Lecture Note On Statics

Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010
Engineering Mechanics I (Statics)

1.
Introduction
Mechanics: mechanics Can be defined as that science which describes and predicts the condition of rest or motion of bodies under the action of force. Mechanics can be classified in to the following sub parts
Mechanics
Mechanics of rigid bodies
Mechanics of deformable bodies
Mechanics of fluids
Statics
Dynamics
Incompressible fluids
compressible fluids
The following concepts and definetions are basic for the study of mechanics and they should be be understood at the outset. 1. Space : is the geometric region occupied by bodies whose positions are described by linear and angular measurements relative to the coordinate system.For three dimensional problems,three independant coordinate are needed. For two dimensional problems, only two coordinates are required. 2. Time:the measure of the succesion of events and is a basic quantity in dynamics.Time is not directly involved in the analysis of static problems. 3. Mass: is the measure of inertia of a body, which is its resistance to a change of velocity. It is also the quantity of matter in a body. 4. Force: the action of one body on the other. A force tends to move a body in the direction of its action. The action of a force can be characterized by its magnitude,direction and its point of application. 5. A particle: is a body of negligible dimension.the dimensions can be considered to be zero so that it may be analysed as a mass concentrated at a point. 6. Rigid body: a body is considered rigid when the change in distance between any two of its ponts is negligible for the purpose at hand.
Department of Civil engineering
Kombolcha Institute of Technology
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1.2. System of units

In mechanics we need four fundamental quantities; time ,length,mass and force.the units used to measure these quantities cannot all be choosen independantly because they must be consistent with Newtons Second law.Although there are a number of different systems of units only two systems are most common, SI units and U.S customary namely. a) SI units The international system of units abbriviated as SI units,is accepted in USA and through out the world, and is a modern conversion of metric system.in this system,the units kilogram (kg) for mass,second(S) for time,meter(m) for length are selected as base units and Newton (N) for force is derived from the three base units. Thus, force (N)=mass (Kg) x acceleration (m/s2) or N=kg.m/s2 b) U.S customary or British system of units This sytem also called foot,pound,second system (FPS) system, has been the common in bussines and industry in English-speaking countries.In the U.S system,the units of feet (ft) for length,seconds(sec) for time,and pound(lb) for force are selected as as base units and the slug for mass is derived from the three base units. Thus,
The study of elementary mechanics rests on six fundamental principles based on experimental evidence. A) The parallelogram law for the addition of forces This states that two forces acting on a particle may be replaced by single force,called their resulatant,obtained by drawing the diagonal of the parallelogram which has sides equal to the given forces.
P+Q
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 B) The principle of transmisibility It states that the condition of equilibrium or motion of a rigid body will remain unchanged if a force acting at a given point of a rigid body is replaced by a force of the same magnitude and same direction acting at adifferernt point on the same line of action.
=
F
C) Newtons fundamental laws These basic laws are formulated by sir Isaac Newton in the latter years of seventeen century. i) First law If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle will remain at rest (if origionally at rest) or will move with constant speed in straight line (if origionally at rest). ii) Second law If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero,the particle will have an acceleration proportional to the magnitude of the resultant in the direction of the resultant force.
iii)
Third law The force of action and reaction between bodies in contact have the same magnitude ,the same line of action and opposite sense. Newtons Gravitational law
iv)
This states that two particles of masses M and m are mutulally attracted with equal and opposit forces F and -F given by the formula;
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Where; y y r is the distance between the two particles G is universal constant of gravitation
-F r M
F m
2. FORCE SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION
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Force can be defined as the action of one body over the other. It is a vector quantity. The complete specification of the action of a force must include its magnitude, direction and point of application. The effect of a force on a body can be separated into two: external and internal. Forces external to a body are of two kinds: applied and reactive forces and the internal effects are stresses and strains. In this chapter and the chapters that follow, the properties and effects of various kinds of forces which act on engineering structures and mechanisms will be examined.
Section-A Forces In 2D (Coplanar Force systems)

