersonship orientations and instrumental aggression, whereas we expected a negative relationship between these orientations and reactive aggression. Design and method: Two cross-sectional studies involving 102 male physical education students (mean AGE=20.7 years) for Study 1, and 202 male athletes (mean AGE=24.1 years) for Study 2. In both studies, participants completed the same set of scales: Sport Motivation Scale, Multidimensional Sportspersonship Orientations Scale, and Bredemeiers Athletic Aggression Inventory. Results: In Study 1, the results of multiple regression analyses supported the proposed model. Structural equation modeling analyses (which involved the testing of an alternative model) were conducted in Study 2. Analyses yielded convergent results. Conclusion: Additional research will be needed in order to confirm, and possibly extend, the present correlational findings. Longitudinal designs and observational measures, in particular, would represent significant methodological improvements that would help better ascertain the mediational processes proposed in our model.

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Physical aggression in Australian football: A qualitative study of elite athletes

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Pippa Grangea and John H. Kerrb,

a b

Australian Football League Players' Association, Australia

Faculty of Sport Education, Culture and Technology, Toin University, 1614 Kurogane, Aoba, Yokohama 225 8502, Japan Received 13 November 2008; revised 11 April 2009; accepted 17 April 2009. Available online 4 May 2009.

Abstract
Background and purpose
There is disagreement in sport psychology about the nature of physical aggression in sport. This is reflected in discussions about definitions of aggression and the different types of aggression that are found in the sports context. Kerr [Kerr, J. H. (2005). Rethinking aggression and violence in sport. London: Routledge.] postulated that there were four different types of aggression in sport (play, anger, power, and thrill aggression). This paper reports the findings of an exploratory study that examined aspects of these different types of sanctioned and unsanctioned aggression in Australian football.

Method
Participants were eight of the most aggressive male Australian football athletes, playing at the top level in the Australian Football League. Semi-structured interviews were used to collect qualitative data. The concepts of play, anger, power and thrill aggression and reversal theory motivational states were used as a framework for interpreting the interview data.

Results and discussion

Deductive analyses revealed numerous descriptions of aggression which could be categorized as examples of play, power, and anger aggression, but only two examples of thrill aggression were identified. Differences in the perception and experience of participants between sanctioned (play) and unsanctioned (power, anger, and thrill) aggression, including acts of intimidation and retaliation, were identified. Additional findings concerning intent to injure in sanctioned aggression, the enjoyment of unsanctioned aggression, and the impact of recent changes in Australian football on unsanctioned aggression are reported.

Aggressor-Victim Dissent in Perceived Legitimacy of Aggression in Soccer: The Moderating Role of Situational Background

Authors: Rascle, Olivier; Traclet, Alan; Souchon, Nicolas; Coulomb-Cabagno, Genevive; Petrucci, Carrie Source: Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, Volume 81, Number 3, September 2010 , pp. 340-348(9) Publisher: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation & Dance < previous article | view table of contents | next article >

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Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the aggressor-victim difference in perceived legitimacy of aggression in soccer as a function of score information (tied, favorable, unfavorable), sporting penalization (no risk, yellow card, red card), and type of aggression (instrumental, hostile). French male soccer players (N = 133) read written scenarios and rated the legitimacy of the described aggressive act depending on a specific perspective (aggressor or victim) and situational information. A significant aggressor-victim difference in perception of instrumental aggression was found in situations where the score was tied or where there was no risk to be caught. In addition, aggressors were affected by such information, whereas victims were not. The discussion focuses on explanations and implications of such divergences in aggressive sport situations.

MH

Physical fitness training and mental health. Folkins, Carlyle H.; Sime, Wesley E. American Psychologist, Vol 36(4), Apr 1981, 373-389. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.36.4.373 1. ABSTRACT Reviews theory and research that have attempted to relate fitness training to improvements on psychological variables among normals as well as selected clinical populations. Theoretical speculations in this area are critiqued, and research designs are evaluated as either experimental or quasi-experimental and therefore interpretable, or preexperimental and therefore largely uninterpretable. The research suggests that physical fitness training leads to improved mood, self-concept, and work behavior; the evidence is less clear as to its effects on cognitive functioning, although it does appear to bolster cognitive performance during and after physical stress. Except for self-concept, personality traits are not affected by improvements in physical fitness. Mentally retarded children demonstrate psychological improvement following physical fitness training, but no conclusion can be reached regarding the effects of physical fitness training with other clinical syndromes. (2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)

