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CHILDRENS REFERENCE

PLANET EARTH

This edition published in 2008 by Arcturus Publishing Limited 26/27 Bickels Yard, 151153 Bermondsey Street, London SE1 3HA Copyright 2008 Arcturus Publishing Limited All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written permission in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended). Any person or persons who do any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. ISBN: 978-1-84193-819-6 Designers: Q2A India and Talking Design Editors: Rebecca Gerlings and Alex Woolf Printed in China
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Contents
Introduction The Story of Our Planet Mountains, Valleys, and Caves Rivers, Lakes, and Deserts Oceans of the World Earths Atmosphere Seasons and Weather Volcanoes Earthquakes Tsunamis Floods and Forest Fires Hurricanes and Tornadoes Index 7 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30

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Introduction
Our home planet is the third out from the Sun, it is the largest of the rocky planets, and the only place in the universe known to harbor life. Seen from space, the Earth is a beautiful blue sphere, streaked with white. At first glance it appears to be one great ocean, and in fact water covers three-fourths of the planets surface. Zoom in closer, and you will start to see the brownish green of the continents. Closer still, and the great mountain ranges, rivers, lakes, and canyons begin to appear. In this book, you will discover many fascinating facts about the Earth. You will find out about how it formed, what its interior is like, the different layers of the Earth, and its ever-shifting surface. Learn also about its mountains, rivers, lakes, valleys, caves, and coastlines. Why do we have seasons? What is the cause of weather? How do earthquakes and tsunamis happen? You can find out the answers to these questions and many more in the pages of this book.

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Planet Earth

The Story of Our Planet

The Earth is over 4.5 billion years old. At its earliest stages, the Earths surface was continuously hit by space rocks. These collisions produced a huge amount of heat, which caused the rocks on the planet to melt. For the next million years or so, the Earth was covered with an ocean of molten rock.
Fiery Earth For years, the Earths surface was rocked by volcanic eruptions such as this one.

Key facts:
Earth at a glimpse Age: 4.5 billion years Total area: 196.9 milion square miles (510 million square kilometers) Area (land): 57.4 million square miles (149 million square kilometers) Area (water): 139.5 milion square miles (361 million square kilometers) Average land height is about 2,757 feet (840 meters) above sea level Average depth of ocean is about 12,450 feet (3,795 meters) below sea level The temperature in the inner core can be as high as 7,200 C (13,000 F). That is hotter than even the Suns surface. The crust under the ocean is about 47 miles (710 kilometers) thick, while the continental crust is about 1544 miles (2570 kilometers) thick. The continents of South America and Africa are moving away from each other at a speed of just over 1 inch (2 centimeters) every year, which is equal to the speed of growth of a fingernail.

uring the same time, radioactive elements on Earth also released a lot of heat. This caused heavy metals, such as iron and nickel, to sink into the Earths core. Lighter elements such as silicon were forced to the surface. As the Earth began to cool the elements solidified, but the molten rocks beneath pushed through cracks in the surface causing volcanic eruptions. These eruptions spewed large amounts of carbon dioxide, water vapor, ammonia, and methane. The water vapor condensed and formed clouds that eventually brought rain. The rain fell in torrents until the volcanic activity decreased and the Earth started to cool once again.

Crust

Mantle

Inner core

Outer core

Earth layers
The Earth can be divided into three different layers. The topmost solid layer is called the crust. The layer just beneath the crust is called the mantle. The temperature here is so high that even rocks exist in a partially molten state. Below the mantle is the core. It contains metals like iron and nickel.

Delving in A cross-section of the various layers of the Earth.

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Planet Earth

Always changing
Pangaea was not the only supercontinent to have existed on the Earths surface. Another supercontinent, which scientists now call Rodinia, is thought to have existed about one billion years ago. Scientists believe that Rodinia consisted of all the modern continents. Then, about 750 million years ago, Rodinia broke up into three pieces. The ever-changing surface of our planet made certain that these new land masses came together once againthis time to form another supercontinent called Pannotia.

Hard ground The plates that form the crust can be divided into continental and oceanic plates. Continental plates are thicker than oceanic plates but are lighter in weight. They are made of granite, while the oceanic plates are basalt. Today, the Earths crust consists of about a dozen major tectonic plates and several minor ones.

Moving plates activity Phase 1 Supercontinent Pangaea Phase 2 Gondwanaland and Laurasia Phase 3 Gondwanaland and Laurasia breaking up to form modern continents Pre-Pangaea Era Ancient supercontinent of Rodinia

Forever in motion
The Earths crust along with the solid part of the upper mantle is called the lithosphere. Beneath the lithosphere is the semi-liquid part of the mantle known as the asthenosphere. The molten rocks in the asthenosphere are in constant motion. This is because hot, molten rocks rise up to replace the cooler, heavier material above it, which in turn sinks below to be melted by the heat. This movement of molten rocks is known as convection. The crust is not made up of one single piece, but of several pieces of rock called tectonic plates. These plates float on the asthenosphere. The convection currents in the asthenosphere cause the tectonic plates to move.

Drifting away
If you look at the world map closely, you will see that the shapes of the continents almost seem to fit together like a jigsaw puzzle. Alfred Wegener, a famous German scientist, also noticed this strange coincidence and proposed the first fully detailed continental drift theory to explain this occurrence. According to this theory, the continents were a part of a supercontinent named Pangaea.
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A vast ocean surrounded this supercontinent. Scientists named this ocean Panthalassa. About 180 million years ago, the supercontinent Pangaea began to break up and soon two separate continents were formed. These continents were called Gondwanaland and Laurasia. Over the next few million years, Gondwanaland divided into the present Antarctica, Africa, South America, Australia, New Zealand, Madagascar, India, and Arabia (consisting of Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, Kuwait, UAE, Qatar, and Bahrain). Later, Laurasia broke up into North America and Eurasianow Europe and Asia.

Plates sliding past each other

Try these too:

Oceans (p 1415), Volcanoes (p 2021), Earthquakes (p 2223), Tsunamis (p 2425)

Planet Earth

Mountains, Valleys, and Caves

Mountains are formed when two of the continental plates that make up the Earths crust collide. The force caused by the collision pushes both plates (also called tectonic plates) upward, creating a mountain. Valleys and caves are also natural features created by erosion and the movement of the Earths crust.
It is not easy to live on high mountains. The weather is extremely cold and not suitable for farming. At very high altitudes, oxygen levels are so low that it becomes difficult to breathe without an oxygen tank and mask.
Climbing mountains Scientists climb mountains to study them.

Valleys
A valley is a low-lying area of land that is usually found at the foot of mountains or hills. The most common way valleys are formed is by the erosion of land from running water. River valleys are formed by the action of the river. As a river flows downhill, it cuts through the land like a knife. Over thousands of years the river erodes the land to form a valley, usually in the shape of a V. In contrast, valleys formed by glaciers are often U-shaped, because they are formed by rocks carried in the glacier that erode the soil. Famous valleys include Rio Grande Valley and Death Valley (USA).

Plateaus
Like a mountain, a plateau is higher than its surrounding area. However, plateaus have a flat top, while mountains have peaks. Like mountains, plateaus are formed when two plates collide, but erosion by wind and water flattens the top. Some plateaus, such as the Tibetan Plateau, lie between two mountain ranges.

