Efficient energy use Efficient energy use, sometimes simply called energy efficiency, is the goal of efforts to reduce

the amount of energy required to provide products and services . For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooli ng energy to achieve and maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluoresc ent lights or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required to attain the same level of illumination compared to using traditional incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 1 0 times longer than incandescent lights. Improvements in energy efficiency are m ost often achieved by adopting a more efficient technology or production process .[2] There are various motivations to improve energy efficiency. Reducing energy use reduces energy costs and may result in a financial cost saving to consumers if t he energy savings offset any additional costs of implementing an energy efficien t technology. Reducing energy use is also seen as a key solution to the problem of reducing emissions. According to the International Energy Agency, improved en ergy efficiency in buildings, industrial processes and transportation could redu ce the world's energy needs in 2050 by one third, and help control global emissi ons of greenhouse gases.[3] Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustai nable energy policy.[4] In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energ y imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic en ergy resources are depleted. Energy efficiency has proved to be a cost-effective strategy for building econom ies without necessarily growing energy consumption. For example, the state of Ca lifornia began implementing energy-efficiency measures in the mid-1970s, includi ng building code and appliance standards with strict efficiency requirements. Du ring the following years, California's energy consumption has remained approxima tely flat on a per capita basis while national U.S. consumption doubled. As part of its strategy, California implemented a "loading order" for new energy resour ces that puts energy efficiency first, renewable electricity supplies second, an d new fossil-fired power plants last. ELECTRONIC CHOKE. Essentially, the high-frequency electronic ballast is an AC/AC power converter, converting line-frequency power from the utility line to a high-frequency AC pow er in order to drive the discharge lamp. The figure shows the circuit diagram of typical high- frequency electronic ballasts. The AC/DC rectifier contains four diodes and one bulk capacitor. This simple rectification scheme is still widely used because of its lower cost. However, it has very poor line side Power Factor (PF) and large Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). The low PF increases the reacti ve power and the large THD pollute the utility line. Figure 8a shows the line vo ltage and line current of typical electronic ballasts without any Power Factor C orrection (PFC) circuitry. In order to solve this problem, rectifiers with PFC f unction is used such as Active PFC rectifier (eg. Boost converter) or Passive PF C circuitry (eg. LC filter). NEED FOR HIGH FRQUENCY AC CURRENT Magnetic ballasts are operated in 50/60Hz line frequency. Every half line cycle, they re- ignite the lamp and limit the lamp current. Although magnetic ballasts have the advantages of low cost and high reliability, there exist a t least three fundamental performance limitations due to the low-frequency opera tion. First of all, they are usually large and heavy. Second, the time constant of the discharge lamps is around one millisecond, which is shorter than the half line period (8.3ms for 60Hz line cycle), so the arc extinguishes at line voltag e zero crossing, and then is re-ignited. Figure 4 shows the measured voltage and current waveforms of an F40T12 lamp operating at 60 Hz. After every line zero c

rossing, the lamp voltage waveform has a re-strike voltage peak; during the rest of the cycle, the voltage does not vary much. This causes two big problems: The lamp electrode wearing is significant, and the lamps output light is highly susc eptible to the line voltage, which results in an annoying visible flickering. Fi nally, there is no efficient and cost-effective way to regulate the lamp power.

These drawbacks led to studying the use of high-frequency AC current to drive the discharge lamps. High-frequency operation not only results in significant ba llast volume and weight reduction, but also improves the performance of the disc harge lamp Advantages of Electronic Choke: Low cost Power saving up to 35% Operates even at fluctuating voltages from 110v to 270v AC Instant glow with no flickering increases tube life No heat generated - thus no blackening of walls No humming noise generated Power factor adjusts load on transformer, inverter & generator Easy installation and same size as normal choke Repairable and re-usable incase of malfunctioning AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION PANEL Most of the commercial and Industrial installations in the country have large el ectrical loads which are severely inductive in nature, such as motors, large machines, air co nditioners, drivers etc. Which results in a severely lagging power factor. This means loss and wastage of energy and heavy penalties by electricity boards. In case of fixed loads th is can be taken care by manual switching of capacitors. However in case of rapidly varying and scattered loads it becomes difficult to maintain a high power factor by manually switching on/off the capacitors in proportion to vari ation of load within an installation. This drawback is overcome by using an APFC panel (Auto matic Power Factor Correction Panel) which not only maintains a high power factor but also eliminates the eliminates the need for constant manual intervention. The ratio of Active Power to Apparent Power is called Power Factor (PC) : Power Factor = Active Power kw to Apparent Power KVA

Fitch Fuel Catalyst. The minute fuel leaves the refinery it begins to degrade. Made of organic compou nds, fuel at the molecular level is composed of high and, low energy constituent s. After it leaves the refinery, it is constant state of change, losing potentia l energy through oxidation and microorganism growth. By the time fuel reaches th e consumer, it has developed low energy, poorly combustible constituents.