The influence of physical activity on mental well-being

Dr Kenneth R Fox*
Department of Exercise and Health Sciences, University of Bristol, Priory House, Woodlands Rd, Bristol, UK Accepted: 7 May 1999

Abstract

Objective: The case for exercise and health has primarily been made on its impact on diseases such coronary heart disease, obesity and diabetes. However, there is a very high cost attributed to mental disorders and illness and in the last 15 years there has been increasing research into the role of exercise a) in the treatment of mental health, and b) in improving mental well-being in the general population. There are now several hundred studies and over 30 narrative or meta-analytic reviews of research in this field. These have summarised the potential for exercise as a therapy for clinical or subclinical depression or anxiety, and the use of physical activity as a means of upgrading life quality through enhanced self-esteem, improved mood states, reduced state and trait anxiety, resilience to stress, or improved sleep. The purpose of this paper is to a) provide an updated view of this literature within the context of public health promotion and b) investigate evidence for physical activity and dietary interactions affecting mental well-being. Design: Narrative review and summary. Conclusions: Sufficient evidence now exists for the effectiveness of exercise in the treatment of clinical depression. Additionally, exercise has a moderate reducing effect on state and trait anxiety and can improve physical self-perceptions and in some cases global self-esteem. Also there is now good evidence that aerobic and resistance exercise enhances mood states, and weaker evidence that exercise can improve cognitive function (primarily assessed by reaction time) in older adults. Conversely, there is little evidence to suggest that exercise addiction is identifiable in no more than a very small percentage of exercisers. Together, this body of research suggests that moderate regular exercise should be considered as a viable means of treating depression and anxiety and improving mental well-being in the general public. .

Psychological Factors in Sport Performance: The Mental Health Model Revisited

Author: Raglin J.S. Source: Sports Medicine, Volume 31, Number 12, 1 December 2001 , pp. 875-890(16) Publisher: Adis International < previous article | view table of contents

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Abstract: The Mental Health Model (MHM) of sport performance purports that an inverse relationship exists between psychopathology and sport performance. The model postulates that as an athlete's mental health either worsens or improves performance should fall or rise accordingly, and there is now considerable support for this view. Studies have shown that between 70 and 85% of successful and unsuccessful athletes can be identified using general psychological measures of personality structure and mood state, a level superior to chance but insufficient for the purpose of selecting athletes. Longitudinal MHM research indicates that the mood state responses of athletes exhibit a dose-response relationship with their training load, a finding that has shown potential for reducing the incidence of the staleness syndrome in athletes who undergo intensive physical training. The MHM also has implications for the general care of athletes as support services have traditionally been limited to preventing or treating physical problems. Despite its simple premise and empirical support, the MHM has often been mischaracterised in the sport psychology literature and recently some authors have questioned its validity. This overview will summarise MHM research, including the more recent work involving the model's dynamic features in an effort to resolve disputes surrounding the model. Keywords: Exercise performance

. Current Opinion in Psychiatry:

March 2005 - Volume 18 - Issue 2 - p 189-193
Behavioural medicine

Exercise and well-being: a review of mental and physical health benefits associated with physical activity
Penedo, Frank Ja; Dahn, Jason Ra,b

Abstract
Purpose of review: This review highlights recent work evaluating the relationship between exercise, physical activity and physical and mental health. Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, as well as randomized clinical trials, are included. Special attention is given to physical conditions, including obesity, cancer, cardiovascular disease and sexual dysfunction. Furthermore, studies relating physical activity to depression and other mood states are reviewed. The studies include diverse ethnic populations, including men and women, as well as several age groups (e.g. adolescents, middle-aged and older adults). Recent findings: Results of the studies continue to support a growing literature suggesting that exercise, physical activity and physical-activity interventions have beneficial effects across several physical and mental-health outcomes. Generally, participants engaging in regular physical activity display more desirable health outcomes across a variety of physical conditions. Similarly, participants in randomized clinical trials of physical-activity interventions show better health outcomes, including better general and health-related quality of life, better functional capacity and better mood states. Summary: The studies have several implications for clinical practice and research. Most work suggests that exercise and physical activity are associated with better quality of life and health outcomes. Therefore, assessment and promotion of exercise and physical activity may be beneficial in achieving desired benefits across several populations. Several limitations were noted, particularly in research involving randomized clinical trials. These trials tend to involve limited sample sizes with short follow-up periods, thus limiting the clinical implications of the benefits associated with physical activity. Abbreviations CAD: coronary artery disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; CRP: cardiac rehabilitation program; CVD: cardiovascular disease; GMCB: group-mediated cognitivebehavioural; HRQOL: health-related quality of life.