Key facts:
Highest mountains At a height of about 29,028 feet (8,848 meters) above sea level, Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. It is a part of the Himalayan mountain range that was formed about 1015 million years ago. Other high mountains: Godwin Austen (K2), Pakistan/India: 28,250 (8,611) Kanchenjunga, India/Nepal: 28,208 (8,586) The Grand Canyon The Grand Canyon is about 277 miles (446 kilometers) long and roughly 1 mile (1.6 kilometers) deep. It is made up of several layers of rock, each one older than the one above it. Glacial valleys When glaciers slowly flow downhill, they collect many pieces of rock on the way. These pieces scrape against the valley floor, digging deeper into it, until a U-shaped valley is formed.
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Plate 1

Mountains

Plate 2

Hills
Hills rise above the surrounding area, but are lower and less steep than mountains. Hills form through erosion of mountains or by the depositing of sediment by glaciers. The rounded peaks of hills is due to the movement of soil and small rocks covering the hill, a process known as downhill creep.

Forming a mountain Mountains are formed when two of the Earths tectonic plates collide. The crust is forced up between the two plates, giving birth to the mountain range. U-shaped valley Glaciers carry stones that scour out the soil, forming U-shaped valleys. Rivers, in contrast, usually form V-shaped valleys.

Canyons
A deep valley with cliffs on both sides is called a canyon. Sometimes a large river may run through a canyon. The Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA, is the worlds largest canyon. It was formed by the Colorado River. Millions of years ago, this region was covered by sea. Slowly, a part of the sea floor was pushed up to form a plateau. Over the years, rainwater collected to form a river. This river cut into the rocks on the plateau to form the canyon.

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Planet Earth

Caves of lava
When volcanoes erupt, lava flows down the side of the volcano. The surface of the lava cools and becomes solid, while hot lava continues to flow underneath it. Once the eruption is over, there is a hollow tube, or cave, left behind underneath the hard crust of lava.

Caves
Caves are huge holes under the ground, in cliffs or under the sea. Caves can be formed in many ways. Most rock caves, especially limestone caves, are formed by rainwater that seeps into tiny cracks in the rocks. The rainwater contains minerals and chemicals that slowly causes the rock to dissolve, leaving behind a large hole. This process may take several thousand, or even a few million years. The largest known cave system in the world is Mammoth Cave in Kentucky, which has passages totalling 360 miles (579 kilometers) in length.

Sea caves
Sea caves are formed by waves that wear away the rocks at the base of a cliff. These rocks are usually very weak and have tiny cracks in them. The continuous pounding of the waves causes the tiny cracks to widen and soon the rocks begin to crumble and form small hollows. These hollows keep expanding as sand, gravel and rocks brought by the waves erode their inner walls. Some sea caves are submerged during high tide and can only be seen when the water goes down at low tide.
Rift in the Earth When two of the Earths plates move away from each other, the soil covering them falls down and forms a rift valley. The rift valleys in East Africa now form a series of lakes.

Sea cave Sea caves are most common in areas where the rocks on the coast are soft.

Try these too:

The Story of Our Planet (p 89), Rivers, Lakes, and Deserts (p 1213), Volcanoes (p 2021), Oceans of the World (p 1415), Earthquakes (p 2223), Tsunamis (p 2425)

Normal Faults

Rift valleys
A rift valley is created when two tectonic plates pull away from each other, leaving a low space in the middle. The Great Rift Valley is the best known rift valley in the world. It covers a distance of over 3,700 miles (6,000 kilometers), stretching from northern Syria in West Asia to central Mozambique in East Africa. It began to form about 35 million years ago, when the African and Arabian tectonic plates began to pull apart. Even today it is still growing, as East Africa slowly separates from the rest of Africa.
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Earths Crust

Mantle

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Planet Earth

Rivers, Lakes, and Deserts

Rivers, lakes, and streams are natural bodies of water that are found across the world. When it rains or when snow on mountains melts, the water flows down the slopes, forming streams. Several streams join together to form a river. Small rivers drain into larger rivers. The water in rivers keeps flowing until it reaches the sea, though a few rivers hit very dry desert land and dry up.

Waterfalls
Sometimes the surface over which a river flows drops suddenly. Then the water flows over to form a waterfall. There are different kinds of waterfalls. A cascade waterfall flows down a series of natural rock steps. There are no steps in a free-falling waterfall. In a fan waterfall, the water spreads out as it falls down. Angel Falls in Venezuela is the highest free-falling waterfall in the world. The water falls 2,648 feet (807 meters) without any interruption. Often, the sunlight falling over a waterfall creates a rainbow.

Key facts:
Longest rivers (in miles/kilometers Nile, Africa: 4,160 (6,695) Amazon, South America: 4,000 (6,387) Yangtze, China: 3,964 (6,380) Mississippi, USA: 3,896 (6,270) Yenisey-Angara, Russia 3,449 (5,550) Largest lakes (in square miles/ square kilometers Caspian Sea (saline), Asia/Europe: 143,244 (371,000) Superior (freshwater), North America: 31,700 (82,103) Victoria, Africa: 29,828 (68,870) Ladoga (freshwater), Russia: 11,000 (17,700) Vostok (subglacial), Antarctica: 9,750 (15,690) Largest deserts (in square miles / square kilometers Sahara, Africa: 3,500,000 (9,096,000) Arabian, Middle East: 1,000,000 (1,600,000) Gobi, Mongolia/China: 500,000 (1,295,000) Kalahari, Southern Africa: 200,000 (500,000)
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Floods
Rivers often overflow their banks and flood the land around them. This can happen when there has been a lot of rain or a lot of snow has melted in the mountain where the river starts its journey. The severity of a flood is measured by how often such a flood happens. A ten-year flood happens, on average, once every ten years. A hundred-year flood would be far more serious. Floods are often very destructive. They can damage crops and houses and kill people. But in the long run they can also do some good. They bring fresh soil down the river and spread it on the flooded land. Egyptian farmers have been dependent on the annual flooding of the Nile for thousands of years. The Amazon and the Ganges Rivers regularly bring fertile soil to the agricultural areas downstream.
Longest river The ancient civilization of Egypt started along the banks of the Nile.

Largest freshwater lake Lake Superior in North America is the largest freshwater lake in the world by area and the third largest by volume.

Lakes
Sometimes, rainwater collects in big hollows in the ground to form lakes. These hollows can be formed by the movement of the plates that make up the Earths crust, or by moving glaciers. Lakes are also formed by landslides that leave huge depressions in the ground. The vast majority of lakes contain freshwater. However, in places containing a large amount of salt, lake water can be salty. Large lakes are sometimes known as inland seas.

View from space This photograph, taken from an artificial satellite, shows Lake Baikal in southern Siberia. The size of the lake has been reduced in recent years, as more and more of its water is taken away for irrigation. It is considered to be one of the most serious problems in the region.

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Planet Earth

Largest desert The Sahara is the worlds largest hot desert. It spreads right across northern Africa from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Red Sea in the east. Sand and rock cover most of the dry Sahara, but there are oases where people have lived for centuries.

