OTC 15272 Bombax 48-inch Pipeline Installation

O.W.A. Weustink, Allseas USA, Inc.

Copyright 2003, Offshore Technology Conference This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2003 Offshore Technology Conference held in Houston, Texas, U.S.A., 58 May 2003. This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC Program Committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents of the paper, as presented, have not been reviewed by the Offshore Technology Conference and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material, as presented, does not necessarily reflect any position of the Offshore Technology Conference or its officers. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper for commercial purposes without the written consent of the Offshore Technology Conference is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied. The abstract must contain conspicuous acknowledgment of where and by whom the paper was presented.

Abstract The heavy 48-inch Bombax pipeline, which was considered to be very sensitive to buckling, was successfully installed by Allseas' Solitaire offshore the coast of Trinidad in 2002. Allseas overcame considerable challenges during the preparation and installation phase of the project such as pulling forces up to 789 mT and pipelay tensions up to 361 mT. Introduction Offshore installation of the Bombax1 48-inch Gas Export Pipeline offshore Trinidad was part of the Pipeline Transportation and Installation Services Contract between BP Trinidad and Tobago LLC (BPTT) and Allseas Deepwater Contractors S.A. (Allseas), that was awarded in August 2002. The 48-inch pipeline installation was part of the Kapok Project development, BP's largest offshore processing facility in the world, expected to more than double BPTT's daily gas output. Allseas' preparations officially commenced before the project kick-off meeting in September 2001 and had to be finished before project mobilization in February 2002. It was immediately clear that the pipeline installation would be a difficult task. The 48-inch concrete weight coated pipeline, with a total length of approximately 63 km, had to be pulled in at the landfall site at Rustville on Trinidads East Coast off Galeota Point and laid down near the future Casia B platform at a water depth of approximately 67 m. Soil data varied gradually, near shore the soil consisted of intermixed sand and clay and offshore soil consisted of very soft clay (1). The planned route had three curves of which the first was located approximately 6 km offshore from Rustville.

This curve had a radius of 1524 m, changing the pull-in direction of approximately 138 2 to a pipelay direction of approximately 111 2. Along the route most waves would approach Solitaire bow quartering. Two sea states were allowed for during the project: 1) a sea state characterized by a significant wave height (Hs) and a corresponding zero-up crossing wave period (Tz) less than the average Hs and Tz, which was used for near shore activities and 2) a mean sea state which was typical for offshore activities in February, March and April. The heavy weight of the joints resulted in unusually high pulling forces and pipelay tensions in addition to the large diameter-wall thickness ratio (D/t) which made the pipeline very sensitive to buckling. How did Allseas deal with these challenges during the preparation and installation phase of the pull-in and pipelay operation? This question is answered in this paper with an overview of the technically interesting and challenging activities, which resulted in the successful installation of the Bombax 48-inch Gas Export Pipeline by Allseas' Solitaire. The heavy weights and large D/t ratios of the 48-inch Gas Export Pipeline sections are presented in Table 1. Installation of these pipeline sections was realized by Allseas' Solitaire and specifically selected equipment. Brief descriptions of the equipment clarify the overviews of the pipeline pull-in and pipeline installation, in which Allseas successfully dealt with high pulling forces, high pipelay tensions and the buckling sensitivity of the pipeline. 48-inch Gas Export Pipeline The X65 Gas Export Pipeline with a 1219 mm outside diameter (D) was divided into 7 sections (Picture 1).

2 1 Bombax was derived from Bombacaceae, the Kapok Tree family.

Relative to UTM Grid North (central meridian 63 degrees), International spheroid WGS 84, datum WGS 84.