Arousal and physiological toughness: Implications for mental and physical health. Dienstbier, Richard A. Psychological Review, Vol 96(1), Jan 1989, 84-100. doi: 10.1037/0033-295X.96.1.84 1. ABSTRACT From W. B. Cannon's identification of adrenaline with "fight or flight" to modern views of stress, negative views of peripheral physiological arousal predominate. Sympathetic nervous system (SNS) arousal is associated with anxiety, neuroticism, the Type A personality, cardiovascular disease, and immune system suppression; illness susceptibility is associated with life events requiring adjustments. "Stress control" has become almost synonymous with arousal reduction. A contrary positive view of peripheral arousal follows from studies of subjects exposed to intermittent stressors. Such exposure leads to low SNS arousal base rates, but to strong and responsive challenge- or stress-induced SNS-adrenal-medullary arousal, with resistance to brain catecholamine depletion and with suppression of pituitary adrenal-cortical responses. That pattern of arousal defines physiological toughness and, in interaction with psychological coping, corresponds with positive performance in even complex tasks, with emotional stability, and with immune system enhancement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)

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The Relationship between Self-Confidence, Mood State and Anxiety among Collegiate Tennis Players
Journal article by Tracey Covassin, Suzanne Pero; Journal of Sport Behavior, Vol. 27, 2004

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The Relationship between Self-Confidence, Mood State, and Anxiety among Collegiate Tennis Players. by Tracey Covassin , Suzanne Pero The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between self-confidence, anxiety, and mood states in collegiate tennis players. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory--2 (CSAI-2) and the Profile of Mood States (POMS) were utilized based on their ability to assess a number of different psychological states thought to be crucial for proper mental preparation prior to athletic competition as well as for their psychometric properties. These inventories were employed to determine pre-competition levels of anxiety, self-confidence and mood disturbance and their relationship to successful or unsuccessful tennis match outcome. Twenty-four collegiate tennis players completed the POMS and CSAI-2 30 minutes prior to their tennis match during their participation in the NCAA Regional (VII) Team Tennis Tournament. Results revealed winning tennis players displayed significantly higher self-confidence, lower cognitive and somatic anxiety levels, and lower total mood disturbance scores than losing players. In addition, winning tennis players exhibited the iceberg profile on the POMS, which is consistent with the findings in similar research conducted with successful athletes in other sports. As such, athletes who displayed high self-confidence and low anxiety levels were potentially able to remain calm and relaxed under pressure and were not as affected by negative events. Furthermore, these results suggest that mental state prior to the start of a tennis match plays a crucial role in overall success or failure. An individual's positive or negative mental state has long been thought to play a crucial role in his or her ability to perform sport specific tasks. This ability then either augments or detracts from his or her overall success or failures as an athlete. Players who are evenly matched in physical skills often rely upon their psychological skills to gain an advantage over their opponents. More specifically, self-confidence, mood disturbances, cognitive and somatic anxiety