Try these too:

The Story of Our Planet (p 89), Mountains, Valleys, and Caves (p 1011), Oceans of the World (p 1415)

Deserts
A desert is a dry region with very little rainfall. A region that receives less than 10 inches (250 millimeters) of rain per year is classified as a desert. During the day, temperatures in a desert can rise above 50 C (122 F). However, nights in a desert can be extremely cold. Most deserts are covered with sand and rocks. Animals and plants that live in this habitat are specially adapted to life with little water and extreme changes in temperature. Deserts sometimes contain valuable mineral deposits that were formed in the dry conditions or that were exposed by erosion.

Cold desert
Most deserts are hot during the day, but some deserts are in the coldest parts of the Earth. Some cold deserts are covered in ice throughout the year, allowing very few plants to grow. Cold deserts are also not very suitable for animals. Few species can survive such extreme cold for long periods of time. Antarctica is the largest cold desert in the world. Patagonia in the southernmost part of South America and Gobi in Mongolia are also cold deserts.

Montane deserts
Some deserts, located at very high altitudes, are known as montane deserts. They are common in the Himalayas. Some, like the Tibetan Plateau, are relatively flat. Very few animals can survive the extreme cold and dryness, but the yak lives in Tibet.

Oases
For most part deserts are dry and have no water bodies. However, small springs with trees and plants growing around them can be found in certain places. These isolated regions are called oases. An oasis is vital for all forms of life in the desert.
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Planet Earth

Oceans of the World

Oceans occupy about 70 percent of the Earths surface. The water in the oceans cannot be used for drinking since it is very salty. However, the ocean is home to a huge variety of fish and other creatures. There are five oceans in the world. They are the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Southern oceans.
Pacific Ocean Atlantic Ocean Southern Ocean

Arctic Ocean

Pacific Ocean Indian Ocean

Key facts:
Size of the Oceans (in million square miles/kilometers Pacific: 43.5 (70) Atlantic: 25.5 (41) Indian: 17.6 (28.4) Arctic: 5.54 (3.44) The temperature of the water from a hydrothermal vent can be as high as 400 C (752 F). This water is rich in minerals and hydrogen sulphide. Most ocean currents flow in gyres, or large loops, which spin clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and anti-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. This is called the Coriolis Effect and is caused by the Earths rotation. The Arctic Ocean is the smallest and the shallowest of all oceans. Its deepest point is only 17,880 feet (5,450 meters). This is not even half the depth of the Challenger Deep, which is the deepest point in the Pacific Ocean and in the world. The Pacific Ocean gets its name from the Spanish word pacifico, meaning peaceful. It was named by Ferdinand Magellan, the Portuguese explorer, who thought that it looked calm.
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he surface under the oceans is called the ocean floor. This consists of continental shelves, continental slopes, and abyssal plains. The edges of islands and continents gently slope into the surrounding water to form the continental shelves. These usually extend to a distance of 47 miles (75 kilometers), and much of marine life can be found here. The point where a shelf starts to plunge steeply toward the ocean floor is called a continental slope. It is here that one can find the deep canyons of the ocean. The sediments in continental slopes often pile up to form gentle slopes called continental rises. A continental shelf, slope, and rise are together known as a continental margin. In many places, the ocean floor forms vast, flat expanses called abyssal plains.

One ocean, many names There is only one ocean in the world. It is made up of four major ocean basinsPacific, Atlantic, Indian, and Arctic. The Southern Ocean is also part of these oceans.

Ridges
Like the continents, the ocean floor also contains tectonic plates. The movement of these plates creates features like ridges, trenches, seamounts, and valleys. The ridges are connected to form a single chain called the mid-ocean ridge that is over 50,000 miles (80,000 kilometers) long and the longest mountain chain on Earth.
Seamount Abyssal plain Mid-ocean ridge

Guyot Shelf

Oceanic features A view of the ocean floor depicting its different features, including continental shelf, continental slope, Submarine canyon continental rise, underwater canyons, trenches, and ridges.

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Planet Earth

Trenches
Trenches are formed when the heavier plate plunges beneath the lighter one. Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest of its kind. The Challenger Deep is the deepest point of this trench, and also on Earth.

Hot water
The ocean contains hot springs, also known as hydrothermal vents. When water seeps into the crust through cracks, it is often heated by the magma found beneath. As the pressure builds up within the crust, the hot water shoots up through cracks in the ocean floor forming hydrothermal vents. When the scalding water comes in contact with the cold water above, chimney-like jets of warm water are created. These jets are often black because of the mineral content in the water, so they are also called black smokers.

Volcanoes under water

Almost 90 percent of the worlds volcanic activity takes place under the ocean. These underwater volcanoes are called seamounts. Surface 0 A seamount with a flat crest isContinental Shelf a known as guyot, while those with peaks are called seapeaks. Most undersea volcanoes are found 10 along the mid-ocean ridge. Undersea volcanoes Continental Slope also form volcanic islands.
Depth (1000s of feet)

Mariana Ridge Marina Trench

Plunging deep The Challenger Deepthe deepest point of Marina Trenchis about 36,200 feet (11,033 meters), deep.

Mountain range Coastal plain

20

Abyssal Plain

Trench

Continental shelf

30 0 100 Distance (miles) 200

Ocean trench

Rising magma

Islands of fire The hot spot in the Pacific Ocean is now under Hawaii, the largest of the Hawaiian Islands. Hawaii has five volcanoes Kilauea, Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, Hualalai, and Kohala.

If magma keeps oozing out of a seamount for millions of years, the mount can slowly rise above the ocean surface as an island. Sometimes, volcanic activity takes place over a hot spot. The constant movement of tectonic plates eventually shifts the volcano away from the hot spot. Soon, another volcano is created in the area near the hot spot. This often leads to the formation of a chain of islands, such as the Hawaiian Islands.
601FBDEF-0728-4A03-8324-625CB4CC5E34

Try these too:

The Story of Our Planet (p 89), Mountains, Valleys, and Caves (p 1011), Rivers, Lakes, and Deserts (p 1213), Volcanoes (p 2021), Earthquakes (p 2223), Tsunamis (p 2425)

Pacific Ocean

Hawaiian Islands

Hawaii

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Planet Earth

Earths Atmosphere
Exosphere

The Earth is surrounded by a protective blanket of air called the atmosphere. When the Earth was newly formed, the atmosphere mainly consisted of hydrogen and helium, just like the atmosphere of all the other planets. This atmosphere was destroyed due to extreme heat. Then, about 3.5 million years ago, the Earths present atmosphere was created.

Key facts:
Water vapor is responsible for over 60 percent of the greenhouse effect. Carbon dioxide is the second most important greenhouse gas. Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, are capable of trapping more heat than any other greenhouse gas. An increase in the atmospheric CFCs is largely responsible for global warming. The increasing levels of CFCs are also responsible for the destruction of the ozone layer. The chemicals in CFCs destroy the ozone, creating a hole in the ozone layer. This will in turn allow harmful ultraviolet rays to enter the atmosphere. These rays can cause severe health problems, including skin cancer. Global warming can cause significant changes in the climatic conditions across the world. An increase in the temperatures of the atmosphere will lead to increased evaporation, melting of glaciers and polar ice caps, and an alarming rise in sea levels. It will change the Earth as we know it. In fact, global warming is thought to have ended the Ice Age.
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ike the Earths surface, the atmosphere can also be divided into several layers troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The layers are based on temperature and density.