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Picture 1: General field layout 48-inch pipeline (not to scale)

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Two pipe transfer cranes with a Safe Working Load (SWL) of 35 mT each made it possible to hoist the heavy 48-inch pipe joints on deck. The joints were transferred from the landing area to the cargo hold areas for storage or directly to the double joint factory where the joints were welded together in single joint welding stations. After QCs approval the double joints were transferred to the firing line which had five welding stations. Between these welding stations anti-corrosion field-joint coating stations were present to coat the double-joint welds. The firing line welds were non-destructively tested and repaired if necessary. Subsequently they were anti-corrosion coated. At the end of the firing line all the field joints were coated. Between the welding stations and coating stations three tensioners were installed, giving Solitaire a total tension capacity of 525 mT. The applied tension was indicated on the bridge and additionally tension records were recorded on a data logger. For Abandonment and Recovery (A&R) operations as well as laydown operations Solitaire is equipped with a 400 mT winch which can be monitored from the bridge. A 4-inch A&R cable with a SWL of 380 mT was used. Solitaire's stinger was fitted with load cells, under-water cameras and an X-Y profiler to monitor the rollerbox loads and the stinger tip clearance. The rollerbox loads were not allowed to exceed maximum capacities of Solitaire and the stinger tip clearance had to be at least 0.30 m. The actual strains in the pipeline were not monitored directly. Pull-in winches Two 500 mT linear winches complete with hydraulic power pack units and controls were provided by Bezemer Dordrecht B.V., who was sub-contracted by Atlantique Dragage (ADRA), Allseas main subcontractor. The winches had a total length of approximately 12 m, with a width of approximately 2.2 m, and a height of approximately 1.6 m. Each winch weighed approximately 32 mT. The controls and power packs were placed adjacent to the winches, thereby providing the operators with a clear view of the winches. Good control of the winches was essential to maintain the tension in both pulling wires and ensure that the spelter sockets remained at a safe distance. The winches, which were installed in parallel, worked in unison. The reelwinders and other necessary equipment were provided by Smit Land & Marine Engineering B.V. who was also subcontracted by ADRA. ADRA provided two 102 mm pulling wires, each consisting of three parts which were connected by spelter sockets. Both wires had a minimum breaking load of 800 mT and an actual breaking load of approximately 859mT. A wire wash system or compressed air system was installed at the front of each winch to ensure that the wire was clean when it passed through the winch grips thereby minimizing the risk of wire slippage. The wires were connected to the pulling head that was welded to the pipeline on board Solitaire. Pulling head Allseas Engineering had to extensively consider which method to choose for the connection of the pulling wires to the pulling head. Generally a connection via a sheave

All sections had an FBE anti-corrosion coating with either a 0.4 mm or 0.7 mm thickness, depending on the method of concrete weight coating application that was used. The wall thicknesses (t) and concrete weight coating thicknesses of the sections differed, resulting in different weights (Table 1) up to 30 mT per joint. As the outside diameter over wall thickness ratio for most sections was greater than 45, by Oil & Gas Industry standards this pipeline was rated very buckle-sensitive. Equipment Description The heavy and buckling sensitive pipeline was installed by Allseas' Solitaire and pulled in by two 500 mT linear winches. Additional equipment such as the pulling head, buoyancy bags and the laydown head were specifically selected based on detailed engineering calculations and additional research. Solitaire Allseas' Solitaire (Picture 2) was chosen to install the 48-inch Gas Export Pipeline. Her overall length of approximately 300 m excluding stinger makes her the worlds largest pipelay vessel. She operates on dynamic positioning and is able to install pipe diameters up to 60 inch and carry approximately 15,000 mT of pipe, making it possible to operate in adverse weather conditions, when offshore pipe supply is often interrupted.
Picture 2: Allseas' dynamically positioned pipelay vessel Solitaire near landfall site at Rustville, Trinidad.