have all been linked as contributing factors to athletic performance (Hassmen & Blomstrand, 1995; Morgan, O'Connor, Ellickson, & Bradley, 1988; Ussher & Hardy, 1986). Self-confidence is one of the most frequently cited psychological factors thought to effect sport performance and has been a primary focus of research conducted by sport psychologists as it is considered by many to be a key factor to successful performance (Feltz, 1988). Bandura's 0982) social cognitive theory suggests that an individuals' degree of self-efficacy influences performance both directly and indirectly via emotions and cognitions. Successful performance enhances perceived self-efficacy while repeated failures lowers self-confidence (Bandura, 1982; 1997). Hanton, Mellalieu, and Young (2002) found that anxiety increases as competition approaches and that self-confidence acts as a moderating variable that either increases or decreases anxiety levels based on the perception of the upcoming event. This relationship between self-efficacy and performance can create either an upward or downward spiral for future performance and self-efficacy based on past athletic success or failure. The Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) has been instrumental in developing knowledge regarding changes in selfconfidence and anxiety in the period immediately preceding athletic competition (Martens, Vealey, & Burton, 1990). Perry and Williams (1998) investigated the effects of intensity and direction of self-confidence and competitive trait anxiety on male and female tennis players. Participants completed a modified CSAI-2 and were then classified based upon their tennis ability and separated into novice, intermediate, or advanced groups. Results indicated the advanced group had a higher self-confidence level. Results showed less cognitive anxiety for the novice group and all three groups showed no difference for somatic anxiety. Several studies have shown successful elite athletes to have lower pre-competition anxiety than less successful athletes (Highlen & Bennett, 1979; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Ussher & Hardy, 1986; Weinberg & Gennchi, 1980). However, other researchers have found somatic anxiety to peak rapidly and immediately preceding the start of competition in cricket players (Jones, Cale, & Kerwin, 1989), rowers (Ussher & Hardy, 1986), and golfers and gymnasts (Krane & Williams, 1987). The findings across these research studies suggest that there may be some disparity in anxiety levels between athletes across different sports. Treasure, Monson, and Lox (1996) hypothesized that self-efficacy of wrestlers would be associated with higher levels of positive affect and lower levels of negative affect, somatic, and cognitive anxiety.

In addition, they examined the relationship between precompetition self-efficacy and different measures of performance and match outcome. Each athlete completed the CSAI-2, Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (Watson, Clark & Tellegen, 1988) and a questionnaire on self-efficacy 15 minutes prior to the commencement of his/her match. Results indicated that .

Performance enhancement in sport: A cognitive behavioral domain*

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James P. Whelan
a b

,a

, Michael J. Mahoneyb and Andrew W. Meyersa

Memphis State University, USA University of North Texas, USA

Received 31 December 1990; accepted 29 March 1991. Available online 14 June 2006. The clinical technology developed by cognitive behavioral practitioners has become the foundation for psychological efforts to enhance athletic performance. To provide a backdrop for this sport intervention research, the history of applied sport psychology is briefly noted. Then, the empirical literature which supportes the use of cognitive behavioral intervention strategies in athletic contexts is considered. This work includes the treatment evaluation evidence for performance improvement of non-elite sport participants, and correlational evidence that supports the consideration of psychological variables in the performance of elite athletes. The intervention strategies under review include imagery and mental rehearsal, arousal management, goal-setting, self-instruction and self-monitoring, and multi-component treatment programs. The implications of this research for applied sport psychology and the broader field of clinical intervention are discussed. *Partial support for this paper was provided by a Centers for Excellence grant from the State of Tennessee to the Department of Psychology at Memphis State University.

. Self confidence

Performance enhancement in sport: A cognitive behavioral domain*

Purchase
$ 31.50

James P. Whelan
a b

,a

, Michael J. Mahoneyb and Andrew W. Meyersa

Memphis State University, USA University of North Texas, USA

Received 31 December 1990; accepted 29 March 1991. Available online 14 June 2006. The clinical technology developed by cognitive behavioral practitioners has become the foundation for psychological efforts to enhance athletic performance. To provide a backdrop for this sport intervention research, the history of applied sport psychology is briefly noted. Then, the empirical literature which supportes the use of cognitive behavioral intervention strategies in athletic contexts is considered. This work includes the treatment evaluation evidence for performance improvement of non-elite sport participants, and correlational evidence that supports the consideration of psychological variables in the performance of elite athletes. The intervention strategies under review include imagery and mental rehearsal, arousal management, goal-setting, self-instruction and self-monitoring, and multi-component treatment programs. The implications of this research for applied sport psychology and the broader field of clinical intervention are discussed. Partial support for this paper was provided by a Centers for Excellence grant from the State of Tennessee to the Department of Psychology at Memphis State University.
*

Journal of Applied Sport Psychology Volume 13, Issue 1, 2001

Types of Imagery Associated with Sport Confidence in Netball Players of Varying Skill Levels
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DOI: 10.1080/10413200109339001 N. Callowa & L. Hardya pages 1-17 Available online: 24 Oct 2007