Troposphere
The troposphere is the layer closest to the Earths surface. It stretches about 5 to 9 miles (8 to 14.5 kilometers) above sea level. The process of weather takes place in this layer. As you climb higher, the temperature drops from about 17 to -52 C (62 to -62 F).

Thermosphere

Stratosphere
The layer above the troposphere is called the stratosphere. It extends upward to about 31 miles (50 kilometers). The stratosphere contains a gas known as ozone, which absorbs the harmful ultraviolet rays of the Sun. The temperature in this region increases gradually to -3 C (26 F) due to the absorption of ultraviolet rays.
Mesosphere

The final layers

The final layers of the atmosphere are the mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere. The mesosphere extends above the stratosphere to about 53 miles (85 kilometers). The thermosphere extends to 372 miles (600 kilometers). Part of the thermosphere, known as the ionosphere, contains high-energy particles called ions that reflect radio waves, making long-distance radio communication possible. The exosphere, the final layer of the Earths atmosphere, merges with outer space. The air in the exosphere is very thin and mainly contains hydrogen and helium gases.

Stratosphere

Troposphere

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Planet Earth

A natural greenhouse
The atmosphere sends most of the Suns heat back into space. Gases like water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, trap a part of this reflected heat, keeping the Earth warm even at night. This process is called the natural greenhouse effect because it is similar to what happens in a greenhouse filled with plants. Greenhouse gases in normal quantities are essential, but an increase in the level of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere causes more heat to be trapped, leading to global warming.

U.S. 186.1 Total CO2 emissions since 1952 in billions of tons

Poland 14.4

Russia 68.4

Kazakhstan 10.1

Canada 14.9 European union 127.8 Ukraine 21.7 India 15.5

China 57.6

Japan 31.2

Mexico 7.8

16 to 7 to 2.5 0.8 to 0.1 to 0 to 36 16 to 7 2.5 0.8 0.1

South Africa 8.5

Australia 7.6

A complex atmosphere Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the atmosphere, while 21 percent is composed of oxygen. The remainder is a combination of carbon dioxide, water vapor, argon, and trace gases like neon, helium, krypton, and xenon. Trace gases are only present in extremely small amounts.

Air pressure
The Earths gravity pulls the atmosphere toward its surface. The air in the upper atmospheric layers exerts weight on the layers below. This weight is known as pressure. The force exerted on the lower layers is stronger than on the upper layers, so there is less pressure at high altitudes. Atmospheric pressure depends on the amount of gas molecules present and their speed. As we rise through the layers of the atmosphere, the number of molecules falls. This in turn causes the atmospheric pressure to decrease. Since atmospheric pressure decreases with height, it changes according to location. For example, the atmospheric pressure on a mountain is lower than that at sea level. Atmospheric pressure also changes according to temperature. The atmospheric pressure usually decreases as the temperature increases.
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Pen

Aneroid

Try these too:

Measuring pressure Atmospheric pressure is measured using an aneroid barometer. As the pressure increases, the barometer is squeezed; as the pressure decreases, the barometer is released. The barometer is connected to a pen and paper on a slowly rotating cylinder. The increases and decreases in pressure cause the pen to move up and down the paper and thereby record the changes.
The Story of Our Planet (p 89), Oceans of the World (p 1415), Seasons and Weather (p 1819), Hurricanes and Tornadoes (p 2829)

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Planet Earth

Seasons and Weather

As the Earth goes around the Sun, it also rotates on its own axis. The Earths axis is tilted, meaning that the poles of the Earth receive sunlight at different times. The Earths movement is largely responsible for seasons, climate, and weather patterns. It is also responsible for day and night.
Earths orbit

Key facts:
The highest shade temperature of 57.7 C (136 F) was recorded at Al'Azizyah, Saudi Arabia in 1922. The coldest temperature ever of -89 C (129 F) was recorded in 1983 at Vostock, Antarctica. At an average of 463 inches (11,700 millimeters), Tutunendo, in Columbia, receives the highest amount of rainfall every year. Arica in Chile receives the least rainfall. It gets only 0.03 inches (0.76 millimeters) of rain each year. In the Northern Hemisphere the longest day falls during the summer, on 21 June, when the northern half of the Earth is tipped toward the Sun. This is knows as the summer solstice. During the winter solstice (22 December), the northern part is tipped away from the Sun, resulting in the longest night of the year. On 23 September and 21 March the Earth is positioned in such a manner that the length of day and night is equal (12 hours each). These days are known as autumnal and spring equinoxes.
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he Earths axis is an imaginary line passing through the North Pole and the South Pole. This line is slightly tilted to one side. That is why both poles receive sunlight. At any given point of time, half of the Earth faces the Sun, and therefore it is daytime in that part and night in the half that faces away from the Sun. Since the Earth spins in an eastward direction, the Sun appears to rise from the east and set in the west.

Weather and climate

The tilted axis is also responsible for weather and climatic patterns. Since sunlight falls at varying angles onto the Earths surface, it heats up different parts of the planet differently. This causes temperature differences that result in the generation of wind and eventually leads to various weather conditions. A particular weather condition in a place for an extended period of time is known as climate.
Summer

Tilted axis If the Earths axis had been vertical neither pole would receive light and there would be no life in these regions.

Earths revolution
As well as spinning on its own axis, the Earth also revolves around the Sun. The Earth takes about 365 days to complete one revolution. Throughout its orbit, the Earths tilted axis remains pointed toward the same direction. Therefore, different parts of the Earth receive varying amounts of sunlight all through the year. For example, the North Pole faces the Sun for a part of the year. During this time, the Suns light falls on the northern part of the world more directly. At the same time, the southern part receives less sunlight. It is this difference that causes the four seasons spring, summer, autumn, and winter.

Spring

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Planet Earth

Extreme weather
Weather is not always pleasant. Sometimes, nature unleashes her fury in the form of hurricanes and tornadoes. There are many reasons for such extreme weather conditions. Hurricanes are tropical storms with strong winds that travel at speeds of about 73 miles/hour (117 kilometers/hour). They are formed in places close to the equator. Hurricanes are born when the heated air above the sea rises up to create a low-pressure area at the surface. The cooler trade winds (winds over the equator) move into this region. The Earths rotation causes the rising air to twist and form a cylinder. The warm air slowly cools down to produce huge clouds. Tornadoes are produced by huge thunderstorms that are formed when cold, dry polar winds mix with warm, moist tropical air.

Length of day The angle at which sunlight falls on a particular area determines the length of day and night in that region, making days longer during summer and shorter in winter.

Climates of the world The five main types of climates include tropical, dry, warm temperate, cold temperate, and cold climates. Seasonal change Changes in weather conditions, such as a drop or rise in temperatures, are indicative of a change in the season. Permanent ice Polar Cool temperate Desert Warm temperate Tropical Mountains

Autumn

Causes of weather
Weather patterns are influenced by temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, cloud, and precipitation, all of which are affected by sunlight. Water in the oceans, rivers, and lakes evaporates due to the Suns heat. This process forms water vapor, which is absorbed by the air near the Earths surface. When the air containing water vapor is heated, it rises up and begins to cool down. As a result, the water vapor in the air condenses to form clouds, containing tiny droplets of water. These droplets grow larger in size and finally fall down as rain. Sometimes, these droplets freeze into ice crystalssnowon their way to Earth.
Clouds of change Different types of clouds are responsible for different kinds of weather.