Forces acting on two dimensional planes are coplanar force system. The complete specification of the action of a force must include its magnitude, direction and point of application, in which case it is treated as fixed vector.
2.1. Rectangular Components
The rectangular components of vector V forms 90O in between them but components of a vector may not necessarily form 90O in between them. The most common two dimensional resolution of a force vector is resolving into rectangular components.
y y y y
F= Fx+Fy , Fx and Fy are vector components F= Fx i +Fyj , Fx and Fy are scalar components Fx =Fcos , Fy =Fsin ,
Or
Consider two forces F1 and F2 which are origionally concurrent at poit O. As shown in the figure to add these two force vectors we may write R= F1+F2 =
j
=(
from this equation it is possible to conclude that
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Rx=F1x+F2x= and Ry=R1y+R2y=
Example 1. The forces F1,F2 and F3 all of which act on pont A of the bravket,are specified in three different ways.detrmine the x and y scalar components of each of the three forces.
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2.2 Moment In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force may also tend to rotate a body about an axis. The axis may be any line neither intersects nor is parallel to the line of action of the force. This rotational tendency is known as moment, M, of the force. It is also referred to as Torque.
M is a vector quantity and depends on both the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the axis of the line of action of the force (moment arm d). The sense (vector direction) of M depends on the direction in which F tends to rotate the body. The right hand rule, see fig below, is used to identify this sense, and the moment of F about O-O may be represented as a vector pointing in the direction of the thumb, with the fingers curled in the direction of the tendency to rotate. It is a sliding vector.
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 M=Fd The basic unit of moment in SI unit is Newton-meter (N.m). Convensional sign of moments y y Counterclockwise moments (+,plus sign) Clockwise moments(-,negative sign)
The cross product

In some two dimensional and many three dimensional problems to follow, it is convenient to use a vector approach for moment calculations. The moment of F about point A of the above figure may be represented by the cross product expression.
M=rxF , where r is a position vector which runs from the moment reference point A to any point on the line of action of F. The magnitue of this expression is given by
Varignons Theorem
It states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point.
Mo=rxR, since R=P+Q, we can write Mo=rxR=rx(P+Q) = rxP+rxQ
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Example 1. Calculate the magnitude of the moment about the base point O of the 600N force in five different ways.
2. The 60N force P is applied at point C of the bent bar. If ! 45 0 , determine the moment of P
about point B and about point A. For what value of the angle U will the moment about point A be a maximum? Determine this maximum value M A max .
2.3. Couples
The moment produced by two equal and opposite and non collinear force is known as couple. Look at the figure below. The combined moment of the two forces about an axis normal to their plane and passing through any point such as O in their plane is the couple M.
M=F(a+d)-Fa=Fd
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 It follows that the moment of a couple has the same value for all moment centers. We may also express the moment of a couple by using vector algebra. M=rAxF+rBx(-F)=( rA-rB)xF
Where rA and rB are position vectors from the point O to arbitrary points A and B on the line of action of F and F respectively. But rA-rB =r so that M= rxF Since M is independent of moment center O, and is the same for all moment centers, M is a free vector.
Equivalent couples: Changing the values of F and d does not change a given couple as long as the product Fd remains the same.Like wise, a couple is not affected if the forces act in a different but parallel plane.
Force-Couple System: the effect of force acting on a body has been described interms of the effect of the tendency to push or pull the body in the direction of the force and to rotate the body about any axis which does not intersect the line of action of the force. It is possible to reprersent this dual effect more easily by replacing the given force by an equal parallel force and couple to compensate for the change in the moment of the force.
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Example
1. Replace the horizontal 80-lb force acting on the lever by an equivalent system consisting of force at O and acouple.
2. The system consisting of the bar OA,two identical pulleys, and a section of thin tape is
subjected to the two 180-N tensile forces shown in the figure. Determi the equivalent forcecouple system at point O.
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 2.4.RESULTANTS Most problems in Mechanics deal with system of forces, and it is usually neccessary to reduce the system to its simplest form to describe its action.The resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force combination which can replace the original forces with out altering the external effect on the rigid body to which the forces are applied. As illustrated by system of three forces F1, F2 and F3 in the following figure,We can obtain the magnitude and direction of the resultant force R by forming force polgon where the forces are added head to tail in any sequence.Thus, for any system of coplanar forces we may write
We can use algebra to obtain the resultant forec and its line of action as follows:
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 1. Choos a convenient reference pont and move all forces to that point.This process is shown in the figure 2/14 a and b, where M1,M2 and M3 are the couples resulting from the transfer of forces F1,F2 and F3 from their respective original lines of action to lines of action through poin O. 2. Add all forces at pont O to form the resultanf force R and add all couples to form the resultant couple Mo. We now have the resultant couple system as shown in figure 2/14c. 3. In figure 2/14d,find the line of action of R by requiring R to have a moment Mo about pont O. Note that the force system figures 2/14c and 2/14 d are equivalent,and that in figure 2/14a is equal to Rd in figure 2/14d.
Figure 2/14 The process described in the above figures can be summurized by
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SECTION B. Non-coplanar force systems RectangularComponents

