UNIT 1 PN JUNCTION DIODE AND IT S APPLICATIONS OBJECTIVES You will be able to .

Discuss the difference between conductors ,insulators and semi conductors . Understand the P-N junction and explain the origin of the depletion region . Draw diagrams to show the effects of forward biasing and reverse biasing the P-N junction . Discuss temperature effects on p-N junction . Calculate current and voltage levels at a P-n junction INTRODUCTION In order to understand the concept and working of the PN junction diode, it is n ecessary to know what goes on at the atomic level of a semiconductor so the characteristi cs of the semiconductor can be understood. In many cases a detailed explanation of why som e of the phenomena occur is not required or supplied. Just knowing that certain pheno mena occur allows us to understand why semiconductors behave the way they do. Semiconductors . Semiconductors are atoms that contain 4 valence . electrons. . A good conductor has 1 valence electron and an insulator . has eight valence electrons. . The semiconductor has 4 valence electrons. It is neither a good conductor nor a good insulator. . Three of the most commonly used semiconductor . materials are silicon(Si), germanium(Ge), and carbon.

These atoms are shown in Figure 5. It is noted that all of them have 4 valence electrons. The Doping of Semiconductors The addition of a small percentage of foreign atoms in the regular crystal latti ce of silicon or germanium produces dramatic changes in their electrical properties, producing n-type and p-type semiconductors. Pentavalent impurities Impurity atoms with 5 valence electrons produce n-type semiconductors by contrib uting extra electrons. Trivalent impurities Impurity atoms with 3 valence electrons produce p-type semiconductors by produci ng a "hole" or electron deficiency.

P- and N- Type Semiconductors N-Type Semiconductor The addition of pentavalent impurities such as antimony, arsenic or phosphorous contributes free electrons, greatly increasing the conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor. Phosphorous may be added by diffusion of phosphine gas (PH3).

P-Type Semiconductor The addition of trivalent impurities such as boron, aluminum or gallium to an in trinsic semiconductor creates deficiencies of valence electrons,called "holes". It is ty pical to use B2H6 diborane gas to diffuse boron into the silicon material. Bands for Doped Semiconductors The application of band theory to n-type and p-type semiconductors shows that ex tra levels have been added by the impurities. In n-type material there are electron energy levels near the top of the band gap so that they can be easily excited into the conduction

band. In p-type material, extra holes in the band gap allow excitation of valenc e band electrons, leaving mobile holes in the valence band. P-N Junction A diode is an electrical device allowing current to move through it in one direc tion with far greater ease than in the other. The most common kind of diode in modern circuit design is the semiconductor diode, although other diode technologies exist. Semiconductor diodes are symbolized in schematic diagrams such as Figure below. The term diode is customarily reserved for small signal devices, I ..............r..ec..tif..ier.. is.. us..ed.. f..or ..power devices, I > 1 A. Semiconductor diode schematic symbol: Arrows indicate the direction of electron current flow. When placed in a simple battery-lamp circuit, the diode will either allow or pre vent current through the lamp, depending on the polarity of the applied voltage. (Fig ure below) Diode operation: (a) Current flow is permitted; the diode is forward biased. (b) Current flow is prohibited; the diode is reversed biased. When the polarity of the battery is such that electrons are allowed to flow thro ugh the diode, the diode is said to be forward-biased. Conversely, when the battery is ba ckward and the diode blocks current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. A diode ma y be

thought of as like a switch:

closed

when forward-biased and open

when reversebiased.

Oddly enough, the direction of the diode symbol's arrowhead points against the direction of electron flow. This is because the diode symbol was invented by eng ineers, who predominantly use conventional flow notation in their schematics, showing cu rrent as a flow of charge from the positive (+) side of the voltage source to the negativ e (-). This convention holds true for all semiconductor symbols possessing arrowheads: the arr ow points in the permitted direction of conventional flow, and against the permitte d direction of electron flow. Diode behavior is analogous to the behavior of a hydraulic device called a check valve. A check valve allows fluid flow through it in only one direction as in Figure belo w. Hydraulic check valve analogy: (a) Electron current flow permitted. (b) Current flow prohibited. Check valves are essentially pressure-operated devices: they open and allow flow if the pressure across them is of the correct polarity to open the gate (in the analogy s hown, greater fluid pressure on the right than on the left). If the pressure is of the opposite polarity, the pressure difference across the check valve will close and hold the g ate so that no flow occurs. Like check valves, diodes are essentially pressure- operated (voltage-operated) devices. The essential difference between forward-bias and reverse-bias is the p olarity of the voltage dropped across the diode. Let's take a closer look at the simple bat tery-diodelamp circuit shown earlier, this time investigating voltage drops across the various components in Figure below.

Diode circuit voltage measurements: (a) Forward biased. (b) Reverse biased. A forward-biased diode conducts current and drops a small voltage across it, lea ving most of the battery voltage dropped across the lamp. If the battery's polarity is rev ersed, the diode becomes reverse-biased, and drops all of the battery's voltage leaving non e for the lamp. If we consider the diode to be a self-actuating switch (closed in the forw ard-bias mode and open in the reverse-bias mode), this behavior makes sense. The most substantial difference is that the diode drops a lot more voltage when conductin g than the average mechanical switch (0.7 volts versus tens of millivolts). This forward-bias voltage drop exhibited by the diode is due to the action of th e depletion region formed by the P-N junction under the influence of an applied voltage. If no voltage applied is across a semiconductor diode, a thin depletion region exists around t he region of the P-N junction, preventing current flow. (Figure below (a)) The depletion r egion is almost devoid of available charge carriers, and acts as an insulator: Diode representations: PN-junction model, schematic symbol, physical part.