Try these too:

Rivers, Lakes, and Deserts (p 1213), Floods and Forest Fires (p 2627), Hurricanes and Tornadoes (p 2829)

Winter

High clouds Cirrostratus

Altocumulus Middle clouds

Nimbostratus Low clouds

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Planet Earth

Volcanoes
Volcanoes are mountains formed by the accumulation of molten rocks and ash around an opening on the Earths surface. They are usually formed when an oceanic plate slips beneath a continental plate. The sudden movement generates a lot of heat, which melts part of the oceanic plate. The magma, or molten rock, which is formed collects below the Earths surface.

Volcanic material
During an eruption, a volcano ejects various substances like lava, rock fragments, ash, and gases. The magma that comes out at the surface is called lava. It is extremely hot and is reddish orange in color. Lava can be thrown high up into the air if the eruption is explosive. Sometimes, it just spills over the sides of the vent and flows down the slopes of the volcano. It can come out of a single vent on top or ooze out of vents on the sides. Thicker lava travels slowly and covers shorter distances before cooling, while fluid lava can flow for several miles before it solidifies. Lava flows cover the landscape, burning and burying trees and fields. All materials that are thrown into the air during a violent eruption are called pyroclasts. These include ash, cinders, and balls of molten lava called volcanic bombs.
Fiery lava Inside the magma chamber, the temperature of the magma can be as high as 1,200 C (2,200 F). When the magma reaches the surface and flows out as lava the temperature decreases, but even lava is as hot as 900 C1,170 C (1,600 F2,140 F).

Key facts:
Top five deadliest volcanic erutpions Tambora, Indonesia in 181592,000 killed Krakatau, Indonesia in 188336,000 drowned Pelee, Martinique in 190230,000 dead Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia in 1985 about 25,000 killed Unzen, Japan in 1792 over 15,000 killed There are over 500 active volcanoes in the world. Eighty percent of these volcanoes are found in the ocean. The jets of hot water and steam that are ejected from geysers are known to reach heights of about 1,640 feet (500 meters). Mauna Loa, which makes up a large part of the Hawaiian Islands, is the largest active volcano in the world. It is more than 13,450 feet (4,100 meters) tall and has erupted 33 times since the first time in 1843.

hen a large amount of magma is collected beneath the surface, the pressure inside ejects the magma, causing an eruption. Volcanoes are usually found on the boundaries of plates. However, they can also be formed over regions known as hot spots. A hot spot is an area in the mantle where a large amount of magma is produced. This magma comes out through tiny cracks in the crust to form volcanoes. The hot spot stays in one place as the plates above keep moving, to form a string of volcanoes.
Volatile region The Ring of Fire stretches from New Zealand, along the eastern coastline of Asia, across the Aleutian Islands and along the western coast of North and South America. This region is known for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.

Volcanic zone

Most of the worlds biggest volcanoes are found around the Pacific Ocean, in the Ring of Fire. This area is composed of the Pacific Oceanic plate and three smaller plates. The edges of the oceanic plates lie near several continental plates, making this region highly vulnerable to volcanic activity.

Jets of hot water When surface water trickles into the mantle it is heated. Soon, the pressure builds up and the hot water erupts through cracks in the crust. These jets of hot water are called geysers.
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Planet Earth

Types of volcanoes
There are different types of volcanoesactive, intermittent, dormant, and extinct, depending on the frequency of eruption. Active volcanoes erupt constantly, while intermittent volcanoes are those that erupt at regular intervals. The most dangerous volcanoes are those that are dormant or extinct. Dormant volcanoes are merely sleeping and can erupt without any warning. Extinct volcanoes are those that have not erupted for several thousands of years. It is difficult to distinguish clearly between the two, since some volcanoes remain quiet for a very long time before suddenly becoming active once again. Volcanoes are also classified according to their shapes and the type of materials they are composed of.

Whats that noise?

Eruptions can be explosive or non-explosive depending on the thickness of the lava and the amount of gas formed inside the magma chamber and the vent. If the lava is thick, it will block the opening, making the eruption explosive. During explosive eruptions, thick lava and fragments of volcanic and non-volcanic rock are thrown out of the vent. In non-explosive eruptions the lava flows out of vents located on the sides of the volcano. Cinder cones are volcanoes that are formed by tephra, or the solid material ejected from the vent. These solid pieces fall back on to the ground to form a cone-shaped mountain. A shield volcano is formed when a large amount of liquid lava flows out of a vent. This lava spreads around to form a broad, dome-shaped mountain. Composite volcanoes, also known as stratovolcanoes, are huge and steep. They are composed of alternating layers of lava, volcanic ash, cinders, and rocks. Most of them have a crater on top with a single central vent or a group of vents. Some of the biggest mountains in the world, including Mount Fuji, Mount St Helens, and Mount Vesuvius are composite volcanoes.

Shield volcano

Cinder, ash and lava

Cinder cone

Crater

Cone

Composite volcano Lava domes Sometimes the lava is so thick that it does not flow far, but piles up around the vent to form lava domes, which are usually found near composite volcanoes. Some domes take years to grow. The Santiaguito Dome in Guatemala began to erupt in 1922 and is still growing. An active life Kilauea in the Hawaiin Islands is the most active volcano in the world, with eruptions occurring almost continuously. Magma chamber

Molten lava Vent

Try these too:

Oceans of the World (p 1415), Earths Atmosphere (p 1617), Earthquakes (p 2223), Tsunamis (p 2425)

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Planet Earth

Earthquakes
Like volcanoes, earthquakes are caused by the movement of tectonic plates. When the plates separate or slide past each other suddenly, it makes the Earth tremble. This is called an earthquake. Most earthquakes are too small to be felt. But massive earthquakes cause the ground to shake so hard that even houses and other buildings can collapse.

Key dates:
18 April 1906 An earthquake hits San Francisco. It only lasts for about 60 seconds, but kills more than 700 people. 1 September 1923 The Japanese cities of Tokyo and Yokohama are hit by the Great Kanto earthquake. The quake kills more than 100,000 people. 28 July 1976 An earthquake measuring 7.8 on the Richter scale shook the Chinese city of Tangshan. It destroyed 85 percent of the buildings and killed over half a million people in the city and surrounding area. 8 October 2005 An earthquake measuring 7.6 on the Richter scale hits Pakistan and parts of Kashmir, India, killing over 100,000 people.

t is possible to measure the strength of an earthquake. However, it is impossible to predict where and when an earthquake will occur. People who live in earthquake-prone cities have to be well prepared and trained to protect themselves during emergencies. Nowadays, buildings are constructed so that they can withstand the strongest earthquakes.

Recording a quake The changes in the intensity of an earthquake cause vibrations. These vibrations are recorded by a seismograph in the form of zigzag lines.

