Activity 5.4) Soap and detergent. a) The history of soap manufacturing.

According to the story, the animal fat from the animals that are sacrificed in the fire to the Romans gods ran down the sides of the altar and mixed with the ashes of the fire. In time this goopy mess found its way down to banks of the Tiber River where women would do laundry by pounding the dirt out with rocks. What the women found was that dirt was easier to get out if the goopy junk was applied to the fabric first. The first miracle cleaner had been discovered by accident at a place near a hill called Sapo. And so the Roman historian Pliny, gave this gross confection the same name as the hill. In time sapo became our modern word soap. Romans only used soap in the laundry. They never used it on the skin because it was crude stuff and it could damage the skin. Soap is made by cooking fats and oils with toxic materials such as lye, caustic soda or potash. In order for the result not to be well disgusting, we must have the right amount of each ingredient. Too much of one raw material and the soap is greasy and wont lather. Too much of other ingredient and the soap is grainy and strong. As with all things, people began to specialize in the manufacturing of soap. The best soaps were known to come from the Castile region of Spain, where olive oil instead of animal fat as used in the making of soap. The wealthy classes in Europe used Castile soap for hundreds of years. In the American colonies, people made their own soaps at home. They made lye by mixing burnt wood ashes with water in a bucket. The lye dripped out of holes drilled in the bottom of the bucket. They got the fat they needed from the butchering of livestock. The animal fat was melted and mixed with the lye until it formed soap. As we can imagine, it was a nauseating (and dangerous) process. Nicholas Le Blanc revolutionized the soap industry by developing an inexpensive method of extracting soda from salt. He patented a process for making soda ash or sodium carbonate, Na2CO3, common salt called the Le Blanc process.

People have been making soap for thousands of years. Soap recipes have been found that date back to the ancient Romans, Greeks, and Babylonians. The early American colonists made soap from wood ashes, water, and the fat of the animals that they butchered for food. Today, many people still enjoy making their own soap from scratch. With today's technology, soap-making is easier than ever before... and it can also be lots of fun! Getting started isn't as difficult as you might think. Many of the materials we need are items that we already have in our home; the rest are readily available online, and at craft stores. Only three basic ingredients are needed to make soap: lye, oil, and water. Using only those three materials, we can make a bar of basic soap. The basic soap-making process involves mixing the lye and water, then adding that mixture to the fats. Mix it all together, let it harden and presto. We have a bar of our very own soap. It's so easy and simple, anyone can do it! Basic soap can be made with just these three ingredients, but our soap can be further customized in a variety of ways. Add sand to make it exfoliating, essential oils for scents, colorants; use a fancy mold to make it our own. Our soap can be as creative as we are!

Household cleaners use a variety of surfactants and acids.

Soaps and detergents contain "surfactants"---compounds with molecules that line up around water to break the "surface tension" that holds it together in drops. They contain a combination of fats (or triglycerides) and alkali that create molecules with two unique chemical ends. One end, the "hydrophilic" end, is attracted to water, and the other, the "hydrophobic" end, is repelled by water but attracted to grease and oil. The hydrophobic ends bond with dirt, and the hydrophilic ends line up around them, encapsulating dirt and grease with a layer of molecules that will allow the dirt to float through the water and ride it down the drain. Surfactants can be anionic (negatively charged) or nonionic (no charge). Soap, the original surfactant compound,

was made with fats such as lard and alkali from wood ashes or lye. Today a wide variety of organic and petroleum-based fatty acids are used, and sodium or potassium hydroxides have replaced wood ash or lye in commercially prepared soaps and detergents.

b) What soap and detergent are. Soap Soaps are widely used in our society. Soaps are the product of the reaction between a fat and sodium hydroxide: fat + 3NaOH glycerine + 3 soap Soap is produced industrially in four basic steps. This article lists different steps because in the industrial processes described each of these is done over several process steps, but in principle it could be done in the three steps outlined here.

Dish soap surfactants float dirt off surfaces by making water "wetter."