The schematic symbol of the diode is shown in Figure above (b) such that the ano de (pointing end) corresponds to the P-type semiconductor at (a). The cathode bar, nonpointing end, at (b) corresponds to the N-type material at (a). Also note that t he cathode stripe on the physical part (c) corresponds to the cathode on the symbol. If a reverse-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, this depletion region expands, further resisting any current through it. (Figure below) Depletion region expands with reverse bias. Conversely, if a forward-biasing voltage is applied across the P-N junction, the depletion region collapses becoming thinner. The diode becomes less resistive to current t hrough it. In order for a sustained current to go through the diode; though, the depletion region must be fully collapsed by the applied voltage. This takes a certain minimum vol tage to accomplish, called the forward voltage as illustrated in Figure below Increasing forward bias from (a) to (b) decreases depletion region thickness. For silicon diodes, the typical forward voltage is 0.7 volts, nominal. For germa nium diodes, the forward voltage is only 0.3 volts. The chemical constituency of the P-N junction comprising the diode accounts for its nominal forward voltage figure, w hich is why silicon and germanium diodes have such different forward voltages. Forward v oltage drop remains approximately constant for a wide range of diode currents, meaning that

diode voltage drop is not like that of a resistor or even a normal (closed) swit ch. For most simplified circuit analysis, the voltage drop across a conducting diode may be c onsidered constant at the nominal figure and not related to the amount of current. (Actually, forward voltage drop is more complex. An equation describes the exact current through a diode, given the voltage dropped across the junction, the temperature of the junction, and several physical constants. It is commonly known as the diode equa tion) One of the crucial keys to solid state electronics is the nature of the P-N junc tion. When ptype and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the junction be haves very differently than either type of material alone. Specifically, current will flow readily in one direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased), creating the b asic diode. This non-reversing behavior arises from the nature of the charge transport proce ss in the two types of materials. The open circles on the left side of the junction above represent "holes" or def iciencies of electrons in the lattice which can act like positive charge carriers. The solid circles on the right of the junction represent the available electrons from the n-type dopant. Near the junction, electrons diffuse across to combine with holes, creating a "depletion region". The energy level sketch above right is a way to visualize the equilibrium condit ion of the P-N junction. The upward direction in the diagram represents increasing electron Depletion Region When a p-n junction is formed, some of the free electrons in the n-region diffus e across the junction and combine with holes to form negative ions. In so doing they leav e behind positive ions at the donor impurity sites.

Depletion Region Details In the p-type region there are holes from the acceptor impurities and in the n-t ype region there are extra electrons When a p-n junction is formed, some of the electrons from the n-region which hav e reached the conduction band are free to diffuse across the junction and combine with holes

Filling a hole makes a negative ion and leaves behind a positive ion on the n-si de. A space charge builds up, creating a depletion region which inhibits any further electro n transfer unless it is helped by putting a forward bias on the junction Bias effect on electrons in depletion zone Equilibrium of junction Coulomb force from ions prevents further migration across the p-n junction. The electrons which had migrated across from the N to the P region in the forming of the depletion layer have now reached equilibrium. Other electrons from the N region cannot migrate because they are repelled by the negative ions in the P region and attracted by the positive ions in the N region. Reverse bias An applied voltage with the indicated polarity further impedes the flow of electrons across the junction. For conduction in the device, electrons from the N region must move to the junction and combine with holes in the P region. A reverse voltage drives the electrons away from the junction, preventing conduction.

Forward-bias An applied voltage in the forward direction as indicated assists electrons in ov ercoming the coulomb barrier of the space charge in depletion region. Electrons will flow with very small resistance in the forward direction. Forward-bias occurs when the P-type semiconductor material is connected to the p ositive terminal of a battery and the N-type semiconductor material is connected to the negative terminal, as shown below. This usually makes the p n junction conduct. A silicon p n junction in Forward-bias. With a battery connected this way, the holes in the P-type region and the electr ons in the N-type region are pushed towards the junction. This reduces the width of the dep letion zone. The positive charge applied to the P-type material repels the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As electron s and holes are pushed towards the junction, the distance between them decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the depletion zo ne eventually becomes thin enough that the zone's electric field can't counteract c harge carrier motion across the p n junction, consequently reducing electrical resistanc e. The electrons which cross the p n junction into the P-type material (or holes which cr oss into the N-type material) will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amo unt of minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current th at may flow through the diode. Only majority carriers (electrons in N-type material or holes in P-type) can flo w through a semiconductor for a macroscopic length. With this in mind, consider the flow of electrons across the junction. The forward bias causes a force on the electrons pushing th em from the N side toward the P side. With forward bias, the depletion region is narrow enough that electrons can cross the junction and inject into the P-type material. Howev er, they do

not continue to flow through the P-type material indefinitely, because it is ene rgetically favorable for them to recombine with holes. The average length an electron trave ls through the P-type material before recombining is called the diffusion length, a nd it is typically on the order of microns.[1] Although the electrons penetrate only a short distance into the P-type material, the electric current continues uninterrupted, because holes (the majority carriers) begin to flow in the opposite direction. The total current (the sum of the electron and h ole currents) is constant in space, because any variation would cause charge buildup over time (this is Kirchhoff's current law). The flow of holes from the P-type region into the N-type region is exactly analogous to the flow of electrons from N to P (electrons and holes swap roles and the signs of all currents and voltages are reversed). Therefore, the macroscopic picture of the current flow through the diode involve s electrons flowing through the N-type region toward the junction, holes flowing t hrough the P-type region in the opposite direction toward the junction, and the two spe cies of carriers constantly recombining in the vicinity of the junction. The electrons a nd holes travel in opposite directions, but they also have opposite charges, so the overa ll current is in the same direction on both sides of the diode, as required. The Shockley diode equation models the forward-bias operational characteristics of a p n junction outside the avalanche (reverse-biased conducting) region. Reverse bias An applied voltage with the indicated polarity further impedes the flow of elect rons across the junction. For conduction in the device, electrons from the N region m ust move to the junction and combine with holes in the P region. A reverse voltage drives the electrons away from the junction, preventing conduction.

Reverse-biased usually refers to how a diode is used in a circuit. If a diode is reverse biased, the voltage at the cathode is higher than that at the anode. Therefore, no current will flow until the diode breaks down. Connecting the P-type region to the negat ive terminal of the battery and the N-type region to the positive terminal, produces the reverse-bias effect. The connections are illustrated in the following diagram: Because the P-type material is now connected to the negative terminal of the pow er supply, the 'holes' in the P-type material are pulled away from the junction, ca using the width of the depletion zone to increase. Similarly, because the N-type region is connected to the positive terminal, the electrons will also be pulled away from the juncti on. Therefore the depletion region widens, and does so increasingly with increasing reversebias voltage. This increases the voltage barrier causing a high resistance to th e flow of charge carriers thus allowing minimal electric current to cross the p n junction. The strength of the depletion zone electric field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity increases beyond a critical level, the p n junction depletion zone breaks-down and current begins to flow, usually by eithe r the Zener or avalanche breakdown processes. Both of these breakdown processes are no ndestructive and are reversible, so long as the amount of current flowing does not reach levels that cause the semiconductor material to overheat and cause thermal damag e. This effect is used to one's advantage in zener diode regulator circuits. Zener diodes have a certain -low -breakdown voltage. A standard value for breakdown voltage is for instance 5.6V. This means that the voltage at the cathode can never be more than 5.6V higher than the voltage at the anode, because the diode will break down -and the refore conduct -if the voltage gets any higher. This effectively regulates the voltage over the diode. Here is how a simple zener regulation circuit would look: Another application where reverse biased diodes are used is in Varicap diodes. T he width of the depletion zone of any diode changes with voltage applied. This varies the capacitance of the diode. For more information, refer to the Varicap article.