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Abstract Martin, Moritz, and Hall's (1999) applied mental imagery model was developed to provide an organizational framework to guide future imagery usage research and application. The present study explores 2 aspects of the applied model: the relationship between imagery type and confidence, and 2 possible moderating variables, skill level of the athlete and sport type. One hundred and twenty-three female county netball players participated in the study; 55 from a low standard county and 68 from a high standard county. Participants were administered the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (SIQ). One week later, at a county netball match, the State Sport Confidence Inventory (SSCI) was administered. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that in the lower standard sample, mastery imagery and imagery related to strategies of the game accounted for a significant proportion of the variance in sport confidence. Additionally, imagery related to the emotions of playing predicted confidence negatively. With the higher standard sample, goal achievement oriented imagery was the only significant predictor of variance in confidence. The results are discussed in relation to the pertinence of, and function that, different imagery types have for performers.

Journal of Applied Sport Psychology Volume 14, Issue 1, 2002

Enhancing Competitive Performance of Ice Hockey Goaltenders Using Centering and Self-Talk
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DOI: 10.1080/10413200209339008 Lisa J. Rogersona & Dennis W. Hrycaikoa pages 14-26 Available online: 24 Oct 2007

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Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of two mental skills on the performance of ice hockey goaltenders during league games. The mental skills utilized were relaxation, in the form of centering, and self-talk. The participants were five male junior A hockey goaltenders. A single-subject multiple baseline across individuals design was employed to evaluate the use of the mental skills. The results demonstrated that the mental skills training was effective in producing improvements in the save percentage of the goaltenders. The social validation results indicated that the participants enjoyed using the mental skills and were satisfied with the results obtained. Furthermore, the coaches were very satisfied with the results and felt that the mental skills training was an important ingredient for improving performance, in particular performance consistency.

.
ournal of Applied Sport Psychology Volume 11, Issue 1, 1999

Effects of feedback on self-efficacy, performance, and choice in an athletic task

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DOI: 10.1080/10413209908402952 Amparo Escartia & Jose F. Guzmana pages 83-96 Available online: 14 Jan 2008

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Abstract The purpose of the study was to examine the impact of feedback on self-efficacy, performance, and task choice, and the mediating effects of self-efficacy in the feedback-performance and task choice relationships. Participants were 69 Spanish students, 46 males and 23 females, between 18 and 24 years. The experimental paradigm consisted of three sessions. In the first, participants performed on the hurdles. In the second, manipulated feedback referring to the previous performance was provided. Participants then estimated their self-efficacy for a second task which they later performed. In the third session, participants were presented with three tasks involving clearing hurdles of progressive difficulty. They were then asked to elect and perform whichever task they felt capable of completing. Three different models were advanced for the relationships between feedback, self-efficacy, performance, and task choice. Structural equation modeling (SEM) confirmed a model where performance feedback was significantly related to self-efficacy, performance, and task choice; and self-efficacy to performance and task choice. Although the results did not provide insight into the level to which feedback and self-efficacy affect performance and task choice, they did appear to confirm the view that self-efficacy is a cognitive variable that mediates the relationship between feedback and performance and task choice.

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. EI

Emotional Intelligence in Sport: Theoretical Linkages and Preliminary Empirical Relationships from Basketball
Con Stough, Mathilde Clements, Lena Wallish and Luke Downey

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Abstract
Recently there have been suggestions from within sports psychology (e.g., Meyer & Fletcher, 2007) that there are similarities in the use of psychological tools and programs in the corporate and sporting worlds. Therefore it is somewhat surprising that despite the growing body of research supporting emotional intelligence (EI) as an important tool for identifying superior performance levels within the workplace, it is yet to be the subject of rigorous research within other performance arenas such as the sporting environment. The aim of this chapter is to explore the potential relationship between EI and sport basis of their type of sport. The chapter starts with a discussion of earlier conceptions of emotions in sport, progresses to discuss the construct of EI and then provides some empirical data assessing the utility of at least one application of EI to the elite sporting arena. Throughout the chapter we propose theoretical linkages between EI and elite sporting variables that should be the focus of future empirical research.