The Fitch Fuel Catalyst reformulates fuel prior to combustion on board the vehic le, preventing oxygen and most diseases from attacking the fuel and reversing an y degradation that may have occurred prior to the fuel being introduced to the v ehicle. The Fitch Fuel Catalyst assists the combustion process by insuring that fuel is highly uniform, potent, consistent, and stable. Unlike most fuel additives, the Fitch fuel catalyst does not dissolve, nor is it absorbed by the fuel. It is permanent, pre-combusting fuel treatment that conti nuously keeps fuel fresh. Benefits to be gained from the use of the Catalyst. Improve fuel economy Improve horespower and torque Reduce emissions Less carbon deposits in engine Saves money Permanently stabilizes fuel Extend engine life Less engine and fuel system maintenance Allows the use of a lower octane fuel w/o sacrificing performance Evaporative cooling system ; Summer air conditioning systems capable of maintaining exactly the required cond itions in the conditioned space are expensive to own and operate. Sometimes, par tially effective systems may yield the best results in terms of comfort and cost . Evaporative air conditioning systems are inexpensive and offer an attractive a lternative to the conventional summer air conditioning systems in places, which are hot and dry. Evaporative air conditioning systems also find applications in hot industrial environments where the use of conventional air conditioning syste ms becomes prohibitively expensive. Evaporative cooling has been in use for many centuries in countries such as Indi a for cooling water and for providing thermal comfort in hot and dry regions. Th is system is based on the principle that when moist but unsaturated air comes in contact with a wetted surface whose temperature is higher than the dew point te mperature of air, some water from the wetted surface evaporates into air. The la tent heat of evaporation is taken from water, air or both of them. In this process, the air loses sensible heat but gai ns latent heat due to transfer of water vapour. Thus the air gets cooled and hum idified. The cooled and humidified air can be used for providing thermal. SERVICES. ENERGY AUDITS. Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision-making in the area of energy management. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its use, and se rves to identify all the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy us age according to its discrete functions. Industrial energy audit is an effective tool in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy management programme. As per the Energy Conservation Act, 2001, Energy Audit is defined as the verifica tion, monitoring and analysis of use of energy including submission of technical report containing recommendations for improving energy efficiency with cost ben efit analysis and an action plan to reduce energy consumption. 3.2.1 Need for Energy Audit

In any industry, the three top operating expenses are often found to be energy ( both electrical and thermal), labour and materials. If one were to relate to the

manageability of the cost or potential cost savings in each of the above compon ents, energy would invariably emerge as a top ranker, and thus energy manag ement function constitutes a strategic area for cost reduction. Energy Au dit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are used in any industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and where scop e for improvement exists. The Energy Audit would give a positive orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive maintenance and quality control programmes which are vit al for production and utility activities. Such an audit programme will help to k eep focus on variations which occur in the energy costs, availability and reliab ility of supply of energy, decide on appropriate energy mix, identify energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy conservation equipment etc. In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities , by lending technically feasible solutions with economic and other organization al considerations within a specified time frame. The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy cons umption per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit pro vides a benchMark (Reference point) for managing energy in the organization and also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of energy throughout the organization.

Following are the key points of what an audit form may consist of.

AUDIT FORMS 1. Building Information .. 2. Building Characteristics 3. Annual Electric Use and Cost .. Annual Non-Electric Energy Use and Cost . 4. Heating Plant .. 5. HVAC Distribution System 6. Cooling Plant .. 7. Domestic Hot Water .. 8. Food Preparation and Storage Area Equipment .. 9. Lighting 10. Solar and Renewable Resource Potential . 11. Energy Savings ..

II.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE AUDITOR CHECKLIST

A. Building Envelope B. Building Occupancy C. HVAC Systems Controls Ventilation Heating . Cooling . D. Domestic Hot Water ..