To understand how a pn-junction diode works, begin by imagining two separate bit s of semiconductor, one n-type, the other p-type.

Bring them together and join them to make one piece of semiconductor which is doped differently either side of the junction. Free electrons on the n-side and free holes on the p-side can initially wander a cross the junction. When a free electron meets a free hole it can 'drop into it'. So far a s charge movements are concerned this means the hole and electron cancel each other and v anish.

As a result, the free electrons and holes near the junction tend to eat each oth er, producing a region depleted of any moving charges. This creates what is called t he depletion zone. Now, any free ion with no other free s) on the ntype side and These exert a force ion away from the depletion charge which wanders into the depletion zone finds itself in a reg charges. Locally it sees a lot of positive charges (the donor atom a lot of negative charges (the acceptor atoms) on the p-type side. on the free charge, driving it back to its 'own side' of the junct zone.

The acceptor and donor atoms are 'nailed down' in the solid and cannot move arou nd. However, the negative charge of the acceptor's extra electron and the positive c harge of the donor's extra proton (exposed by it's missing electron) tend to keep the dep letion zone swept clean of free charges once the zone has formed. A free charge now req uires some extra energy to overcome the forces from the donor/acceptor atoms to be abl e to cross the zone. The junction therefore acts like a barrier, blocking any charge flow (current) across the barrier. Usually, we represent this barrier by 'bending' the conduction and valence bands as they cross the depletion zone. Now we can imagine the electrons having to 'get uphill ' to move from the n-type side to the p-type side. For simplicity we tend to not bother wi th drawing the actual donor and acceptor atoms which are causing this effect!

The holes behave a bit like balloons bobbing up against a ceiling. On this kind of diagram you require energy to 'pull them down' before they can move from the p-type side to the n-type side. The energy required by the free holes and electrons can be supplied by a suitable voltage applied between the two ends of the pn-junction diode. Notice t hat this voltage must be supplied the correct way around, this pushes the charges over th e barrier. However, applying the voltage the 'wrong' way around makes things worse by pulli ng what free charges there are away from the junction! This is why diodes conduct in one direction but not the other. P-N Junction - V-I characteristics Voltage-Current relationship for a p-n junction (diode)

Current-Voltage Characteristics THE IDEAL DIODE PRACTICAL DIODE Diode curve: showing knee at 0.7 V forward bias for Si, and reverse breakdown. Typically, the PIV rating of a generic rectifier diode is at least 50 volts at roo m temperature. Diodes with PIV ratings in the many thousands of volts are availabl e for modest prices.

Temperature Effects . The PN Junction diode conductivity is directly proportional to the temperature of the diode . Whenever the temperature increases the conductivity of the diode also increase s . In case of voltage there is a slight drop whenever the temperature increases. . This indicates it have negative temperature co-efficient . Whenever the temperature increases change in breakdown voltage also occurs Drift and Diffusion Currents Current Flow: . Drift: charged particle motion in response to an electric field. . Diffusion: Particles tend to spread out or redistribute from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration . Recombination: Local annihilation of electron-hole pairs . Generation: Local creation of electron-hole pairs REVIEW: . A diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for current. . When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode allows current, the diode is said to be forward-biased. . When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode prohibits current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased. . The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is called the forward voltage. Forward voltage for a diode varies only slightly for changes in

forward current and temperature, and is fixed by the chemical composition of the P-N junction. . Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts. . Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts. . The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without breaking down is called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating. . Positive voltage yields finite current . Negative voltage yields zero current OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE CHAPTER: CONCEPT OF P-N JUNCTION 1. The potential barrier across a p-n P N junction is due to a. Negative and positive charge carriers on the same side b. Immobile donor and positive acceptor ions c. Negative and positive charge carriers on the opposite side d.None of the above 2. Depletion voltage is a. More for Ge b. More for Si c. Equal in Si and Ge d.None of the above 3. Depletion voltage increases with a. Forward bias b. Reverse bias c. Without forward and reverse biases d.None of the above 4. Depletion with has a. Negative charge carriers b. Positive charge carriers c. No charge carriers d.None of the above

5. Depletion width with forward bias a. Increases b. Decreases c. Remains constant d.None of the above 6. PN junction capacitance with increasing reverse bias a. Increases b. Decreases c. Remains constant d.None of the above 7. Forward bias across p-n pnjunction means a. Only positive terminal connected to p-type b. Positive terminal connected to p and negative to n c. Positive terminal connected to n and negative to p d.None of the above 8. In an unbiased p-n pnjunction current does not flow because a. Carriers do not cross the pnjunction b. Equal and opposite charge carriers cross the pnjunction c. Same type of charge carrier cross the pnjunction in opposite direction d.None of the above 9. Diffusion current is due to a. Different concentrations of the two types to charge carriers in the same region b. Different concentrations of same types to charge carriers in Different region C.Same concentrations in two regions d.None of the above 10.Total current through any p-n pnjunction is only due to a. Drift of charge carriers b. Diffusion of charge carriers

c. Both type of carriers d.None of the above 11.The forward current in p-n pnjunction increases rapidly a. Form zero onwards b. Only after the value of potential barrier c. When the depletion area becomes equal to space charge area d.None of the above 12.Zener breakdown refers to a. Forward bias region b. Reverse bias region c. No bias region d.None of the above 13. Avalanche breakdown voltage is a. Lower then zener b. Higher then zener c.Equal to zener breakdown voltage d.None of the above 14. Zener breakdown depends on A. Electric field created across the depletion region B. Velocity of the carriers C. No of donor iorns D. No.of acceptor ions 15 Both avalanche and zener breakdown are commonly know as a. Zener breakdown b. Avalanche breakdown c. Current breakdown d.None of the above Answers : 1-b,2-b,3-b,4-c,5-b,6-a,7-b,8-a,9-b,10-c,11-b,12-b,13-b,14-a,15-a

