Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Introduction to Logic
Dexter Jane L. Indong

June 17, 2011

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Statements

We will dene a statement intuitively as a sentence that can be assigned either to the class of things we would call TRUE or to the class of things we could call FALSE, but not both.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Logical Connectives

Complex statements can be constructed from simple ones by means of logical connectives. Five logical connectives will be considered in this section, namely: , , , and .

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Negation

The negation of a statement P is the statement P, read as not P. The negation P is true when P is false, and false when P is true, that is, P P T F F T

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Negation

P P It is raining today. It is not raining today. 2 is a prime number. 2 is not a prime number. My shirt is black. My shirt is not black.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Conjunction
The conjunction of two statements P and Q is the statement P Q, read as P and Q. The conjunction P Q is true only if both P and Q are true; otherwise, P Q is false, that is, P Q P Q T T T T F F F T F F F F

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Conjunction

Suppose that P : John is a sophomore. and Q : 2 is less than 1. Then P Q is the statement John is a sophomore and 2 is less than 1.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Disjunction
The disjunction of two statements P and Q is the statement P Q, read as P or Q. The disjunction P Q is true if at least one of P and Q is true; otherwise, P Q is false, that is, P Q P Q T T T T F T F T T F F F

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Exclusive Disjunction
To address a statement involving P and Q that is true when precisely one of them is true, we use the exclusive disjunction, denoted by, P Q, that is, P Q P Q T T F T F T F T T F F F

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Implication
For statements P and Q, the implication is the statement: If P then Q, and is denoted by P Q. The truth table for P Q is given by P Q PQ T T T T F F F T T F F T

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Implication

If your computer is not working properly, an agent from our company will come to x it. Suppose P: Your computer is not working properly. Q: An agent from our company will come to x it.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Indeterminates

Consider the indeterminates p(x) : x = 3 and q(x) : |x| = 3.

In this case, we have p(x) q(x) can be stated as If x = 3, then |x| = 3. This implication is, in fact, a true statement.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Biconditional

The biconditional of P precisely when both P and is, P T T F F

and Q, denoted by P Q, is true Q have the same truth values, that Q PQ T T F F T F F T

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Biconditional

Suppose that P : An integer is divisible by 6. and Q : An integer is divisible by 2 and 3. Then P Q is the statement An integer is divisible by 6 if and only if it is divisible by 2 and 3.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Rules of Precedence

The hierarchical order of the connectives is as follows: , then or have the same precedence, followed by , and then .

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Rules of Precedence
The following is a list of ambiguous statements and thus, grouping symbols have to be present when writing them. 1 P Q does not stand for (P Q); it stands for (P) Q. 2 P Q Q stands for (P Q) R, not for P (Q R). 3 P R T is ambiguous, since it is not clear whether to apply or rst. 4 P Q R is ambiguous, since either occurrence of can be applied rst.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Now we go to Tautologies 2 Contradictions 3 Logical Equivalence

1

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Prime, Composite, and Component Statements

Statements without logical connectives are called prime statements while statements with connectives are called composite statements. The statements which formed a composite statement are called its component statements.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Tautology

A statement S is called a tautology if it is true for all possible combinations of truth values of the component statements that compose S. The symbol I will denote a statement that always has truth value T .

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Tautology

Prove that the following compound statements is a tautology.

1 2 3

P (P). (Q) (P Q). P (P Q) Q (Modus Ponens)

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Contradiction

A statement S is called a contradiction if it is false for all possible combinations of truth values of the component statements that are used to form S. The symbol O will denote a statement that always has truth value F .

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Contradiction

Prove that the following compound statements is a contradiction. 1 P (P). 2 (P Q) (Q (P)).