E. Lighting F. Power .. G. Refrigeration HARMONIC ANALYSIS. Power system harmonics are integer multiples of the fundamental power system fre quency. Power system harmonics are created by non-linear devices connected to th e power system. High levels of power system harmonics can create voltage distort ion and power quality problems. Harmonics in power systems result in increased heating in the equipment and cond uctors, misfiring in variable speed drives, and torque pulsations in motors. Recent advances in the field of power electronics have led to a growth in the nu mber and diversity of harmonic producing loads. This has prompted the need for m ore accurate models for power system components in order to accurately predict h armonic distortion resulting from the installation of waveform distorting loads. Harmonic analysis is done so that suitable harmonic filters can be prepared to o vercome the harmonics. HARMONIC FILTERS. Introduction to Harmonic Filters and Harmonics A harmonic filter is used to eliminate the harmonic distortion caused by applian ces. Harmonics are currents and voltages that are continuous multiples of the fu ndamental frequency of 60 Hz such as 120 Hz (2nd harmonic) and 300 Hz (5th harmo nic). Harmonic currents provide power that cannot be used and also takes up elec trical system capacity. Large quantities of harmonics can lead to malfunctioning of the system that results in downtime and increase in operating costs. The sec ond harmonic would have a frequency of 120 Hz; the third harmonic would have a f requency of 180 Hz and so on. Inside the Harmonic Filter The harmonic filter is built using an array of capacitors, inductors, and resist ors that deflect harmonic currents to the ground. Each harmonic filter could con tain many such elements, each of which is used to deflect harmonics of a specifi c frequency. The Cause and the Effect Harmonic distortion is caused by equipment that are non-linear loads. These load s use current in a pulsing manner and at times feed harmonic currents back into the wiring. In non-linear loads, the current waveform is different from the appl ied voltage waveform. This causes them to produce the following: Voltage distortions Excessive currents on neutral wires Overheating of motors Microprocessor control problems Unexplained computer crashes Examples of non-linear, harmonic-causing loads are: Electronic equipment such as personal computers Battery chargers Lighting dimmer controls Fluorescent lights Welders Electronic ballasts Printers Photocopiers Fax machines Harmonic Filter Functions The various functions that a harmonic filter performs are enumerated as follows:

1. Reduces neutral currents 2. Reduces transformer loading 3. Protects electrical systems 4. Reduces fire hazard 5. Protects the neutral conductor 6. Enhances system protection 7. Minimizes impact on distribution transformers 8. Reduces local neutral to ground voltage 9. Lowers peak phase current/average phase current 10. Increases system capacity 11. Decreases system losses 12. Improves power factor on non-linear loads 13. Reduces total harmonic distortion 14. Improves phase current balance 15. Augments phase voltage balance 1. Reduces three-phase neutral current There are two types of harmonic filters. 1. Active filters and 2. Passive filters. PINCH TECHNOLOGY. Pinch Technology is the state of the art technique for design of energy effici ent processing plants. This technique is used to compute the theoretically minimum utilities consumption for a process based on the thermal data of process streams i.e. their temperatures and heat duties in the process. This analysis establishes the Grand Composite C urve of the process, which represents the net deficit or surplus of heat in the process as a function of temperature. Pinch Point is defined as the temperature where the net deficit or surplus is zero. All processes require energy in the form of both heat and power. Cogeneration of heat and power minimizes the wastage of heat associated with power generation. Such systems are termed Combined Heat and Power (CHP) systems. Optimization of C HP systems is the area which offers maximum scope for energy cost savings in any industry.

BASICS OF PINCH TECHNOLOGY: Pinch Technology was introduced by Linnhoff and Vredeveld in 1979.It represents a set of thermodynamically based methods that guarantee minimum energy levels i n design of heat exchanger networks. The term Pinch Analysis is often used to rep resent the application of the tools and algorithms of Pinch Technology for study ing industrial processes. Some of the software packages which have been develo ped for carrying out Pinch Analysis are Pinch express, Super Target, Aspen pinch etc. Pinch Analysis presents a simple methodology for systematically analyzing chemic al processes and surrounding utility systems with the help of First and Second l aws of Thermodynamics. In practice a minimum temperature difference (DTmin) has to be maintained between the hot process streams (which have to be cooled to speci fied temperatures) and cold process streams (which have to be heated to specified temperatures). This technique is used to compute the theoretically minimum utili ties consumption for a process based on the thermal data of process streams i.e . their temperatures and heat duties in the process. The temperature level at wh ich DTmin is observed in the process is referred to as Pinch Point. The pinch defines