The force F acting at point O in the figure has the rectangular components Fx, Fy and Fz where
Fx=F cos
x,
Fy=F cos F=F (icos
y, x+j
Fz=F cos cos

y+k
F= Fx Fy Fz
z)
F=Fx i+ Fy j +Fz k
cos
Introducing the direction cosines of F which are = cos

x,
m= cos
y,
n= cos
z where
+m2+n2=1
F=F ( i+m j+n k) F=F nF where nF=unit vector in the direction of F The direction of a force may be described by two points on the line of action of the force or by two angles which orient the line of action. a) specification by two points on the line of action of the force
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Thus the x,y,z scalar componets of F are the scalar coefficients of the unit vectors i,j and k respectively b) Specification by two angles that orient the line of action of the force
We must use right handed set of axes in our three dimensional work so as to be consistent with the right hand rule definition of the cross product. If n is a unit vector in a specified direction, then the projection of F in the n direction has the magnitude Fn=F.n As a vector quantity F can be written as Fn= (F.n) n If n has the direction cosines ., , n= i+ j+ k And F has the direction cosines , m, n F=F ( i+mj+nk) Fn=F.n=F ( i+mj+nk). ( i+ j+ k) =F ( Because, i.i=j.j=k.k=1 and +m +n )=F(l +m +n )
i.j=j.i=i.k=j.k=k.j=0
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 By virtue of the dot product relationship F.n=Fncos ( = the angle between F and n)
= cos-1(F.n/ F) Or in general the angle between any two vectors P and Q is =cos-1(P.Q/PQ) Moment and Couple in Space Moment In three dimensions, the determination of the perpendicular distance between a point or line and the line of action of the force can be a tedious computation. The use of a vector approach using crossProduct is more convenient and advantagious.
Considering the figure shown above, the moment MO of F about an axis through O normal to the plane can be written as MO=r x F and the correct sense and direction of the moment is determined by the right hand rule. The correct evaluation of the vector expression depends on the use of right handed co-ordinate system.
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 The cross-product expression for MO may be written in the determinant form
Expansion of the determinant gives MO= (ryFz-rzFy) i + (rzFx-rxFz) j + (rxFy-ryFx) k The moment M of F about any axis through O can be determined as follows.
If n is a unit vector in the direction of , then the component of F in the direction of is M = MO.n The vector expression for this component is M =(rx F.n) Where r x F.n is known as the triple scalar product. The triple scalar product may be represented in a determinant form as rx | M |= M = Fx . Varignons Theorem Here the theorem is extended to three dimensions. For a system of concurrent forces F1, F2, F3 , the sum of the moments about O of these forces is r x F1 + r x F2 + r x F3+ . =r x (F1+F2+F3+.) =r x ry Fy rz Fz
=r x R
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Couple For two equal and opposite forces F and F acting on a body
MO=rA x F + rB x (-F)= (rA-rB) x F= r x F The moment of couple is the same about all points i.e. it is a free vector whereas the moment of a force about a point is a sliding vector along the axis through the point.Couple vectors obey all the rules of vector operations.
Force-Couple System in 3D
Resultants The principle used in two dimensions will be extended to three dimensions.
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Departement of civil engineering
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System of forceses
System of concurrent forces at O and a system of Couple vector
The Resultant Force and Couple at O
R=F1 + F2 + F3+. = F M=M1 + M2 + M3 +. = (r x F) Rx=Fx