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is used. However, based on previous experience this was not considered ideal for this specific operation. Instead a direct connection was chosen, as equalizing forces could be handled by the winch controls and a direct connection could easily pass the stinger. The pulling head was capable of withstanding a 1000 mT pull force and the design of the pulling head pad-eyes was based on the dimensions of the open spelter sockets (Green Pin open spelter socket No. 144) of the pulling wires. The 48-inch pulling head had a total length of approximately 16.3 m, making it possible to contain 6 pigs: one gauge pig, two swab pigs, two brush pigs and one contingency pig. Each pig had a length of approximately 1.8 m. To prevent digging in of the pulling head, the front of the head was modified with a beveled edge and buoyancy bags were attached. Buoyancy bags To provide the necessary buoyancy, Seaflex fully enclosed air lift bags were brought on board Solitaire in boxes packed in three 3 x 20 ft containers. When inflated, these bags have a length of approximately 3.5 m and a height of approximately 2 m, resulting in a lift capacity of 5 mT. The main advantages of these bags were their relatively low cost and light weight, approximately 45 kg. The bags were supplied with polyester straps, D-rings and full lifting harnesses, which included end strops to prevent longitudinal axial movement and assist in underwater inflation. -inch quarter turn inflation/deflation valves were fitted at the top of the end panels and adequate pressure relief valves were fitted at the bag to prevent overfilling and to compensate for changes in water depth. Inflation valves terminated in an -inch BSP male thread suitable for the attachment of quick release couplings for simple air hose connection. A disadvantage was that the bags could not be directly inflated on board Solitaire as they then could not pass the sagbend. Consequently the bags were inflated after being lowered onto the seabed. Laydown head The laydown head had to be attached to the pipeline via a 48-inch 600 pounds Taper-Lok flange assembly with a weight of approximately 2.6 mT (2). The distance between the flange and the center of the pad-eye was equal to the length of a 48-inch double joint. The pad-eye was made of a 60 mm thick main plate and two 40 mm thick cheek plates. The 180 mm hole suited a 400 mT green pin shackle. The laydown head could receive the six pigs from the pulling head and was provided with 12 ball valves complete with ROV operable gearbox assemblies. The total dry weight of the laydown head excluding the female Taper-Lok flange was approximately 23.5 mT.

Pipeline Pull-in Preparations of the pull-in operation were based on Solitaire's capacities and the Shore Approach Pipeline Installation Specification (3). With the exception of the laydown head, the equipment made a successful pull-in of the heavy 48-inch pipeline possible. Shore Approach Pipeline Installation Specification (3) The detailed engineering calculations and drawings of the pull-in operation had to include pipeline stresses, pull loads, design calculations of the pull head, and configuration of the pulling equipment throughout the different stages of the operation. The maximum allowable combined stress due to bending and pulling had to be less than 85% of the Specified Minimum Yield Stress (SMYS). For the onshore contractor, Allseas had to determine the final position of the pull head above the High High Water mark in a dry environment. Pull-in analyses During the pull-in operation Solitaire would be equipped with a stinger of 110 m length and a radius of 350 m. These stinger settings were based on static and dynamic strain analyses using the computer program OFFPIPE. Based on the maximum defined combined stress as noted in the Shore Approach Pipeline Installation Specification (3), a corresponding maximum allowable combined strain was determined. The maximum strain that was determined for the pull-in operation was a dynamic overbend strain of approximately 0.188%, which was slightly less than defined. This strain occurred in pipeline Section F for a sea state that was typical for near shore activities. The mean near-shore current varied between 0.05 m/s and 0.1 m/s, causing no significant pipeline stability problems during the pull-in operation. The 48-inch pipeline would be pulled in the close vicinity of an existing 40-inch gas pipeline. In order to safeguard this pipeline, a 50 m safety distance was observed during dredging of the trench through which the 48-inch pipeline had to be pulled. The trench, of which the soil mainly consisted of sand (1), was dredged by ADRA. At the start of the pull-in operation, Solitaires hinge position would be located at a minimum water depth of approximately 18 m relative to Lowest Astronomical Tide. This was approximately 2.7 km offshore the landfall site, where the two 500 mT winches were installed in parallel. After connecting the pulling wires to the pulling head using two 500 mT shackles, Solitaire would install pipe immediately in order to minimize the time she had to stay at a minimum water depth. Before pulling the pipeline string, three buoyancy bags complete with inflation hoses had to be attached on top of the pulling head (Picture 3).

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Picture 3: Buoyancy bags on top of pulling head.