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF ADOLESCENTS FOLLOWING BASKETBALL EXTRACURRICULAR (CASE STUDY)

NUR AFRIDELA ZAHARA, MAHARGYANTARI MAHARGYANTARI

Abstract
Keyword: Key words: emotional intelligence, adolescents, basketball extracurricularAbstrack:ABSTRACT :Sport is an activity favored both by young men and young women. Hurlock(1993) mentions that the sports that are able to develop emotional intelligence are sports which involve others or friends. Gunarsa (2004) says that sports such as badminton, tennis, table tennis, and basketball, and volleyball can develop emotional intelligence. This study aims to describe the emotional intelligence of adolescents who take basketball as their extracurricular. Research approach used in this research is a case study, which uses observation and interview methods. The subject of this research is a male teenage who actively join basketball sports. The result of the analysis shows that the subject under study can recognize his own emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions of others, and building relationships with others. It can be concluded that the subject has adequate emotional intelligence. This research also shows that family and educational factors affect school subject of emotional intelligence. After joining emotional development of basketball activities the subject become more positive.

.. EI

EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE OF ADOLESCENTS FOLLOWING BASKETBALL EXTRACURRICULAR (CASE STUDY)

NUR AFRIDELA ZAHARA, MAHARGYANTARI MAHARGYANTARI

Abstract
Keyword: Key words: emotional intelligence, adolescents, basketball extracurricularAbstrack:ABSTRACT :Sport is an activity favored both by young men and young women. Hurlock(1993) mentions that the sports that are able to develop emotional intelligence are sports which involve others or friends. Gunarsa (2004) says that sports such as badminton, tennis, table tennis, and basketball, and volleyball can develop emotional intelligence. This study aims to describe the emotional intelligence of adolescents who take basketball as their extracurricular. Research approach used in this research is a case study, which uses observation and interview methods. The subject of this research is a male teenage who actively join basketball sports. The result of the analysis shows that the subject under study can recognize his own emotions, managing emotions, motivating oneself, recognizing emotions of others, and building relationships with others. It can be concluded that the subject has adequate emotional intelligence. This research also shows that family and educational factors affect school subject of emotional intelligence. After joining emotional development of basketball activities the subject become more positive.

Emotional Intelligence
What is Emotional Intelligence?
Have you ever wished for calmness, resilience, motivation, good people skills and fulfilling relationships? Do you have a high IQ, but feel lost among people and can't assert yourself? What you need is emotional intelligence! What is emotional intelligence? It is a type of personal and social intelligence, which includes the following: The ability to perceive, recognise, understand and react to the thoughts and feelings of yourself and those of others (emotional awareness); To be able to distinguish between various feelings and to name them (emotional literacy); The ability to express and control your feelings appropriately (emotional control); To be able to listen to others, to have empathy with them and to communicate effectively in terms of emotions and thoughts and To use the information in directing your thoughts and actions with the result that you live effectively, motivated and with a goal in mind (relation between thoughts, feelings and behaviour). It might be helpful to keep in mind that emotional intelligence comprises a large set of abilities that have been studied by psychologists and therapists for many years. Even though this may be true you don't need to have an emotional (or any other) problem to benefit from a course in emotional intelligence. In a certain way it may be seen as life skills with the emphasis on emotions and thinking patterns. Emotional intelligent people are better positioned to increase their personal and professional effectiveness, enhance their relationships and make effective life and business decisions. EQ encompasses abilities such as self-motivation, persistence, mood-management and the ability to think and hope. Emotional intelligence is a life strategy. In each situation you have a choice about how you want to react. Your intense emotions may devastate your important personal and business relationships if you are not able to control them. If you can stop yourself to think about your feelings, what the situation means to you and what the most appropriate reaction is that you can have, you will not react on impulse. Being able to do this you will behave more appropriately and you will be able to build better relationships with yourself and others. There should always be a time lapse between the stimulus (situation) and your reaction to it. During that time lapse your have to interpret the meaning of the situation and how you can respond to it. People who are very impulsive and who say and do things inappropriately do not give themselves enough (or hardly any) time to reflect, with resulting negative reactions from others. One is never too old to learn these skills, but you have to practise and try them again and again. It is only by practising these skills that they will become integrated and you will be able to apply them. Emotional Intelligence is about taking responsibility for you own life and happiness. You dont blame or find excuses for situations you find yourself in. An important principle of emotional intelligence is to realise that we cannot change other people. We can only change our reaction to them, in other words we can