RECTIFIERS OBJECTIVES You will be able to . Sketch diode half wave and full wave rectifier circuit and their input and out put wave forms . Sketch basic DC power supply unit using rectifiers and capacitor filter . Calculate the ripple factor, rectifier efficiency, Transformer utilization fac tor of the various rectifiers . Discuss the symbol and working principle of a LED,LCD and Zener diode . Discuss the necessity of filters in the power supply . What are the important configurations of the filters Half wave Rectifier

In positive half cycle, D is forward biased (ideal) and output voltage is same t he input voltage. In the negative half cycle, D is reverse biased, and output voltage is zero. When the diode is reverse biased, entire transformer voltage appears across the diode. The maximum voltage across the diode is Vm. The diode must be capable to withsta nd this voltage. Therefore PIV halfwave.rating of diode should be equal to Vm in ca se of single phase rectifiers. The avg-current rating must be greater than Iavg

Full Wave Rectifier: Center tap transformer. It is more efficient and supplies current in both half c ycles.

. In the first half cycle D1is forward biased and conducts. D2 is reverse biased . . In the second half cycle D2 is forward biased, and conducts. When D1 conducts, then full secondary voltage appears across D2, therefore PIV rating of the diode should be 2 Vm. Bridge Rectifier : Most widely used rectifier. In the positive half cycle, D1and D4 are forward bia sed and D2and D3 are reverse biased. In the negative half cycle,D1and D3 are forward bia sed .The output voltage waveform is same but the advantage is that PIV rating of diodes a re Vm and only single secondary transformer for Vm voltage is required. The main disad vantage is that it requires four diodes. When now d.c. voltage is required then secondar y voltage is

low and diode drop (1.4V) becomes significant. The Xfr, required is of high rati ng ( >1.4 V ). For low d.c. output we use centre tap rectificer because only one diode drop is there. The ripple factor is the measure of the purity of d.c. output of a rectifier and is defined as Now we come to the most popular application of the diode: rectification. Simply defined, rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (D C). This involves a device that only allows one-way flow of electrons. As we have seen, t his is exactly what a semiconductor diode does. The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the halfwave rectifier. It only allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load. (Figure below) Half-wave rectifier circuit. For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient for the tas k. The harmonic content of the rectifier s output waveform is very large and consequently difficult to filter. Furthermore, the AC power source only supplies power to the load once every half-cycle, meaning that much of its capacity is unused. Half-wave rectifi cation is, however, a very simple way to reduce power to a resistive load. Some two-positio n lamp dimmer switches apply full AC power to the lamp filament for full brightness and t hen half-wave rectify it for a lesser light output. (Figure below)

Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer. In the Dim switch position, the incandescent lamp receives approximately one-half the power it would normally receive operating on full-wave AC. Because the half-wave rectified power pulses far more rapidly than the filament has time to heat up an d cool down, the lamp does not blink. Instead, its filament merely operates at a lesser temperature than normal, providing less light output. This principle of pulsing po wer rapidly to a slow-responding load device to control the electrical power sent to it is common in the world of industrial electronics. Since the controlling device (the diode, in this case) is either fully conducting or fully no conducting at any given time, it dissipates little heat energy while controlling load power, making this method of power con trol very energy-efficient. This circuit is perhaps the crudest possible method of pulsing power to a load, but it suffices as a proof-of-concept application. If we need to rectify AC power to obtain the full use of both half-cycles of the sine wave, a different rectifier circuit configuration must be used. Such a circuit is called a full-wave rectifier. One kind of full-waverectifier, called the center-tap design, uses a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding and two diodes, as in Figure below. Full-wave rectifier, center-tapped design. This circuit s operation is easily understood one half-cycle at a time. Consider t he first half-cycle, when the source voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom. At this time, only the top diode is conducting; the bottom diode is bloc king current, and the load sees the first half of the sine wave, positive on top and ne gative on bottom. Only the top half of the transformer's secondary winding carries current during this half-cycle as in Figure below.

Full-wave center-tap rectifier: Top half of secondary winding conducts during positive half-cycle of input, delivering positive half-cycle to load.. During the next half-cycle, the AC polarity reverses. Now, the other diode and t he other half of the transformer's secondary winding carry current while the portions of the circuit formerly carrying current during the last half-cycle sit idle. The load still see s half of a sine wave, of the same polarity as before: positive on top and negative on botto m. (Figure below) Full-wave center-taprectifier: During negative input half-cycle, bottom half of secondary winding conducts, delivering a positive half-cycle to the load. One disadvantage of this full-wave rectifier design is the necessity of a transf ormer with a center-tapped secondary winding. If the circuit in question is one of high power , the size and expense of a suitable transformer is significant. Consequently, the center-t ap rectifier design is only seen in low-power applications. The full-wave center-tapped rectifier polarity at the load may be reversed by ch anging the direction of the diodes. Furthermore, the reversed diodes can be paralleled with an existing positive-output rectifier. The result is dual-polarity full-wave center -tapped rectifier in Figure below. Note that the connectivity of the diodes themselves i s the same configuration as a bridge.

Dual polarity full-wave center tap rectifier Another, more popular full-wave rectifier design exists, and it is built around a four-diode bridge configuration. For obvious reasons, this design is called a full-wave bri dge. (Figure below) Full-wave bridge rectifier. Current directions for the full-wave bridge rectifier circuit are as shown in Fi gure below for positive half-cycle and Figure below for negative half-cycles of the AC sour ce waveform. Note that regardless of the polarity of the input, the current flows i n the same direction through the load. That is, the negative half-cycle of source is a posi tive halfcycle at the load. The current flow is through two diodes in series for both pol arities. Thus, two diode drops of the source voltage are lost (0.72=1.4 V for Si) in the d iodes. This is a disadvantage compared with a full-wave center-tap design. This disadvantage is only a problem in very low voltage power supplies.

Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for positive half-cycles. Full-wave bridge rectifier: Electron flow for negative half=cycles. Remembering the proper layout of diodes in a full-wave bridge rectifier circuits can often be frustrating to the new student of electronics. I've found that an alternative representation of this circuit is easier both to remember and to comprehend. It' s the exact same circuit, except all diodes are drawn in a horizontal attitude, all pointing t he same direction. (Figure below) Alternative layout style for Full-wave bridge rectifier.