2
Ry=Fy
2
Rz=Fz
2
R= ( R x R y R z ) Mx=(r x F) x
2
My=(r x F) y
2 2
Mz=(r x F) z
M= ( M x M y M z ) Resultants for Special Force Systems Concurrent Forces: There are no moments about the point of concurrency. Parallel Forces: The resultant is simply the magnitude of the algebraic sum of the given forces, and the position of its line of action is obtained from the principle of moments. Wrench Resultant: When the resultant couple vector M is parallel to the resultant force R, the resultant is said to be a wrench. If the couple and force vectors point in the same direction, the wrench is positive otherwise it is negative.
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Any general force system may be represented by a wrench applied along a unique line of action as shown in the figure below.
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3. Equiplibrium of forces
3.1. Introduction In the previous chapter, we have seen systems of forces. In this chapter stability of force systems, named as equilibrium of a body. Thus a body is said to be in equilibrium when the resultant of all the forces acting on it is zero. That is, the resultant force vector R and the resultant couple vector M are both zero.Expressed mathematically: , Note that these are both necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium. A) Equilibrium in Two-Dimension
3.1.
System isolation and free body diagram (FBD)
Before considering equilibrium conditions, it is very much essential and absolutely necessary to define unambiguously the particular body or mechanical system to be analyzed and represent clearly and completely all forces which act on the body.
Modeling the action of forces in Two Dimensional Analysis

The most important step in drawing the free body diagram will be to show the external forces exerted on the rigid body. On of the external forces will be forces exerted by contacts with supports and reactions. The different support and contact forces are shown in the figure below. A diagram showing a body/group of bodies considered in the analysis with all forces and relevant dimensions is called free body diagram (FBD). It is after such diagram is clearly drawn that the equilibrium equations be used to determine some of the unknown forces. Therefore free body diagram is the most important single step in the solution of problems in mechanics. Steps for the construction of free body diagram y Decide which body or combination of bodies to be considered. y The body or combination chosen is isolated by a diagram that represents its complete external boundary. y All forces that act on the isolated body by the removed contacting and attracting bodies and known forces represented in their proper positions on the diagram of the isolated body.
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y y
Each unknown force should be represented by a vector arrow with the unknown magnitude and direction. The fore exerted on the body to be isolated by the body to be removed is indicated and its sense shall be opposite to the movement of the body which would occur if the contacting or supporting member were removed. The choice of coordinate axes should be indicated directly on the diagram and relevant dimensions should be represented.
3.2.
Equilibrium Conditions
It was stated that a body is in equilibrium if the resultant force vector and the resultant couple vector are both zero. These requirements can be stated in the form of vector equation of equilibrium, which in two dimensions can be written as:
Categories of Equilibrium in Two Dimensions The following categories of equilibrium conditions can be identified due to the nature of forces considered. Category 1: Equilibrium of collinear forces, clearly requires only the one force equation in the direction of the forces (x - direction),since all other equations are automatically satisfied. Category 2: Equilibrium of forces which lie in a plane (x-y plane) are conccurrent at a pont O,requires the two force equations only,since the sum of moments about O,that is about the Z axis through O is necessarly zero. Category 3, Equilibrium of parallel forces in a plane,requires the one fprce equation in the direction of the force (x-direction) and one moment equation about an axix (Z-axis) normal to the plane of the forces. Category 4, Equilibrium of general system of forces in a plane (x-y plane), requires the two force equations and in the plane and one moment equation about ann axis (z-axis), normal to the plane
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Alternative equilibrium equations In two-dimensional body, the maximum number of unknown variables is three. And the three equilibrium equations are sufficient to solve the unknown variables. Thus, whatever the combination, three total equations are maximally needed. What we have seen is two forces and one moment equations. In addition to equilibrium equations shown above,there are two alternative ways to express the general condition of equilibrium of forces in two dimensions. a) One force and two moment equation If , then the resultant cannot be a couple but it must be aforce passing through A. If the equation, holds true,where the x- direction is arbitrary,the resultant R not only pass through A , but also must be perpendicular to the x- direction. Again if where point B is any point such that line Ab is not perpendicular to to the xdirection. For the system to be in equilibrium,R must be zero.Hence the alternative set of equilibrium equation is
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Where the two points A and B must not lie on a line perpendicular to the x- direction.
For a coplanar force system, if the resultant must be a force passing through A and if , the resultant must pass through B, such a force cannot exist however, if , where C is not collinear with A and B we may write the equation of equilibrium as
b) Three-moment equations
B) Equilibrium in three dimensions 3.3. Equilibrium conditions