Line of fault
Most earthquakes occur along a fault. A fault is a region where pieces of broken rocks found under the Earths surface slide past each other. These faults are marked by cracks on the Earths surface caused by plate movement. Most faults are located near the plate boundaries. However, small faults can be found far away from the boundaries. The presence of faults allows the rock fragments that form the crust to shift. Over a period of time, plate movement builds up pressure, causing large blocks of rocks along a fault to bend or break with a jolt. This sudden movement releases energy that moves through the surface in the form of waves. This is what is commonly known as an earthquake.

Measuring tremors
Earthquakes are measured using the Richter scale. This scale was developed in 1935 by the famous American seismologist Charles F. Richter, along with his fellow scientist Beno Gutenberg of Germany. The Richter scale uses numbers from 1 to 10 to measure the intensity of an earthquake. Each increase of one point on the scale indicates a tenfold increase in the magnitude of an earthquake and about 33 times the amount of energy released. So, a level 5.0 earthquake is ten times stronger than a level 4.0 earthquake. The instrument used to measure the intensity and location of an earthquake is called a seismograph. This instrument contains sensors known as seismometers that can detect even the slightest movement in the ground.

Epicenter Fault line Focus of disaster The point within the Earth where the rocks first begin to break is called the focus or hypocenter of the earthquake. The point on the Earths surface that lies directly above the focus is the epicenter. The earthquake is strongest near its epicenter.
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Hypocenter

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Planet Earth

Side effects of quakes

Earthquakes can be very destructive. A strong quake can topple even the largest of buildings and bridges, trapping people underneath them. It can also cause gas pipes and electrical wires to break, starting fires that can rage for several days. The violent shaking of the ground can cause liquefaction, where loose, moist soil or sand turns into a quicksandlike slurry that can suck in entire buildings. Earthquakes can also cause landslides and avalanches. Strong tremors sometimes loosen chunks of snow or mud that slide down the slopes of mountains and hills. Houses and people can get buried under tons of snow or mud.

Terrible tremors The San Fernando earthquake of 1971 was one of the worst earthquakes in the history of California. The quake was responsible for enormous property damage. It also caused many landslides in the regions near the San Gabriel Mountains.

Predicting quakes
Some natural disasters are predictable or give some warning, and cities can prepare plans to evacuate people from the area and minimize loss of life. Earthquakes, however, usually strike with no more than a few minutes warning, so evacuation is rarely possible. By studying the intervals between earthquakes in the past and measuring the movement of plates, seismologists are able to say which places may be due for a large earthquake, but they cannot yet predict accurately when an earthquake will occur. San Francisco, for example, can expect a major earthquake in the next 20 yearsbut that is too vague to help people living in the area. This table shows the approximate frequency of earthquakes, according to their size: Richter scale rating 0.52.0 5 7 9
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How often? 8,000 per day 800 per year 18 per year 1 in 20 years

Quake-damaged house The first warning of an earthquake for most people is the foreshock, which causes windows to rattle and objects to move around. Sometimes, though, there is no warning and the ground suddenly lurches dramatically.

Try these too:

The Story of Our Planet (p 89), Oceans of the World (p 1415), Tsunamis (p 2425)

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Planet Earth

Tsunamis
A tsunami is a huge wave that can flood the land with devastating effects. The word tsunami is Japanese for harbor wave. Tsunamis can flood towns and villages with little warning, destroying all in their path and killing people and animals. When the wave retreats, everything can be swept out to sea.

Key dates:
November 1, 1755 After being rocked by one of the most powerful earthquakes in recorded history, the city of Lisbon was then hit by a massive tsunami. The two disasters killed 100,000 people, a third of the citys population. August 26, 1883 When the Indonesian island of Krakatau exploded in a massive volcanic eruption, the sea rushed into the hole where the island had been, causing a huge tsunami. About 36,000 people died on the coasts of surrounding lands. August 17, 1976 A tsunami centered on the Cotabato Trench in the Celebes Sea swept away Pagadian City in the Philippines while the population slept, killing more than 7,000. December 26, 2004 An earthquake in the Indian Ocean off the northwest coast of the Indonesian island of Sumatra caused the most devastating tsunami in human history. Nearly 300,000 people were killed or reported missing, most of them in Sumatra, Thailand, Sri Lanka, and India, and more than a million were made homeless.
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Tsunamis are caused by a disturbance in or under the sea that makes a large volume of water move suddenly. Most are caused by earthquakesthough landslides, volcanic eruptions, and even meteorites falling into the sea can cause tsunamis. Smaller bodies of water, like lakes and rivers, can also be affected by tsunamis. The eruption of Mount Saint Helens in Washington State in 1980 caused a tsunami on nearby Spirit Lake.

Ruined homes The remains of houses in Aceh, Indonesia, hit by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.

a tsunami that struck the Hawaiian Islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean was caused by an earthquake in the Aleutian Trench, off the coast of Alaska, five hours earlier. The earthquake was over 2,500 miles (4,000 kilometers) from Hawaii.

Tsunami formation
This diagram shows how a tsunami forms following an undersea earthquake. The seabed has moved upward, causing a displacement of water that produces a series of powerful waves. These waves move rapidly in the open sea, passing harmlessly under boats. As they approach a shoreline, they slow down and bunch into towering waves, before crashing ashore as a tsunami. A tsunami can strike land a long way from the event that causes iteven the other side of the ocean. In 1946,

Build-up
A tsunami may start far out at sea or near the coast. An earthquake under the water makes a series of waves that travel

outward in a circle from the epicenter (starting point) of the quake, like ripples from a stone dropped in a pond. On the side nearest the shore, the waves reach land quicklyoften before there has been time to warn people living in the area. The wave that strikes the coast nearby is called a local tsunami. But waves travel outward in all directions and some cross the ocean to hit land many hundreds or even thousands of miles awaya distant tsunami.

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Planet Earth

Far out at sea, the tsunami is a tiny wave, but can travel as fast as a commercial jetup to 470 miles per hour (750 kilometers per hour). The height of the wave may be only 2 feet (60 centimeters), and so it often goes unnoticed by ships in the area. As the tsunami approaches land and the water gets shallower, the wave slows down and grows much taller. By the time it reaches the shore, it can be 100 feet (30 meters) tall, or even taller, and slow to 30 miles per hour (50 kilometers per hour). There can be as much as a thousand tons of water hitting each meter of coastline.

Killer wave
A tsunami can bring total devastation in just a few minutes. The most destructive tsunamis are those that strike without warning, as it takes most people only about ten minutes to move to safety if they know a tsunami is on its way. In some cases, the sea draws back before the tsunami strikes. This is the wave pulling the sea into itself. On the shore, old shipwrecks may be revealed. Fish may be stranded on the beach. People are often killed because they rush to pick up the fish. There may be a hissing and cracking sound, or a rumble like thunder, as the tsunami approaches. A tsunami is rarely a big breaking wave. Instead, the sea level swells and rises, and a flood washes in over the land. Froth and breaking waves come from the flood hitting features of the landscape and buildings, and from water falling over walls and through windows. Tsunamis are really a wave train with more waves following the first at an interval of anything from five to ninety minutes. People sometimes return to the area after the first wave, thinking the tsunami is over. They may then be killed or swept away by the next wave, which is frequently bigger than the first. Very occasionally, a tsunami can arrive as a giant breaking wave called a bore. This is a vertical wave with a churning front and is extremely destructive because of the force with which it pounds the land.
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Total devastation The two pictures above are of Aceh in Indonesia. The top picture, showing a calm coastline, was taken before the tsunami struck on December 26, 2004. The bottom picture shows the extent of the devastation caused by the tsunami.