One advantage of remembering this layout for a bridge rectifier circuitis that i t expands easily into a polyphase version in Figure below. Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit Each three-phase line connects between a pair of diodes: one to route power to t he positive (+) side of the load, and the other to route power to the negative (-) side of the load. Polyphase systems with more than three phases are easily accommodated into a bridge rectifier scheme. Take for instance the six-phase bridge rectifier circui t in Figure below. Six-phase full-wave bridge rectifier circuit. When polyphase AC is rectified, the phase-shifted pulses overlap each other to p roduce a DC output that is much smoother (has less AC content) than that produced by the rectification of single-phase AC. This is a decided advantage in high-power rect ifier circuits, where the sheer physical size of filtering components would be prohibi tive but low-noise DC power must be obtained. The diagram in Figure below shows the fullwave rectification of three-phase AC.

Three-phase AC and 3-phase full-wave rectifier output. In any case of rectification --single-phase or poly phase --the amount of AC vol tage mixed with the rectifiers DC output is called ripple voltage. In most cases, sin ce pure DC is the desired goal, ripple voltage is undesirable. If the power levels are not too great, filtering networks may be employed to reduce the amount of ripple in the output voltage. Sometimes, the method of rectification is referred to by counting the number of DC pulses output for every 360o of electrical rotation. A single-phase, half-wave recti fier circuit, then, would be called a 1-pulse rectifier, because it produces a single pulse during the time of one complete cycle (360o) of the AC waveform. A single-phase, full-w ave rectifier (regardless of design, center-tap or bridge) would be called a 2-pulse rectifier, because it outputs two pulses of DC during one AC cycle's worth of time. A three -phase full-wave rectifier would be called a 6-pulse unit. Modern electrical engineering convention further describes the function of a rec tifier circuit by using a three-field notation of phases, ways, and number of pulses. A singlephase, half-wave rectifier circuit is given the somewhat cryptic designation of 1Ph1W1P (1 phase, 1 way, 1 pulse), meaning that the AC supply voltage is single-phase, that current on each phase of the AC supply lines moves in only one direction (way), and that th ere is a single pulse of DC produced for every 360o of electrical rotation. A single-phas e, fullwave, center-tap rectifier circuit would be designated as 1Ph1W2P in this notati onal system: 1 phase, 1 way or direction of current in each winding half, and 2 pulse s or output voltage per cycle. A single-phase, full-wave, bridge rectifier would be designat ed as 1Ph2W2P: the same as for the center-tap design, except current can go both ways through the AC lines instead of just one way. The three-phase bridge rectifier circuit s hown earlier would be called a 3Ph2W6P rectifier. Is it possible to obtain more pulses than twice the number of phases in a rectif ier circuit? The answer to this question is yes: especially in polyphase circuits. Through th e creative use of transformers, sets of full-wave rectifiers may be paralleled in such a wa y that more than six pulses of DC are produced for three phases of AC. A 30o phase shift is introduced

from primary to secondary of a three-phase transformer when the winding configur ations are not of the same type. In other words, a transformer connected either Y-..... .-..Y w..i..ll exhibit this 30o phase shift, while a transformer connected Y-......-........... ............................. phenomenon may be exploited by having one transformer connected Y-Y feed a bridg e rectifier, and have another transformer connected Y-................br..idg..e . .re..ct..ifie..r .., .. then parallel the DC outputs of both rectifiers. (Figure below) Since the ripple voltage waveforms of the two rectifiers' outputs are phase-shifted 30o from one another, their superposition results in less ripple than either rectifier output considered sep arately: 12 pulses per 360o instead of just six: Polyphaserectifier circuit : 3-phase 2-way 12-pulse (3Ph2W12P) Active Filters Passive filters are simple but rather limited. The main problems are: . They can only attenuate (reduce) the signal. . The impedance of the input can alter the performance. We will look at four case studies. They are based on the op-amp. 1. The Active Bass Cut Filter We can overcome these problems by adding an active element such as an op-amp. Th e circuit shows an active bass cut filter

You will recognise the circuit as an inverting amplifier. Generally electronic e ngineers ignore the phase shifts in these filters so we will ignore the minus sign in the equation. Question 8. What is the equation that tells us the gain of an inverting op-amp? There is a capacitor, hence a reactance in the input as well as a resistor. We c an work out the impedance using the vector sum of the reactance of the capacitor and the res istance of the resistor. Z2 = Xc2 + R2 So gain can be worked out: Gain = (-) Rf/Z Normally we ignore the minus sign. Worked Example Referring to the diagram above what is the gain of the operational amplifier at 1000 Hz?

First we need to work out the reactance: Xc = __1__ = __________1___________ = 3400 2 fC 2 1000 Hz 47 10-9 F Now we need the impedance: Z2 = Xc2+ R2 = 34002 + 33002 = 22450000 Z = 4700 Now we can work out the gain: Gain = Rf = 33000 = 7.02 (No units for gain) Z 4700 If we reduce the frequency, the impedance increases, so the gain reduces. We cal culate the break frequency in exactly the same way as we did with a passive filter. The break frequency is the frequency at which the resistance = reactance. We can work this out: What is the break frequency of the active filter above? f0 = __1__ = __________1___________ = 1000 Hz 2 RC 2 3300 47 10-9 F We can show this as a graph:

A couple of points to note: . The scales look odd because they go up in powers of 10. They are logarithmic. . The gain goes down by 10 for every 10-fold reduction in frequency. This means that bass frequencies are cut. . Above 1000 Hz the resistance becomes much greater than the reactance. Therefore the gain is almost flat. We can make a bass cut filter using a non-inverting op-amp: It works like this: . The amplifier as shown is a voltage follower. . Its gain is 1. . Its input is the output of the voltage balance. . If the frequency is low, the voltage across the 3k3 resistor is low, so the ou tput voltage is low. . If the frequency is high, then the input voltage is high. RC Filters A capacitor in series or parallel with a resistor can be used to make a filter c ircuit that allows us to select frequencies. A filter circuit consisting of a capacitor in s eries with a resistor can be made to act as a voltage divider, in the same way as two series resistors form a potential divider.

A series circuit with a capacitor C and a resistor R is connected to an AC suppl y of rms voltage Vs and frequency f. We know that for a series circuit, the current is the same all the way round. Fo r any frequency we know that: XC = __1__ and that VC = I XC 2 fC We also know that VR = IR However, if we add the voltages across the resistor and the capacitor, they DO N OT add up to the supply voltage. For example, if the voltages across the capacitor and the resistor were 3 V and 4 V respectively, we would find that the supply voltage was not 7 V , but 5 V. Why does this happen? The answer is that in a capacitor, the current and charge are not in phase. Phase relationships are not on the syllabus, so we won't consider them any further here. Worked Example A series circuit consisting of a 0.1 F capacitor and a 2000 resistor is connecte d to a 2 V supply set at a frequency of 1000 Hz. (a) What is the reactance of the capacitor? (b) What is the impedance of the circuit?