The necessary and sufficient conditions for complete equilibrium in three dimensions are; or , . Note : In applying the vector form of the above equations, we first express each of the forces in terms of the coordinate unit vectors i, j and k.
or

,
Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 For the first equation, F = 0, the vector sum will be zero only if the coefficients of i, j and k in the expression are, respectively, zero. These three sums when each is set equal to zero yield precisely the three scalar equations of equilibrium, , and For the second equation, , where the moment sum may be taken about any convenient point o, we express the moment of each force as the cross product r X F, where r is the position vector from o to any point on the line of action of the force F. Thus, . The coefficients of i, j and k in the resulting moment equation when set equal to zero, respectively, produce the three scalar moment equations
Free-Body diagram
The correct representation of forces on the free body diagram requires a knowledge of the charactrestics of contacting surfaces. These characterstics for three dimesional problems are represented in the figure below for most common situations of force transmisions.
Categories of Equilibrium The categories of rquilibrium equations differ in the number and type (force and Moment) of independant equilibrium equations required to solve the problem.
Category 1: Equilibrium of forces all concurrent at point O. Requires all three force equations, but no moment equation because the moment of forces about any axis through O is zero. Category 2: equilibrium of forces which are conccurent with aline, requires all equations except the moment equation about that line,which is automatically satisfied. Category 3: Equilibrium of parallel forces, requires only one force equation,the one in the direction of the forces (x-direction) and two moment equations about the axes (Y and Z) which are normal to the direction of the forces. Category 4: equilibrium a general system of forces, require all the three force equations and all the three moment equations.
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Chapter Four Equilibrium of Simple Structures

Introduction
An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer forces and to safely withstand the loads applied to it. This topic is concerned with the determination of forces internal to a structure that is forces of action and reaction between the connected members. In order to determine the forces internal to the structure it is necessary to dismember the structure and to analyze separate free body diagrams of individual members or combination of members. The structures to be analyzed in the chapter are trusses, frames and machines. Trusses -designed to support loads and are usually stationary they are two-force members and acted upon by two equal and opposite forces directed along the member
Frames - they are also designed to support loads and are also usually stationary frames always contain at least one multi-force member i.e. a member acted upon by three or more forces, in general are not directed along the member. Machines- designed to transmit and modify forces structures containing moving parts like frames always contain at least one multi-force member. -
PLANE TRUSSES
Frame work composed of members joined at their ends. Common examples are bridges, roof supports, derricks, and other such structures. Structural members used are I- beams, channels, angles, bars and special shapes. Members are fastened together at their ends by welding, riveted connections, large bolts or pins. The members of the truss lie essentially in a single plane. The basic element is a triangle (three bars constitute a rigid frame) The truss in statically indeterminate if more members are present than are needed to prevent collapse
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 The design of a truss involves the determination of the forces in the various members and the selection of appropriate sizes and structural shapes to withstand the forces
Assumptions in the force analysis of simple trusses
1) Members are two force members (equilibrium is under the action of two forces only). Each member is acted upon by two forces, one at each end; these forces have the same magnitude, the same line of action and opposite sense
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2) The weight of the member is small compared with the force it supports. If small effect of the uniform weight W of the member is to be accounted replace it by W/2 acting at each end of the member 3) If center lines of the members at a joint are concurrent it is satisfactory to assume welded or riveted connection as pin connection 4) All external forces are applied at the pin connections the external reactions are first determined from the equilibrium equations applied to the truss as a whole.
METHOD OF JOINTS
The method deals with the equilibrium of concurrent forces acting on the connecting pin. This helps to compute forces in various members and to determine whether each of its members is in tension or in compression. Begin the analysis with any joint having at least one known load and not more than two unknown forces One may designate joints by letters and the force in each member by two letters at the ends of the member.
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 The simultaneous solution of the equations for two unknown forces at a joint may be avoided by careful choice of reference axes. The reactions at the supports must first be determined by considering the entire truss as a free body and using equations of equilibrium.
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Joints under special loading
METHOD OF SECTIONS Entire section of the truss is selected for the free body in equilibrium under the action of a non concurrent system of forces The external reactions are first computed form the over all FBD In choosing a section of the truss we note that, in general, not more than three members whose forces are unknown may be cut. The moment equations are used to great advantage. Some times both methods of section and joints can be combined for an efficient solution than exclusive use of either method.
FRAMES AND MACHINES