Mega-tsunami
A mega-tsunami is a giant tsunami, larger than any that humans have ever recorded. The last known mega-tsunami was four thousand years ago at Runion Island in the Indian Ocean. The largest recorded wave was in Alaska in 1958, caused by a landslide. It was 1,640 feet (500 meters) high.

Try these too:

Oceans of the World (p 1415), Volcanoes (p 2021), Floods and Forest Fires (p 2627)

25

Planet Earth

Floods and Forest Fires

A flood happens when water from a river or the sea covers dry land. Most floods happen on rivers, when excess water overflows from a river onto flat land called a flood plain. A river flood does not happen as soon as it starts to rain. It takes time for the water to find its way into rivers and to build up. Then a surge of floodwater moves down the river. Coastal floods happen when tropical cyclones and tsunamis raise the sea level above the level of the coast.

Key dates:
Top five deadliest floods: China in 1931 (river flood)about 3 million killed China in 1959 (river flood)about 2 million killed Bangladesh in 1970 (cyclone)about 500,000 killed China in 1939 (river flood)about 500,000 killed South Asia in 2004 (tsunami)283,000 killed

Despite being so destructive, floods can also bring benefits. The soil on river flood plains is extremely fertile, making them good places to grow crops. This is why millions of people around the world choose to live on flood plains, despite the risk from flooding.

Floods cause extensive damage to towns and cities every year. Drains and sewers fill with water and overflow into the streets, causing a major health hazard.

Flash floods
A flash flood is a sudden, short-lived flood. Most flash floods are caused by extremely heavy rainfall from slow-moving storm clouds. This causes a huge volume of water to land in one place in a short space of time. Flash floods often happen on short rivers that are too small to cope with the sudden flow of large volumes of water. They can also occur when intense rain falls onto waterlogged ground. They can even happen on dry ground, including deserts, if the rain is heavy enough. Flash floods can happen in towns and cities when the rain is so heavy that drains cannot carry it away fast enough.

Flood patterns
Rivers often flood at the same time each year. These seasonal floods are caused by high seasonal rainfall or by melting snow in major mountain ranges. Seasonal rains fall at different times of the year in different climates. In South Asia, seasonal floods are caused by heavy summer rains. The amount of water flowing down rivers can increase by about twenty times during this wet season.

Five of the deadliest forest fires: Peshtigo, Wisconsin in 18711,2002,000 killed Cloquet, Minnesota / Wisconsin in 1949 400 to 500 killed Hinckley, Minnesota in 1894418 killed Thumb, Michigan in 1881282 killed Northeast China in 1987212 killed

All water on Earth is part of the water cycle. Water evaporates from sea and land to form vapor, which then cools and falls as rain, some of which forms rivers that flow back to the sea. At times of high rainfall, rivers overflow their banks, causing floods.
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Planet Earth

Forest fires
Forest fires happen in places where hot summer weather dries out dense vegetation. They happen more often during droughts. The dry vegetation catches light very easily, allowing the fire to spread rapidly. Fire affects both conifer forests and deciduous forests. It can also burn across grasslands, scrub, and heather moorlands. Most forest fires are started accidentally by people, but some are started naturally by lightning. Firefighters classify fires by the way they spread through a forest. They divide the forest vertically into three layers. The crown is the top layer, made up of the branches, needles, and leaves of mature trees. The surface is the forest floor. The ground is under the surface.

Fire and the landscape

Crown and ground fires
Crown fires burn in the crown. They spread through the treetops, with flames leaping from one tree to the next. They tend to occur during strong winds. Wind brings fresh supplies of air, fanning the flames. They spread quickly, leaving the forest floor below untouched. Crown fires happen in thick conifer forests and are the fiercest forest fires. Ground fires burn material in the ground, under the surface. They do not burn with flames, but smolder, making little smoke. They burn slowly through plant roots and decaying needles and leaves, often unseen.
Surface fires burn on the forest floor, through young trees, shrubs, and grasses. They also burn fresh, dry litter that has fallen from the trees, dead logs, and branches. Surface fires normally leave the crown above untouched, unless wind carries the flames upward. Most forest fires are surface fires.

The charred remains of a forest after a fire. Every tree has been damaged by the intense heat, but some trees may still be alive.

Blow-ups and fire devils

A surface fire kills young trees with branches and leaves close to the ground. Older, taller trees, with bare lower trunks and crowns high up, normally survive surface fires because their thick bark protects the delicate growing layer underneath. Intense crown fires tend to kill older, larger trees, but these trees can still lose up to a third of their crowns and survive. Ground fires can kill young and old trees by damaging their roots.
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In thick conifer forests, where there is a plentiful supply of dry fuel, forest fires can burn very intensely. Needles dry out instantly and burn violently. A column of hot air rises from the fire, pulling fresh air in from the sides, which fans the flames. Temperatures can reach more than 1000 degrees centigrade, and flames leap hundreds of feet up into the sky. These terrifying fires are known as blow-ups. The swirling air currents sometimes cause whirlwinds or mini-tornados, known as fire devils.

Try these too:

Rivers, Lakes, and Deserts (p 1213), Tsunamis (p 2425)

27

Planet Earth

Hurricanes and Tornadoes

Sometimes the weather becomes wild. Blizzards, thunderstorms, hurricanes and heat waves are some examples of extreme weather conditions. Such severe weather often causes a great deal of damage to both life and property. Hurricanes and tornadoes especially are very destructive.

Hurricane formation
Hurricanes form over the sea where tropical winds meet. The warm air rises, taking heat and moisture from the sea. The Earths rotation causes the rising warm air to twist and form a column. Winds from different directions collide and circle around the column of rising air and moisture, setting up a circular wind pattern. Much higher up, a stronger wind blowing in a single direction carries the warm air away, which in turn pulls up yet more air. High air pressure above the storm helps to suck in more air at the bottom where the air pressure is low. Wind speeds increase until they reach hurricane force.

Key facts:
1. Hurricane wind speeds Hurricanes are divided into five categories depending on their wind speeds. Category 5 hurricanes are the worst. Winds of a category 5 hurricane can reach speeds of about 155 miles per hour (250 kilometers per hour). Category 1 hurricanes are much weaker and only travel at 7495 miles per hour (119153 kilometers per hour).

Hurricanes
Hurricanes are furious, spiralling storms that form over the ocean near the equator. These storms are accompanied by winds that travel at an average speed of about 74 miles per hour (119 kilometers per hour). Hurricanes usually occur between June and November. The word hurricane comes from the ancient Mayan god of wind and storms, Hurakan.

The eye of the hurricane

The center of a hurricane is called the eye. The eye is an area of clear skies, light winds, and no rain. It is also the warmest part of the storm and is surrounded by a wall of heavy rain and strong winds. People faced with a hurricane usually experience the heavy rain and strong winds first, then there is a period of calm as the eye passes over the area, followed by more stormy weather.
Huge destroyer In 2005, Hurricane Katrina, seen here in a satellite image, destroyed large parts of the city of New Orleans in the USA.