(c) Work out the current. (d) Work out the voltage across and the resistor. (e) Work out the voltage across the capacitor (a) First work out the reactance of the capacitor. XC = __1__ = ____________1____________ = 1590 . 2 fC 2 . . 1000 Hz . 0.1 . 10-6 F (b) Now work out the impedance. Z2 = R2 + XC 2 = (2200)2 + (1590)2 = 7.36 . 106 .2 .. Z = (7.36 . 106)1/2 = 2714 . ........................................... ............. ............ (c) The current can be worked out by I = V/Z I = 2 V.2714 . = 7.4 . 10-4 A = 0.74 mA. (d) Now work out the voltage across the resistor: We can use Ohm s Law to calculate the voltages. VR = IR and VC = IXC. It is a seri es circuit so the current is the same all the way round. V = IR = 7.4 . 10-4 A . 2000 . = 1.63 V (e) Now do a similar calculation for the voltage across the capacitor: VC = IXC = 7.4 . 10-4 A . 1590 = 1.77 V If we add these two voltages up, we find that they don t add up to 2 volts, but th eir squares do add up to 4 V2. The Function of an RC Circuit There are occasions where a filter circuit is useful:

. To boost low frequency sounds when music is played at low level. The ear does not detect low frequency sounds very well. . Gets rid of high frequency noise such as a tape hiss . Compensates for imperfection in sound sources. The RC circuit is a passive filter circuit. It cuts treble or bass frequencies, but cannot boost them. To boost the treble or bass, we need an amplifier in the circuit; th is is an active circuit. Zener Diode What is a Zener Diode Find out more about the Zener diode Diodes are electronic components which will let current flow in just one directi on. They are used for example in PV Solar Panel installations to ensure that current can flow into the battery bank when it is sunny, but not escape through the solar panel when i t is very cloudy or at night. What is a Zener Diode A Zener Diode is a special kind of diode which permits current to flow in the fo rward direction as normal, but will also allow it to flow in the reverse direction whe n the voltage is above a certain value - the breakdown voltage known as the Zener voltage. The Zener voltage of a standard diode is high, but if a reverse current above th at value is allowed to pass through it, the diode is permanently damaged. Zener diodes are d esigned so that their zener voltage is much lower - for example just 2.4 Volts. When a r everse current above the Zener voltage passes through a Zener diode, there is a control led breakdown which does not damage the diode. The voltage drop across the Zener dio de is equal to the Zener voltage of that diode no matter how high the reverse bias vol tage is above the Zener voltage.

The illustration above shows this phenomenon in a Current vs. Voltage graph. Wit h a zener diode connected in the forward direction, it behaves exactly the same as a standard diode -i.e. a small voltage drop of 0.3 to 0.7V with current flowing through pre tty much unrestricted. In the reverse direction however there is a very small leakage cur rent between 0V and the Zener voltage - i.e. just a tiny amount of current is able to flow. Then, when the voltage reaches the breakdown voltage (Vz), suddenly current can flow f reely through it. ZENER DIODE The diodes designed to work in breakdown region are called zener diode. The powe r handling capacity of these diodes is better. The power dissipation of a zener di ode equals the product of its voltage and current. PZ =VZ IZ . When zener is forward biased it works as a diode and drop across it is 0.7V when it works in breakdown region the volt age across it is constant Vz and the current through it is decided by external resistance. Zener diode is used for regulating the the dc voltage. It maintains the output voltage constant even through the current through changes.

To operate the zener in Breakdown region Vs should always be greater then Vz. Rs is used to limit the current. If the Vs voltage changes operating point also change s simultaneously but voltage across zener is almost constant. Fig. 37 The first ap proximation zener diode is a voltage source of Vz magnitude and second approximation include s the resistance also.

(Fig.38) The resistance produces more I*R drop as the current increases. The voltage at Q1 is V1 = Rz +Vz At Q2 = I2 +R2 +Vz Change in voltage is If zener is used to regulate the voltage across a load resistance. The zener is will work in the breakdown region only if the thevenin voltage across zener is more than V Z . If zener is operating in breakdown region, the series current will be given by

Zener Drop Output point : For a zener regulator to hold the output voltage constant, zener diode must rema in in the breakdown region under all operating conditions, i.e. there must be zener curren t for all source voltage load currents. The worst case occurs for minimum source voltage a nd maximum load current. The critical point occurs when maximum load current equals minimum series curren t When the zener diode operates in breakdown region, the voltage Vz across it rema ins fairly constant even though the current Iz through it vary considerably. If the load IL should increase, the current Iz should decrease by the same percentage in order to maintain load current constant Is. This keeps the voltage drop across Rs constan t and hence the output voltage. If the input voltage should increase, the zener diode passes a larger current, that extra voltage is dropped across the resistance Rs. If input voltage falls, the current Iz falls such that Vz is constant. Uses of Zener Diodes Since the voltage dropped across a Zener Diode is a known and fixed value, Zener diodes are typically used to regulate the voltage in electric circuits. Using a resisto r to ensure that the current passing through the Zener diode is at least 5mA (0.005 Amps), the ci rcuit designer knows that the voltage drop across the diode is exactly equal to the Ze ner voltage of the diode. SERIES AND SHUNT VOLTAGE REGULATORS The schematic for a typical series voltage regulator is shown in figure 4-34. No tice that this regulator has a transistor (Q1) in the place of the variable resistor found in figure 4-32. Because the total load current passes through this transistor, it is sometimes c alled a "pass transistor." Other components which make up the circuit are the current limiting resistor (R1) and the Zener diode (CR1).

Figure - Series voltage regulator. Recall that a Zener diode is a diode that block current until a specified voltag e is applied. Remember also that the applied voltage is called the breakdown, or Zener voltage . Zener diodes are available with different Zener voltages. When the Zener voltage is re ached, the Zener diode conducts from its anode to its cathode (with the direction of th e arrow). In this voltage regulator, Q1 has a constant voltage applied to its base. This v oltage is often called the reference voltage. As changes in the circuit output voltage occur, th ey are sensed at the emitter of Q1 producing a corresponding change in the forward bias of the transistor. In other words, Q1 compensates by increasing or decreasing its resis tance in order to change the circuit voltage division. Now, study figure 4-35. Voltages are shown to help you understand how the regula tor operates. The Zener used in this regulator is a 15-volt Zener. In this instance the Zener or breakdown voltage is 15 volts. The Zener establishes the value of the base volta ge for Q1. The output voltage will equal the Zener voltage minus a 0.7-volt drop across the forward biased base-emitter junction of Q1, or 14.3 volts. Because the output voltage is 14.3 volts, the voltage drop across Q1 must be 5.7 volts.