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Contradiction

In fact, if a compound statement S is a tautology, then the compound statement S is a contradiction.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Logical Equivalence

We say that statements P and Q are logically equivalent, denoted by P Q, if they have the same truth values for all combinations of truth values of their component statements.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Some Properties of Logical Equivalence

For statements P, Q and R, we have 1 Commutative Laws P Q Q P 2 Associative Laws P (Q R) (P Q)R 3 Distributive Laws P(QR) (PQ)(PR) P (Q R) (P Q)R) P Q Q P

P(QR) (PQ)(PR)

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Some Properties of Logical Equivalence

4 DeMorgans Laws (P Q) (P) (Q) 5 Rule of Double Negation P (P) 6 Or-form of an Implication P Q (P) Q 7 Contrapositive of an Implication P Q (Q) (P)
Dexter Jane L. Indong Introduction to Logic

(P Q) (P) (Q)

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Some Properties of Logical Equivalence

8 Rule for Direct Proof (P R) Q P (R Q) 9 Biconditional P Q (P Q) (Q P) The implication Q P is the converse of P Q. 10 Adjunction (P R) (P Q) (P (R Q)) 11 Rule for proof by contradiction (P Q) O (P Q)
Dexter Jane L. Indong Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Rules of Precedence

The symbol has the least precedence among the logical connectives introduced above.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Quantied Statements

Now, we go to quantied.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Universal quantier

The universal quantier x means for all x or for any x.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Universal quantier
If x is a real number, then x 2 0. This statement is an implication, of course, and can be rephrased by The square of every real number is nonnegative or For every real number x, we have x 2 0. If we dene the open sentence P(x) by P(x) : x 2 0, then we can rewrite the above statement in terms of the universal quantier as (x R)(P(x)).

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Existential quantier

The existential quantier x means there exists an x such that or there is an x such that.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Existential quantier

There exists a real number x such that x 2 = 3. If we let P(x) : x 2 = 3 then this statement can be rewritten in terms of the existential quantier as (x R)(P(x)).

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

On the Order of Quantiers

The statement Every person has a mother is of the form (x)(y )(y is the mother of x) while the statement Someone is the mother of everyone is of the form (y )(x)(y is the mother of x). If the universal set is the set of all people who have ever been alive, the rst statement is true, but the second is false.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Examples on the Use of Quantiers

For each of the following statements, use your creativity and construct several statements that are logically equivalent to the given statement. 1 No elements of the set A exceeds m. 2 Some element of the set A exceeds m. 3 A contains an element that is greater than every element of B. 4 Every element of A is greater than every element of B.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Negating Statements

Statement Negation P Q (P) (Q) P Q (P) (Q) PQ (P Q) P (Q) PQ (P (Q)) (Q (P)) (x U)(P(x)) (x U)(P(x)) (x U)(P(x)) (x U)(P(x))

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Negating Statements
Write in terms of the quantiers the negation of the following statements. 1 Someone in this class cheated on the nal exam. 2 There exists a natural number x such that x y for all y N. 3 For every > 0 there exists a > 0 such that, if 0 < |x a| < , then |f (x) L| < .

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Existence and Uniqueness

Sometimes it is important to know not only that something exists, but also that exactly one such thing exists. We say that there exists a unique x with property P, denoted by (! x U)(P(x)), provided that 1 there exists x U with property P, and 2 for all x1 U and x2 U, if x1 and x2 both have property P, then x1 = x2 .

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Counterexample

Sometimes we are presented with a mathematical statement and we are asked to verify whether it is a tautology. Of course, you can create a truth table for the given statement and check if it is indeed a tautology, that is, if all entries in the main column are T . The combination of truth values assigned to the component statements in any row that produces a false in the main column of the truth table is called a counterexample.

Dexter Jane L. Indong

Introduction to Logic

Statements Tautologies, Contradictions and Logical Equivalence Quantied Statements Negating Quantied Statements Disp

Counterexample
Show that (P Q) Q P is not a tautology. P Q (P Q) Q P T T T T F T F T F F F T The counterexample is P false and Q is true. Claiming the above example to be a tautology is a well-known fallacy of logic. It is called the fallacy of asserting the conclusion, since the conclusion Q has been asserted as part of the hypothesis.
Dexter Jane L. Indong Introduction to Logic