o Structures composed of joined members any one of which has more than two forces acting on it fall in the categories of frames or machines. o In general the forces in these members will not be in the directions of the members.
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 o Frames fixed in position. o Machines contain moving parts. o Equilibrium is for inter connected rigid bodies which contain multi force members. o Here also, if the structure contains more members or supports than are necessary to prevent collapse, the problem is statically indeterminate. o Analysis begins by establishing all the forces external to the structure considered as a single rigid body. Then dismember the structure and consider the equilibrium of each part separately. o It is absolutely necessary that a force be consistently represented on the diagrams.
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CHAPTER Five Distributed Forces

Introduction Every external force applied mechanically to a body is distributed over a finite contact area however small. When dimensions of the contact area are negligible compared with other pertinent dimensions, distributed force can be replaced by concentrated force. But when forces are applied over a region whose dimensions are not negligible, compared with other pertinent dimensions, we need to sum up the effects of distributed force over the entire region of contact by mathematical procedure of integration.
Forces can be distributed along a) A line (m) b) Over an area (m2) c) Over the volume of a body
Load supported by a suspended cable
Hydraulic Pressure of water against the inner face of a section dam
Gravitational attraction acting over the entire mass of a body
CENTERS OF MASS AND CENTROIDS Center of Mass The center of mass of a body is also known as center of gravity. Mathematically the center of gravity of any body can be located by applying the principle of moments.
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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 dW= Elemental weight W= dW Moment about the y-axis of the elemental weight=x dW The sum of these moments for all elements of the body = xdW W x = xdW Applying the same principle for the other two components, G is located as x=
xdW
W
y=
ydW
W
z=
zdW
W With the substitution of W = mg and dW = g dm, x=
m m Or using vector expressions
r=xi+yj+zk and r = x i+ y j+ z k
r=
Replacing dm by VdV ,where V is the density of the body which assumed not to be constant throughout the body, xVdV yVdV zVdV y= z= x= VdV VdV VdV Calculation of center of mass is simplified by careful choice of reference axes. Polar co-ordinates are convenient for bodies having circular boundaries. When ever there exists a line or plane of symmetry, a co-ordinate axis or plane should be chosen to coincide with this line or plane.
y=
ydm
z=
zdm
m
dm
Centroids of Lines, Areas and Volumes When the density V of a body is uniform throughout, the expressions that remain define a purely geometrical property of the body. The term centroid is used when the calculation concerns a geometrical shape only.
Centroids of Lines
For a rod or wire of length L and if V and A are constant
dm ! VAdL
Then, the location of the centroid is given by
x=
y=
ydL
L
z=
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Centroids of Areas
For a body of constant density V and small but constant thickens t, the mass of an element becomes
dm ! Vt A
Then, the location of the centroid is given by
x=
y=
The numerators in the above equation are known as the first moments of area.
Centroids of Volumes For a body of volume V and density V the element has a mass dm ! VdV . Then the coordinates of the centroid become
x=
xdV
V
y=
ydV
V
z=
Guide lines in the choice of element for integration 1. Order of element: When ever possible, a first order differential element should be selected in preference to a higher-order element so that only one integration will cover the entire figure.
z=
zdA
A
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dy
2. Continuity: When ever possible we choose an element which can be integrated in one continuous operation to cover the entire figure
Here the horizontal strip is preferred to the vertical one because of the discontinuity of the
3.
iscarding higher-order terms: Higher-order terms may always be dropped comparing with lower order terms.
dxd
But
d dy is a higher order term and is discarded