Figure - Series voltage regulator (with voltages). Study figure 4-36, view A, in order to understand what happens when the input vo ltage exceeds 20 volts. Notice the input and output voltages of 20.1 and 14.4 volts, r espectively. The 14.4 output voltage is a momentary deviation, or variation, from the require d regulated output voltage of 14.3 and is the result of a rise in the input voltag e to 20.1 volts. Since the base voltage of Q1 is held at 15 volts by CR1, the forward bias of Q1 changes to 0.6 volt. Because this bias voltage is less than the normal 0.7 volt, the resist ance of Q1 increases, thereby increasing the voltage drop across the transistor to 5.8 volt s. This voltage drop restores the output voltage to 14.3 volts. The entire cycle takes o nly a fraction of a second and, therefore, the change is not visible on an oscilloscop e or readily measurable with other standard test equipment. Figure - Series voltage regulator. INCREASE IN OUTPUT View B is a schematic diagram for the same series voltage regulator with one sig nificant difference. The output voltage is shown as 14.2 volts instead of the desired 14. 3 volts. In this case, the load has increased causing a lowered voltage drop across RL to 14 .2 volts.

When the output decreases, the forward bias of Q1 increases to 0.8 volt because Zener diode CR1 maintains the base voltage of Q1 at 15 volts. This 0.8 volt is the dif ference between the Zener reference voltage of 15 volts and the momentary output voltage . (15 V - 14.2 V = 0.8 V). At this point, the larger forward bias on Q1 causes the resis tance of Q1 to decrease, thereby causing the voltage drop across Q1 to return to 5.7 volts. Thi s then causes the output voltage to return to 14.3 volts. Figure - Series voltage regulator. DECREASE IN OUTPUT The schematic shown in figure 4-37 is that of a shunt voltage regulator. Notice that Q1 is in parallel with the load. Components of this circuit are identical with those of t he series voltage regulator except for the addition of fixed resistor RS. As you study the schematic, you will see that this resistor is connected in series with the output load resi stance. The current limiting resistor (R1) and Zener diode (CR1) provide a constant referenc e voltage for the base-collector junction of Q1. Notice that the bias of Q1 is determined by the voltage drop across RS and R1. As you should know, the amount of forward bias ac ross a transistor affects its total resistance. In this case, the voltage drop across R S is the key to the total circuit operation. Figure - Shunt voltage regulator.

Figure 4-38 is the schematic for a typical shunt-type regulator. Notice that the schematic is identical to the schematic shown in figure 4-37 except that voltages are shown t o help you understand the functions of the various components. In the circuit shown, the vo ltage drop across the Zener diode (CR1) remains constant at 5.6 volts. This means that with a 20-volt input voltage, the voltage drop across R1 is 14.4 volts. With a base-emi tter voltage of 0.7 volt, the output voltage is equal to the sum of the voltages across CR1 a nd the voltage at the base-emitter junction of Q1. In this example, with an output volt age of 6.3 volts and a 20-volt input voltage, the voltage drop across RS equals 13.7 volts. Study the schematic to understand fully how these voltages are developed. Pay close attent ion to the voltages shown. Figure - Shunt voltage regulator (with voltages). Now, refer to view A of figure 4-39. This figure shows the schematic diagram of the same shunt voltage regulator as that shown in figure 4-38 with an increased input vol tage of 20.1 volts. This increases the forward bias on Q1 to 0.8 volt. Recall that the v oltage drop across CR1 remains constant at 5.6 volts. Since the output voltage is composed o f the Zener voltage and the base-emitter voltage, the output voltage momentarily incre ases to 6.4 volts. At this time, the increase in the forward bias of Q1 lowers the resis tance of the transistor allowing more current to flow through it. Since this current must als o pass through RS, there is also an increase in the voltage drop across this resistor. The voltage drop across RS is now 13.8 volts and therefore the output voltage is reduced to 6.3 volts. Remember, this change takes place in a fraction of a second.

Figure - Shunt voltage regulator. INCREASE IN OUTPUT VOLTAGE Study the schematic shown in view B. Although this schematic is identical to the other shunt voltage schematics previously illustrated and discussed, the output voltag e is different. The load current has increased causing a momentary drop in voltage ou tput to 6.2 volts. Recall that the circuit was designed to ensure a constant output volt age of 6.3 volts. Since the output voltage is less than that required, changes occur in the regulator to restore the output to 6.3 volts. Because of the 0.1 volt drop in the output volt age, the forward bias of Q1 is now 0.6 volt. This decrease in the forward bias increases the resistance of the transistor, thereby reducing the current flow through Q1 by th e same amount that the load current increased. The current flow through RS returns to i ts normal value and restores the output voltage to 6.3 volts. Figure - Shunt voltage regulator. DECREASE IN OUTPUT VOLTAGE

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE(LED) Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) Example: Circuit symbol: Function LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. Connecting and soldering LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or -for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cath ode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identif ication method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs. Testing an LED Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for qu ick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

Colours of LEDs LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue an d white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the col ouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncolo ured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear '). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transpar ent. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY(LCD) What s Liquid Crystals ? . intermediary substance between a liquid and solid state of matter. e.g. soapy water . light passes through liquid crystal changes when it is stimulated by an electr ical charge.

Examples of LCs Introduction to Liquid Crystal Displays . Consists of an array of tiny segments (called pixels) that can be manipulated to present information. . Using polarization of lights to display objects. . Use only ambient light to illuminate the display. . Common wrist watch and pocket calculator to an advanced VGA computer screen Operating Principle . The parallel arrangement of liquid crystal molecules along grooves . When coming into contact with grooved surface in a fixed direction, liquid cry stal molecules line up parallel along the grooves.