the minimum driving force (DTmin) allowed in the exchanger unit. . Pinch Technology gives three rules that form the basis for practical process des ign: i. No external (utility) cooling above the Pinch Temperature. ii. No e xternal (utility) heating below the Pinch Temperature. iii. No heat transfer between process streams across the Pinch Temperature. Violation of any of the above rules results in higher energy requirem ents than the theoretical minimum requirements and will adversely affect the energy efficiency. Pinch Technology has been extensively employed all over the world to improve ene rgy efficiency of various processes including Petrochemicals, Petroleum, Bul k Chemicals, Pulp and paper, Sugar, Alumina, Food Processing etc. The pro cess equipments which have been studied and optimized using Pinch Technology are Heat Exchangers, Distillation Columns, Evaporators, Refrigeration Systems etc. One of the major application of Pinch Technology is for configuration of Energy Efficient Combined Heat and Power (CHP) cogeneration systems. These are typica lly termed Power Plants for any process or Industrial Site. CHP systems include heat engines such as gas turbines, steam turbines, DG sets and steam generator s such as fuel fired boilers and heat recovery steam generators.

SOLAR ENERGY. Types of CELLS. Solar cells, photovoltaic cells are responsible for producing energy out of sun light it receives. Photovoltaic or solar cells are made of special materials whi ch are semi-conductors. These semi-conductors produces electricity when sun ligh t is falls onto its surface. Solar electric cells are simple cells to use, they are do not require any thing but sun light to operate, they are long lasting , r eliable and easy to maintain. Normally solar panels life time is twenty five yea rs. There are three basic types of solar cell. Monocrystalline cells. Monocrystalline panels use crystalline silicon produced in a large sheet which h as been cut to the size of the panel, thus making one large single cell. Metal s trips are laid over the entire cell and act as a conductor that captures electro ns. Mono panels are slightly more efficient than Polycrystalline panels but the don t usually cost more than Poly Panels. Polycrystalline cells Polycrystalline panels use a bunch of small cells put together instead of one la rge cell. Poly panels are slightly less efficient than mono panels. They are als o claimed to be cheaper to manufacturer than mono panels although we have notice d them to be very similarly priced. There are a couple different ways a polycrystalline silicon cell can be made: Cast Polysilicon: In this process, molten silicon is cast in a large block which, when cooled, can be cut into thin wafers to be used in photovoltaic cells. These cells are then assembled in a panel. Conducting metal strips are then laid over the cells, conn ecting them to each other and forming a continuous electrical current throughout the panel. String Ribbon Silicon String ribbon uses a variation of the polycrystalline production process, using

the same molten silicon but slowly drawing a thin strip of crystalline silicon o ut of the molten form. These strips of photovoltaic material are then assembled in a panel with the same metal conductor strips attaching each strip to the elec trical current. It is also said that string ribbon solar panels are even cheaper to manufacturer than the cast polysilicon method. If this were the case then why are String Rib bon Panels the most costly? This technology saves on costs over standard polycry stalline panels as it eliminates the sawing process for producing wafers. Some s tring ribbon technologies also have higher efficiency levels than other polycrys talline technologies. Amorphous or thin-film solar cell. Thin film panels are produced very differently from crystalline panels. Instead of molding, drawing or slicing crystalline silicon, the silicon material in thes e panels have no crystalline structure and can be applied as a film directly on various materials. Variations on this technology use other semiconductor materia ls like copper indium diselenide (CIS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These mater ials are then connected to the same metal conductor strips used in the other pro cesses, but do not necessarily use the other components typical in photovoltaic panels as they do not require the same level of protection needed for more fragi le crystalline cells. The primary advantages of thin film panels lie in their low manufacturing costs and versatility. Because amorphous silicon and similar semiconductors do not dep end on the long, expensive process of creating silicon crystals, they can be pro duced much more quickly. Because they can be applied in thin layers to different materials, it is also possible to make flexible solar cells. Thin film panels do have several significant drawbacks. They are the least effic ient type of solar panel currently available. Thin-film technology also uses sil icon with high levels of impurities. This can cause a drop in efficiency within a short period of time. RATINGS OF MODULES. Basically there are two types of ratings using which solar modules are rated . STC The industry standard against which all PV modules are rated and can be compared is called Standard Test Conditions (STC). STC is a defined set of laboratory te st conditions which approximate conditions under which solar panels, or PV modul es, might be used. Although there are other standards that offer better real-wor ld approximations, STC offers the most universal standard. The same standard is also used to evaluate potential installation locations, since it is the basis fo r values. STC includes three factors: 1. Irradiance (sunlight intensity or power), in Watts per square meter fall ing on a flat surface. The measurement standard is 1 kW per sq. m. (1,000 Watts/ m2) 2. Air Mass refers to thickness and clarity of the air through which the sunl ight passes to reach the modules (sun angle affects this value). The standard is 1.5. 3. Cell temperature , which will differ from ambient air temperature. STC d efines cell testing temperature as 25 degrees C. Maximum Power Point Go For The Knees! Every model of solar panel has unique performance characteristics which can be g raphically represented in a chart. The graph is called an I-V curve, and it refers to the modules output relationship between current (I) and voltage (V) under pre vailing conditions of sunlight and temperature. The curve looks like a seated pe rsons leg:

IV Curve (shows Current and Voltage) Theoretically, every solar panel has multiple I-V curves (several of which are s hown above for one particular module) one each for all the different combinations of conditions that would affect the STC rating parameters above: temperature, a ir mass, irradiance thats a lot of possible graphs! You can see from the illustrat ion above that this module loses voltage as the cell temperature increases; that effect is common to all crystalline modules. Because of Ohms Law (and the equation Power = Voltage x Current), the result of r educed voltage is reduced power output. The ideal position on any I-V curvethe sw eet spot where we can collect the most power from the moduleis at the knee. Thats th e maximum power point (MPP), and you can see that its position changes with temp erature and irradiance. In battery-based PV systems, an MPPT, or maximum power point tracking charge con troller monitors the array constantly to find the ever-changing MPP and thus cap ture the most power from the array. In straight grid-tied systems, MPPT technolo gy is built into all the inverters, so these systems tend to have very high . A Moving Target Two groups of conditions which can boost voltageand change the MPPin a PV or solar electric system include over-irradiance and temperature effects . Over-irradian ce is just a fancy way of saying sunlight with an intensity above the standardiz ed STC value of 1,000 Watts per square meter. Over-irradiance can occur in several ways: 1. Reduced Air Mass . This means less energy-robbing atmosphere for sunlight to pass through. This condition could occur at high altitudes, for example. 2. Edge-of-cloud effect. This effect occurs as a cloud shadow passes out of the incoming sunlights pathway to the solar panels. Refraction can concentrate t he sunlight while the edge of the shadow passes by. The result is a boost in mod ule voltage output. 3. Ambient sunlight reflection. Strong reflections from nearby bodies of wa ter and even a surrounding carpet of snow on a bright, winter day can produce a boost of solar intensity that can affect voltage. PTC RATINGS: PTC refers to PVUSA Test Conditions, which were developed to test and compare PV systems as part of the PVUSA (Photovoltaics for Utility Scale Applications) pro ject. PTC are 1,000 Watts per square meter solar irradiance, 20 degrees C air te mperature, and wind speed of 1 meter per second at 10 meters above ground level. PV manufacturers use Standard Test Conditions, or STC, to rate their PV product s. STC are 1,000 Watts per square meter solar irradiance, 25 degrees C cell temp erature, air mass equal to 1.5, and ASTM G173-03 standard spectrum. The PTC rati ng, which is lower than the STC rating, is generally recognized as a more realis tic measure of PV output because the test conditions better reflect "real-world" solar and climatic conditions, compared to the STC rating. All ratings in the l ist are DC (direct current) watts.

SOLAR INVERTERS. A solar inverter or PV inverter is a critical component in a solar energy system . It performs the conversion of the variable DC output of the Photovoltaic (PV) modules into a utility freqeuncy AC current that can be fed into the commercial electrical grid or used by a local, off-grid electrical network. An inverter all ows use of ordinary mains-operated appliances on a direct current system. [1] So lar inverters have special functions adapted for use with PV arrays, including m aximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection. Solar inverters may be classified into two broad types. Off grid inverters.