1 2
4. Choice of coordinates: As a general rule we choose the coordinate system which best matches the boundaries of the figure.

d ! dx

expression for the height of the strip at x ! x
dA ! ldy
! dxd
dV ! Tr
dV dxdydz
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Best matches Rectangular Coordinates Best suited to Polar Coordinates
5. Centroidal coordinate of element: In setting up the moment of first or second order differential element it is essential to use coordinate to the centroid of the element for the moment arm.
Moment of A about the y-axis
xc ! The moment arm for the element in

the x-direction to the centroid of the element and not the x-distance to the boundary of the element
!x A xc ! The x-coordinate of the centroid C

of the element
y c ! The y-coordinate of the centroid C

of the element
!"
z c ! The moment arm in the z-direction

to the centroid (the same as the zcoordinate of the element)
41
Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Now the previous equations are written as
x=
x dA
c
y=
y dA
c
z=
z dA
c
x dV
c
y=
dV
z=
z dV
c
COMPOSITE BODIES AND FIGURES : APPROXIMATIONS Here also the moment principle is used to determine the mass center of a body which is divided in to several parts. Applying Varignons Theorem
The x-coordinate of the center of mass of the whole
In general considering the other dimensions
7m x 7m y 7m z Y = Z = 7m 7m 7 Analogous relations hold for composite lines, areas, and volumes, where the m s are replaced by L' s , A' s and V ' s , respectively.
Lines
x=
7Lxc 7L
y=
7Lyc 7L
X =
z =
7Lz c 7L
m1 m2 m3 X
m1 x1 m 2 x 2 m 3 x3
42
Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Areas

x= 7Axc 7A
y=
7Ayc 7A
z =
7Azc 7A
Volumes x =
7Vxc 7V
y=
7Vyc 7V
z =
7Vzc 7V
A hollow part either for an area, volume or mass is taken as a negative quantity. THEOREMS OF PAPPUS
The surface area generated by revolving a plane curve about a nonintersecting axis in the plane of the curve can be calculated easily. Consider the surface generated by revolving a line segment of length L about the x-axis Element=Ring generated by dL Area of ring dA ! 2TydL Then A ! 2T ydL Since yL ! ydL ,
A ! 2T yL
y ! y-coordinate of centroid C of the line
An equally simple relation exists for finding the volume generated by revolving an area about a non intersecting line in its plane.
43
Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Consider the volume generated by revolving the area A about the x-axis. Volume of the element is dV ! 2TydA Then the total volume is V ! 2T ydA But since y A ! ydA ,
V ! 2T y A
y ! y-coordinate of centroid C of the revolved area A
The above two equations express the two Theorems of Pappus. They are useful not only in determining areas and volumes of revolution but they are also employed to find the centroids of plane curves and plane areas when the corresponding areas and volumes due to revolution of these figures about a nonintersecting axis are known. When the angle of revolution is some angle U less than 2 T , the following more general relations will be used.
A ! U yL V ! U yA
where U is expressed in radians
44

Lecture Note On Statics

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Lecture Note On Statics

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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

Engineering Mechanics I (Statics)

Mechanics of rigid bodies

Mechanics of deformable bodies

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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

1.2. System of units

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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

Section-A Forces In 2D (Coplanar Force systems)

2.1. Rectangular Components

from this equation it is possible to conclude that

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Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010 Rx=F1x+F2x= and Ry=R1y+R2y=

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Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

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The cross product

Mo=rxR, since R=P+Q, we can write Mo=rxR=rx(P+Q) = rxP+rxQ

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

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Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

SECTION B. Non-coplanar force systems RectangularComponents

Fy=F cos F=F (icos

Fz=F cos cos

Introducing the direction cosines of F which are = cos

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

Department of Civil engineering

Kombolcha Institute of Technology

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WU Kombolcah Institute of Technology

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Lecture Notes on Engineering Mechanics I 2010

System of concurrent forces at O and a system of Couple vector

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