Molecules movement Offline (no voltage is applied) . Along the upper plate : Point in direction 'a' . Along the lower plate : Point in direction 'b . Forcing the liquid crystals into a twisted structural arrangement. (Resultant force) Light movement Offline (no voltage is applied) . Light travels through the spacing of the molecular arrangement. . The light also "twists" as it passes through the twisted liquid crystals. . Light bends 90 degrees as it follows the twist of the molecules. . Polarized light pass through the analyzer (lower polarizer

Light movement Online (voltage is applied) . Twisted light passes straight through. . Light passes straight through along the arrangement of molecules. . Polarized light cannot pass through the lower analyzer (lower polarizer). . Screen darkens.

Polarization of light . When unpolarized light passes through a polarizing filter, only one plane of polarization is transmitted. Two polarizing filters used together transmit light differently depending on their relative orientation.

REVIEW: . Rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). . A half-wave rectifier is a circuit that allows only one half-cycle of the AC voltage waveform to be applied to the load, resulting in one nonalternating polarity across it. The resulting DC delivered to the load pulsates significantly. . A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts both half-cycles of the AC voltage waveform to an unbroken series of voltage pulses of the same polarity. The resulting DC delivered to the load doesn't pulsate as much. . Polyphase alternating current, when rectified, gives a much smoother DC waveform (less ripple voltage) than rectified single-phase AC. . Filter is a circuit which is used to convert the pulsating DC in to pyre DC . Zener diode is the reverse biased heavily doped P-n junction diode . Basically LED is a P-N junction diode . The colour of the emission of LED is depends up on the material used to fabricate the LED

OBJECTIVE TYPE QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE CHAPTER: APPLICATIONS OF P-N JUNCTION DIODE. 1.Using filter ,circuit ripple factor of rectifier is a.Decreased b.Increased c.Not affected d.None of the above 2.The best filter configuration is a.L-Type b... - Type c.Shunt capacitor d.None of the above 3.Simplest and cheapest filter configuration is a.L-Type b.....- Type c.Shunt capacitor d.None of the above 4.Rectification ration in full wave rectifier is a.40.6% b.81.2% c.80% d.None of the above 5.Ripple factor in a full wave rectifier is a.0.482 b.1.5 c.1.2 d.0.3 6. Zener diodes are used as a. Reference voltage elements b. Reference current elements c. Reference resistance. d.None of the above 7. The reverse saturation current with increasing reverse bias a. Increases b. Decreases c. Remains constant d.None of the above

8 . The magnitude of reverse saturation current is a. Less than forward current b. Larger than forward current c. Equal to forward current d.None of the above 9. With rise in temperature reverse saturation current a. Increase linearly b. . Increase exponentially c. decreases linearly d.None of the above 10. With increasing temperature the pnjunction voltage a. Increase b. . Decrease exponentially c. Remains constant d.None of the above 11. Potential barrier for Ge p-n pnjunction a. 0.2 V b. 0.02V c.0.7V d.None of the above 12. Potential barrier across Si diode is a. 0.2 V b.0.7 V c . 1 V d.None of the above 13. The voltage drop across an ideal diode is a. 0.2 V b. 0.7 V c. 0.V d.None of the above

14. Resistance of an ideal diode is a. Very large b. Zero c. Small d.None of the above 15.The current flow in a diode is a. Unidirectional b. Bi directional c.None of these d.None of the above 16. Diode is a a.Polar sensitive Device b. Non polar sensitive device c.Bipolar sensitive device d.None of the above 17. Diodes can beused as a.Amplifier b. Rectifier c. Filter d.None of the above 18. V-1 characteristics of diode can result in a. Static resistance only b. Dynamic resistance only c. Forward resistance d.None of the above 19. Diffusion current in a p-n pnjunction is influenced a. By concentration gradient of carriers b. Applied voltage c. concentration of carriers d.None of the above

20. Dift current is influenced by a. Magnitude of voltage b. Concentration gradient of carriers c. Concentration of carriers d.None of the above 21. Increasing reverse bias a. Decreases the pn juction capacitor b. Increases the pn juction capacitor c. Has no effect on its capacitor d.None of the above 22.Reverse break down in p-n pnjunction at high temperature occurs a. At higher reverse bias b. At lower reverse bias c. At forward bias d.None of the above 23. The reverse saturation current 1 co fo Si diode varies a. T 2 . b. T 3 c. T1/2 d. T3/2 Answer 1-a,2-b,3-a,4-b,5-a,6-a,7-a,8-a,9-b,10-b,11-a,12-b,13-c,14-b,15-a,16-a,17-b,18-a ,19a, 20-a,21-b,22-c,23-d DESCRIPTIVE QUESTIONS part 1. 2. 3. 4. a (2 marks)

Define electron volt? What is doping? What is intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor? What are acceptor & donor?

5. List out the common diode applications? descriptive 6. Define avalanche breakdown? 7. Define zener breakdown? 8. What are the current components of a diode? 9. Define forward recovery time and reverse recovery time? 10. Differentiate photodiode and light emitting diode 11. What are the basic elements of regulated power supply? 12. What is ripple factor? 13. What is a rectifier? 14. Define regulation of a rectifier? 15. Define efficiency of a rectifier? 16. Define PIV of the diode 17. What is the necessity of the filter 18. Define transformer utilization factor 19. Define drift and diffusion current 20. What is mean by reverse recovery time PART B 12-MARKS 1. How a p type and n-type semiconductor can be obtained? 2. Explain insulator, semiconductor& conductor with help of energy band structure? 3. Explain the forward and reverse bias operation and vi characteristics of a pn junction diode. 4. Derive the diode current equation? 5. Discuss the current components of pn junction diode?

6. Explain any two applications of diode with neat diagram . 7. Explain the characteristics and applications of zener diode? 8. Explain the mechanism of avalanche and zener break down? 9. Explain the switching characteristics of pn junction diode. 10. Explain the concept of diffusion and drift current. 11. Explain the working principle of the half wave rectifier and obtain the valu e of (i) Ripple factor (II) Rectifier Efficiency (III) Transformer utilization factor(TUF) (iv) Peak inverse voltage(PIV) 12. Explain the working principle of the full wave rectifier with centre tapped configuration and obtain the value of (i) Ripple factor (II) Rectifier Efficiency (III) Transformer utilization factor(TUF) (IV) Peak inverse voltage(PIV) 13. Explain the working principle of the full wave rectifier with bridge configu ration and obtain the value of (i) Ripple factor (II) Rectifier Efficiency (III) Transformer utilization factor(TUF) (IV) Peak inverse voltage(PIV) 14.explain the working principle of zener diode with i-v characteristics 15.explain the working principle of led and lcd with neat diagrams