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Emotional Intelligence for sportsmen

If you have the passion to be a well-balanced human being and to develop yourself in all the different areas of your life, you have to develop and give attention to your inner abilities. These qualities can help and enable you to cope with yourself and your life situation. For sportsmen and women the development of these abilities is no longer an option. It is becoming more and more important to be able to cope physically and emotionally. The sportsmen who have this will be at a definite advantage. Although you may at first be a little resistant and regard this as not really something you want to do or need, think again. What do you stand to lose by learning or not learning these skills? And what can you gain by having the awareness and control of your emotions and thoughts? These two qualities, emotions and thoughts, are most important when talking and teaching emotional intelligence. They are also most important in determining the quality of your performances. Learn about yourself and develop the techniques that can really put you ahead of all the others. Just remember that it takes time, dedication and practise to make it part of yourself. You cant become emotionally intelligent overnight, but it is within everyones reach. I facilitate the EQ course for groups of sportsmen or individuals, adapting the content to their specific situation and needs.

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Improved Coaching through Emotional Intelligence

Nick Galli University of Utah
Tony was the top middle distance runner on his high school track team. After a successful season in which he set two school records, and helped his team to a league title, Tony was primed to continue his success at the upcoming sectional meet. But there was a problem. Tony had tweaked his knee during training three weeks before the meet. Even worse, because of his coachs propensity for losing his temper and accusing injured athletes of faking it or acting like a bunch of sissys, Tony was afraid to mention his injury, and instead attempted to train as if nothing were wrong. As a result, Tonys knee worsened, and he was in less than top shape for the big meet. He finished a disappointing sixth, leaving his coach and teammates wondering what went wrong. Unfortunately, situations such as the one just described are not uncommon in the win-at-all-cost world of competitive sport. Coaches often feel that the best way to motivate their athletes is through ridicule, fear, and intimidation. In fact, the volatile leadership style of the coach in the above example led Tony to feel ashamed of his injury, and rather than speak up and seek treatment, choose to remain silent and risk further damage to his knee. According to researchers in psychology and business, scenarios such as this are the result of leaders who lack emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to individuals ability to perceive, utilize, understand, and manage their emotions (Mayer & Salovey, 1997). Not surprisingly, EI has been identified as critical for effective leadership. EI was found to be twice as important as IQ or technical skills for leader performance in several large companies (Goleman, 1998). According to Goleman (1998), there are five components of EI important for leaders: (a) self-awareness, (b) selfregulation, (c) motivation, (d) empathy, and (e) social skill. Although these five components are based on studies of