Soap is made two ways. The first, called "saponification," involves cooking fats and adding alkali to the mix at the end to form soap and two byproducts, water and glycerin. Step 1 - Saponification A mixture of tallow (animal fat) and coconut oil is mixed with sodium hydroxide and heated. The soap produced is the salt of a long chain carboxylic acid. Step 2 - Glycerine removal Glycerine is more valuable than soap, so most of it is removed. Some is left in the soap to help make it soft and smooth. Soap is not very soluble in salt water, whereas glycerine is, so salt is added to the wet soap causing it to separate out into soap and glycerine in salt water. Step 3 - Soap purification Any remaining sodium hydroxide is neutralised with a weak acid such as citric acid and two thirds of the remaining water removed. Step 4 - Finishing Additives such as preservatives, colour and perfume are added and mixed in with the soap and it is shaped into bars for sale. The second, called hydrolization. -Splits the fats and oils into fatty acids and glycerin using steam under pressure. It distills the acids and neutralizes them with alkali. Homemade soap hobbyists make five or six bars of soap using a pound of animal or vegetable oils, two ounces of lye (or other alkali) and about a cup of water. The oils are melted while the akali is added to the water and heated to approximately 110

degrees Fahrenheit. The lye water is added gradually to the cooled oils. The mixture gradually is simmered and re-simmered until a gelatinous substance called "trace" is formed. The trace is poured into molds and must age for several weeks to cure completely. Detergent A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of surfactants having cleaning properties in dilute solutions. In common usage, detergent refers to alkylbenzene sulfonates, a family of o soap compounds that are similar that are similar to soap but are less affected by hard water. The alkylbenzene portion of these detergents is lipophilic and the sulfonate is hydrophilic. Two varieties have been popularized, those with branched alkyl groups and those with linear alkyl groups. Detergents are similar in structure and function to soap, and for most uses they are more efficient than soap and so are more commonly used. In addition to the actual 'detergent' molecule, detergents usually incorporate a variety of other ingredients that act as water softeners, freeflowing agents etc. General Formulae for 2 common detergents: i) Sodium alkyl sulphate ii)Sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate

Making Detergent

Detergent's multiple surfactant composition provides better--but harsher-cleaning.

During the past century, the shortage of animal and vegetable fats during World War I and World War II led to the development of detergents, multiple-surfactant, hydrocarbon-based cleaners. Detergents, unlike soap, depend on chemical reactions for their formation. Petroleumbased oils (including "oleo," a compound used to make a replacement for butter) are combined with chemicals such as sulfuric acid, sulfur trioxide or ethylene oxide to form a fatty acid, which is combined with an alkali to form yet another molecule, an anionic surfactant. A second type of

process converts a hydrocarbon into a fatty alcohol that then combines with another chemical such as ethylene dioxide to form a nonionic surfactant. Homemade detergents are made by combining a bar of laundry soap such as Fels Naptha or Zote (both of which contain petroleum distillates) with a pound each of washing soda (sodium carbonate) and borax (Sodium borate decahydrate). The combination can be powdered in a blender or the soap can be liquefied with water over heat; then the soda and borax are added to make a liquid.

c) The additives in detergent (1)The detergents used for washing dishes and clothing generally have a number of additives for example, bleaches, brighteners, and abrasives. Bleaches whiten fabrics by destroying dirt and colors. Brighteners are chemicals that convert normally invisible ultraviolet light into visible light. Because of the brighteners, additional light reflects back from the fabric, making it seem more vivid, or whiter. Abrasives are ground-up particles of sand or other rock minerals added to detergents to scour stains. Ground silica, marble, pumice, or quartz are common abrasives used as additives.

d) The preparation of detergent. A synthetic detergent, a sodium alky sulfate called sodium dodecylsulfate, will be prepared by reacting dodecylalcohol (dodecanol) with acid. O CH3(CH,)10CH OH + H2SO4 CH3(CH2)10CH2 O S OH + H2O O Dodecanol sulfuric acid dodecylsulfate

The resulting dodecylsufate is converted to the sodium salt by a reaction with sodium hydroxide.

O CH3(CH2)10CH2 O S OH + NaOH O dodecylsulfate Materials Needed Dodecanol (dodecayl alcohol), C12H25OH Surfuric acid, h2so4, concentrated Sodium hydroxide, NaOH, 6M Phenolphthalein solution, 1 % CH3(CH2)10CH2 O

O S O sodiumdodecylsulfate O-Na+ + H2O

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