They used in isolated systems where the inverter draws its DC energy from batte ries charged by photovoltaic arrays. Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to replenish the battery from an AC source, when avai lable. Normally these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and as such, are not required to have anti-islanding protection. Grid tied inverters. A grid-tie inverter (GTI) is a special type of inverter that converts direct cur rent electricity into alternating current electricity and feeds it into an exist ing electrical grid. GTIs are often used to convert direct current produced by m any renewable energy sources, such as solar panels or small wind turbines, into the alternating current used to power homes and businesses. The technical name f or a grid-tie inverter is "grid-interactive inverter". They may also be called s ynchronous inverters. Grid-interactive inverters typically cannot be used in sta ndalone applications where utility power is not available. Residences and businesses that have a grid-tied electrical system are permitted in many countries to sell their energy to the utility grid. Electricity delivere d to the grid can be compensated in several ways. . SOLAR BATTERIES. In stand-alone systems, the power generated by the solar panels is usually used to charge a lead-acid battery. Other types of battery such as nickel-cadmium bat teries may be used, but the advantages of the lead-acid battery ensure that it i s still the most popular choice. A battery is composed of individual cells; each cell in a lead-acid battery produces a voltage of about 2 Volts DC, so a 12 Vol t battery needs 6 cells. The capacity of a battery is measured in Ampere-hours o r Amp-hours (Ah). For solar applications a battery needs to be capable of being discharged hundred s or even thousands of times. This type of battery is known as a deep-cycle batt ery. 1. RV / Marine / Golf Cart : RV or Marine type deep cycle batteries are ba sically for boats & campers and are suitable for only very small systems. They c an be used but do not really have the capacity for continous service with many c harge/discharge cycles for many years. Regular or Car type batteries should not be used at all because they cannot be discharged very much without internal dama ge. A very popular battery for small systems is the Golf Cart battery. They are somewhat more expensive than deep cycle recreational batteries but are probably the least expensive choice for a small system on a budget. The next 3 types are the heavier industrial type batteries. They are all also co nsidered Deep Cycle and are usually Lead Acid types with much thicker internal p lates that can withstand many deep discharge cycles. These next 3 are all design ed for alternative energy systems. 2. FLOODED TYPE: These are Lead acid batteries that have caps to add water. Many manufacturers make these types for Solar Energy use. Trojan, Surrette, and Deka are probably the most well known. They are reasonably priced and work well for many years. All flooded batteries release gas when charged and should not b e used indoors. If installed in an enclosure, a venting system should be used to vent out the gases which can be explosive. 3. GEL: Not to be confused with maintenance free batteries, sealed gel batt eries have no vents and will not release gas during the charging process like fl ooded batteries do. Venting is therefore not required and they can be used indoo rs. This is a big advantage because it allows the batteries to maintain a more c onstant temperature and perform better. 4. AGM: Absorbed Glass Mat batteries are in my opinion the best available f or Solar Power use. A woven glass mat is used between the plates to hold the ele

ctrolyte. They are leak/spill proof, do not out gas when charging, and have supe rior performance. They have all the advantages of the sealed gel types and are h igher quality, maintain voltage better, self discharge slower, and last longer. The Sun Xtender series by Concorde Battery is an excellent example of AGM batter ies. They are more expensive, but you usually get what you pay for. You will fin d this type of battery used in airplanes, hospitals, and remote telephone/cell t ower installations. MOUNTING STRUCTURES: There are four basic types of mount structures: roof/ground, top-of-pole, side-o f-pole and tracking mounts, each having their own pros and cons. For example roo f mount structures typically keep the wire run distances between the solar array and battery bank or grid-tie inverter to a minimum, which is good. But they may also require roof penetrations in multiple locations, and they require an expen sive ground fault protection device to satisfy article 690-5 of the National Ele ctrical Code-NEC. On the other hand, ground mounted solar arrays require fairly precise foundation setup, are more susceptible to theft/vandalism and excessive snow accumulation at the bottom of the array. Next are top-of-pole mounts which are relatively easy to install (you sink a 2-6 inch diameter SCH40 steel pole up to 4-6 feet in the ground with concrete). Mak e sure that the pole is plumb and mount the solar modules and rack on top of the pole. Top-of-pole mounts reduce the risk of theft/vandalism (as compared to a g round mount). They are also a better choice for cold climates because snow slide s off easily. Side of pole mounts are easy to install, but are typically used for small number s of solar modules (1-4) for remote lighting systems where there already is an e xisting pole to attach them to. Last but not least are the trackers, which increase the daily number of full sun hours and are usually used for solar water pumping applications. Trackers are e xtremely effective in the summer time when water is needed the most