non-sport leaders, they can easily be applied to you as a sport coach. In the following sections I will discuss how you can take advantage of each of the five components of EI to improve your leadership as a coach, and consequently get the most out of your athletes. Self-Awareness: The first component needed to be an emotionally intelligent coach is self-awareness. Self-awareness is the ability to understand your own moods and emotions, both in terms of their affect on you, and their affect on your athletes. Highly self-aware coaches are confident, have a realistic view of their abilities, and arent afraid to admit their mistakes. So how could self-awareness have helped the coach (and the athlete) in the above example? A self-aware coach would realize going into the season that he has a tendency to react harshly when athletes come to him with injuries, and could create a system for reporting and handling injuries that would minimize his aggravation. One strategy to increase self-awareness is to keep a daily journal of your thoughts and feelings at practices and competitions. After every practice and game, take 5-10 minutes to note situations that triggered both facilitative and debilitative thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Be honest with yourself. In time, you will be able to develop a personal profile of your emotions in various practice and game situations. This profile will be useful as you focus on the second component of EI, the art of regulating your emotions. Self-Regulation: Once you become adept at self-awareness, the next step toward becoming an EI coach is learning to regulate your emotions. Self-regulation refers to your ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods. A coach who has strong self-regulation skills leads with integrity, is open to change, and promotes a trustworthy environment. Modeling calmness and rational thinking in the face of adversity sets an example for your athletes to do the same. The coach in the above example clearly lacked the ability to regulate his emotions. Had he been in control of his emotions, he likely would have modeled much different behaviors in response to setbacks and bad news, and allowed athletes like Tony to feel more comfortable in bringing their injuries to the forefront. For example, Instead of accusing athletes of faking injury, or of being soft, he would carefully consider each case. For a given athlete who reports an injury, the selfregulating coach might ask herself, what is this athletes physical history? What can we do to get her on the road to recovery? What support people will be needed? If the coach does suspect that the athlete is embellishing the injury, rather than lose his temper, he might consider the reasons that the athlete feels the need to lie, get the opinion of other coaches on the staff, and set a meeting with the athletes to discuss any conflicts she might have. There are several ways to become a better self-regulator, but one strategy is thought replacement. First, create a list of 3-5 scenarios that cause you to fly off the handle as a coach (e.g., an athlete is consistently late to practice). Second, write the negative thoughts that you usually have in response to each scenario (e.g., What a slacker! Sonyas just not dedicated, and doesnt care about this team!). Finally, replace your negative thoughts with positive thoughts and solutions (e.g., Sonyas been late a lot recently. Ill pull her aside after practice to find out whats going on. Maybe together we can figure out how to make sure she gets here on time.). Motivation: At first glance, you might question the need to work on your motivation. After all, many coaches are driven to win, and be recognized as one of the best in their sport. But in this case, I am referring to a different kind of motivation. Coaches who enjoy long and successful careers have a passion for coaching that extends beyond social status and records. These coaches love the excitement of competition, and the fulfillment that comes from aiding in the personal and performance development of their athletes. In other words, successful coaches are motivated to coach for the sake of coaching. Perhaps the reason that Tonys coach was such a hot head, was because coaching had become more about the wins, and less about actually coaching. If the coachs main source of motivation was indeed records and status, it is easy to understand how bad news (such as an injury) could trigger negative thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. The coach that is motivated to promote the well-being of his athletes will be less likely to engage in namecalling in response to an injury or a poor performance, and more likely to focus on how to help his athletes perform to the best of their ability. To tap into the facilitative kind of motivation, take come time to re-visit the reasons you went into coaching. What was it that made you want to be a coach? Look at pictures, or watch home videos that remind you of your initial drive to be a coach. Chances are wins and status werent the main reasons. Empathy:

Once you have mastered the personal components of EI discussed above, you are ready to work on improving your interpersonal EI. The first interpersonal EI skill is empathy. Not to be confused with sympathy, which refers to a general feeling of concern for others, empathy goes beyond concern to literally sharing the feelings of others. Coaches who have the ability to empathize are able to build strong relationships with their athletes, and have athletes who are more satisfied with their sport experience. The coach in the above example seemed to lack empathy with his athletes. The empathetic coach whose athlete came to him with a possible injury would remember what it was like to be an athlete with an injury, and would thus have some insight into how to most effectively deal with Tony. One strategy that will allow you to better empathize with your team is to schedule one-on-one meetings with each of your athletes. Find out what concerns they have about the team, what would make their experience better. Listen to your athletes, and attempt to empathize with their concerns. Then, integrate their suggestions with your observations to make improvements to the team environment. By showing your athletes that their feelings matter, and that you can relate to their concerns, you will influence them to want to give their best for the team. Social Skill: The culmination of the four previously discussed components of EI (i.e., self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, and empathy), is social skill. Coaches who are socially skilled are proficient in managing relationships, and have a knack for persuasion. The coach in the above example chose to base relationships with his athletes on fear, which caused Tony to feel less than comfortable in being completely honest about his health. The socially skilled coach would have used his powers of EI to build a strong relationship with Tony, such that he would be unlikely to withhold information from him. To build your social skill as a coach, attempt to get to know your athletes in ways that go beyond sport. Be interested in how things are going for your athletes at school, and with their personal life. Get to know all of your athletes by scheduling social gatherings at your home, or a team retreat to the mountains. Making sociability a priority will improve your relationship between you and your athletes, increase team cohesion, and promote team satisfaction. Summary Although having strong technical and strategic knowledge for a given sport are prerequisites for being a successful coach, studies in the business world suggest that other qualities separate good from great leaders. Coaches who lead with self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill create a team environment conducive to enjoyment, trust, and maximal effort on the part of your athletes. References Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76, 93-102. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3-31). New York: Basic Books.