2. Storm surges Sometimes the strong winds of a hurricane can cause the water level in the ocean to rise. Huge waves hit the coast along with the storm. This is called a storm surge. Storm surges can be particularly devastating when combined with a high tide.

Eye of the hurricane This satellite image clearly shows the eye of the hurricane, an area of calm in the middle of the storm.

3. The Fujita scale The Fujita scale is used to measure the intensity of a tornado. It ranks tornadoes by the damage caused to manmade structures.

4. How tornadoes got their name The word tornado is from the Spanish tomear, meaning to turn.
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Planet Earth

The worst-ever hurricane

The hurricane that ripped through the Caribbean islands of Martinique, St. Eustatius, and Barbados in October 1780, killed nearly 22,000 people over eight days, making it the deadliest on record. It destroyed nearly every building in Barbados, flattened St Lucia, demolished St Pierre, the capital of Martinique, and on St Vincent it sent a storm surge 19 feet (6 meters) high that washed whole villages out to sea.

Chasing the storm

Most of us would prefer to stay as far away as possible from all violent storms, especially hurricanes and tornadoes. Some people however, chase hurricanes and tornadoes. For these people, confronting a storm is exciting. Storm chasers use special equipment to locate and follow storms. They usually have a well-equipped vehicle fitted with the latest technology, including cameras, radios, scanners, and first-aid kits. The videos, photographs, and all other data collected by storm chasers have helped scientists understand hurricanes and tornadoes better.

Air current Waterspout

The making of a waterspout Warm air rises from the sea, taking water with it in the form of a funnel, and starting a waterspout.

Tornadoes
Tornadoes are small, rapidly circling whirlwinds. They may travel ahead of hurricanes, or in their wake, but they can also occur on their own, inland. A tornado forms beneath a storm cloud, when air is sucked up into the storm cloud from the ground. A tornado can travel at 34 mph (55 kph) and have winds of up to 155 mph (250 kph). Rising warm air sucks in more air from beneath the tornado in the same way as happens in a hurricane. The wind in the tornado funnel spins so fast that it sucks objects into it like a vacuum cleaner.

Waterspouts
Tornadoes usually travel across land. However, occasionally, tornadoes pass over water. In these cases, the high-speed winds suck in water, creating tall columns of spinning water called waterspouts. Most waterspouts form over warm seas and they are common in summer in the Gulf of Mexico and Caribbean Sea. Waterspouts are weaker than land tornadoes. However, they are still strong enough to cause huge damage to any boat or ship caught in them.

Tornado Alley
Tornado Alley is an area that extends across the Great Plains of the USA, from central Texas in the south to the border of Canada in the north. The conditions in this region are most suitable for the formation of severe tornadoes, which occur during spring and early summer.
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Waterspout When tornadoes pass over water, they suck the water up into tall spinning columns called waterspouts.

Try these too:

Oceans of the World (p 1415, Earths Atmosphere (p 1617), Seasons and Weather (1819)

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Planet Earth

Index

abyssal plains 14 Africa 8, 9, 11, 13 Amazon River 12 Angel Falls, Venezuela 12 Antarctica 9, 12, 13 Arctic Ocean 14 Asia 9, 11, 12, 20, 26 Atlantic Ocean 13, 14 atmosphere 1617 atmospheric pressure 17, 19 Australia 9 avalanches 23 blow-ups 27 bores 25 canyons 10, 14 carbon dioxide 8, 16, 17 caves 10, 11 cinder cones 21 cliffs 11 climate 1819, 26 clouds 8, 19, 26, 29 composite volcanoes 21 continental drift 9 continental rises 14 continental shelves 14 continental slopes 14 continents 9, 14 convection 9 core 8 currents 14 crown fires 27 crust 8, 9, 10, 12, 22 cyclones 26

Europe 9, 12 Everest 10 exosphere 16 eye (of the hurricane) 28 faults 22 fire devils 27 flash floods 26 flood plains 26 floods 12, 24, 25, 26 forest fires 27 Fujita scale 28 Ganges River 12 geysers 20 glaciers 10, 12, 16 global warming 16 Grand Canyon 10 Great Rift Valley 11 greenhouse effect 16, 17 ground fires 27 Hawaiian Islands 15 hills 10 Himalayas 13 hot spots 15, 20 Hurricane Katrina 28 hurricanes 19, 2829 hydrothermal vents 15 hypocenter 22 Indian Ocean 14, 24, 25 Kilauea, Hawaii 21 lakes 11, 12, 19, 24

Mauna Loa, Hawaii 20 mega-tsunamis 25 mesosphere 16 mid-ocean ridge 14 montane deserts 13 mountains 10, 12, 20, 21, 26 Nile River 12 North America 9, 12, 20 North Pole 18 oases 13 oceans 8, 9, 1415, 19, 20, 24, 28 ozone layer 16 Pacific Ocean 14, 15, 20, 24 Pangaea 9 plateaus 10 precipitation 8, 12, 13, 18, 19, 26, 28 pyroclasts 20 Richter scale 22 ridges 14 rift valleys 11 Ring of Fire 20 rivers 10, 12, 19, 24, 26 Sahara Desert 12, 13 sea caves 11 seamounts 14, 15 seasons 1819, 26 seismographs 22 shield volcanoes 21 solstices 18 South America 8, 9, 12, 20 Southern Ocean 14 South Pole 18 storm chasers 29 storm surges 28, 29 stratosphere 16 streams 12 Sun 8, 17, 18 surface fires 27

tectonic plates 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 20, 22, 23 temperature 8, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 27 thermosphere 16 Tibetan Plateau 10, 13 tides 11, 28 Tornado Alley 29 tornadoes 19, 27, 28, 29 trenches 14, 15 troposphere 16 tsunamis 23, 2425, 26 valleys 10, 14 volcanoes 8, 11, 15, 2021, 24 volcanic islands 15 water cycle 26 waterfalls 12 waterspouts 29 water vapor 8, 17, 19, 26 weather 16, 1819, 27, 28 Wegener, Alfred 9

deserts 12, 13 droughts 27 earthquakes 20, 2223, 24 epicenter 22, 24 equator 19, 28 equinoxes 18 erosion 10, 11, 13
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Lake Superior, North America 12 landslides 12, 23, 24, 25 lava 11, 20, 21 lava domes 21 magma 15, 20, 21 Mammoth Cave, Kentucky 11 mantle 8, 9, 20

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Did you know? The Earths inner core is hotter than the surface of the Sun 80 per cent of the worlds active volcanoes are under the ocean

Full of spectacular photos and extraordinary facts, PLANET EARTH offers a fascinating tour of our planet. Learn all about how the Earth formed, what its interior is like and the mysterious landscapes that lie deep beneath the ocean.

Why do we have seasons? Where does weather come from? What causes the terrifying natural disasters earthquakes, tsunamis and tornadoes that rage across our planets surface? PLANET EARTH answers all these questions and many more!

Other titles in the Childrens Reference series include:

3.99

Ancient & Medieval History

601FBDEF-0728-4A03-8324-625CB4CC5E34

The Human Body

Living Planet

Modern History

Science & Technology

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