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The 48-inch joints were previously transported on cargo vessels from Mobile, Alabama, to Trinidad shores where they were offloaded to coaster type vessels, which brought the joints alongside Solitaire. During transport the joints were carefully handled in order to avoid damage to the anticorrosion coating and concrete weight coating. Early in the morning of February 27, the pull-in operation started shortly after the pulling wires (which were previously installed by ADRA) were connected to the pulling head. The wires were tensioned up and after approximately 291 m of pipe was resting on the seabed the first pull was made on February 28. An actual breakout force of 580 mT was needed to get the pipeline moving. Pulling a double joint took approximately 1 hour and the actual running force during the first pull was approximately 452 mT. After approximately 64 m of pipeline was pulled in the first pair of spelter sockets was assisted to pass the bank rollers near the winches. Subsequently the winches were moved forward using a crane. Welding and pulling of double joints commenced with an average speed of approximately 0.6 m/minute at the beginning of a pull and approximately 1.3 m/minute at the end of a pull. As a consequence of the winch capacities, pipe properties and soil conditions an average pull time of approximately 23 minutes occurred. Onshore, actual breakout forces became significantly higher than expected. It was decided to have the winches start every pull in manual mode, hold tension and initially switch to automatic mode once the pipe was broken out. Breakout time increased to approximately 3 hours and it was decided to switch the winches to automatic mode while waiting for breakout. Pulling continued and pull speeds increased up to 2 m/minute, resulting in pull times of approximately 12 minutes. Buoyancy bags, which were previously installed on top of the pipeline in Solitaires firing line, were inflated by divers from the anchored DSV. Meanwhile it was decided to have the winches move to their aft position to make the second pass of sockets possible. During the next pull Solitaire was pulled back as the average actual soil friction factor of 0.73 was smaller than 0.88 and the total buoyancy was less than recommended. After the spelter sockets of the South wire had entered the cofferdam in front of the winches the wire was cleaned using a water jet. The North wire followed closely and a second pair of sockets had to pass the winches, which were stopped. Solitaire stopped paying out pipe and maintained her position that was closer to shore. By turns, tension in each wire was decreased and sockets were lifted to pass the bank rollers. The wedges of the winches were opened, spelter socket pins were removed, winches were moved forward and bank rollers

The hoses had to be folded on top of each bag and strapped to the head using the polyester straps and D-rings. Once on the seabed these buoyancy bags had to be inflated manually. An additional 170 bags, which provided 850 mT buoyancy, complete with inflation hoses and little NorFloat buoys had to be attached to Section F of the pipeline string. Once on the seabed the inflation hose and little NorFloat buoy of the first bag on Section F would be released using a breaking wire. Once the NorFloat buoy reached the water surface, the hose would be connected to the air compressor spread stationed on board a small Diving Support Vessel (DSV) and the bag would be inflated. Inflation of the first bag automatically released the hose with NorFloat buoy of the second bag, which was attached under the straps of the first bag. After the second NorFloat buoy appeared at the water surface the second hose would be connected to the air compressor spread and inflated, which subsequently released the NorFloat buoy and hose of the next bag that was attached to the pipeline string. Inflation of the bags had to start after 291 m of pipeline was installed on the seabed. Once pulling started, Solitaire maintained her position and paid out double joints. Depending on the actual soil friction factor, either 2.5 km or 3 km would be pulled. If the soil friction factor exceeded 0.88, Solitaire had to be pulled back to the location that corresponded with a minimum water depth of 18 m, resulting in a maximum pull force of 1714 mT at the end of the pull-in operation. If the actual soil friction factor was less than 0.88, the maximum length of 3 km could be pulled. This length corresponded with a pull force of 1850 mT, equal to the sum of the total winch capacity and the maximum provided buoyancy. Pull-in operation Mobilization of the project officially started on February 2 2002 with bunkering and a stinger change. Solitaire was equipped with a stinger length of 110 m and an initial radius of 350 m. Joints were loaded on board Solitaire and she prepared for the pull-in operation.

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were positioned back in front of the winch. Subsequently the wires, which were still attached to the pipeline, were connected to the reels and tensioned up. The winches were connected to the back anchors, their alignment was checked and the cable counters were set to zero. Altogether each spelter socket pass took approximately 61/2 hours. Pulling recommenced with an average pull time of approximately 13 minutes per double joint. During the pulls some of the buoyancy bags, which had been re-connected to the pipeline by the divers appeared at the water surface. Early in the afternoon on March 7 a maximum pull force of 789 mT was needed for breakout. Another 300 m of pipeline had to be pulled. Approximately two hours before the end of the pull-in operation the pulling head was visible at the end of the cofferdam (Picture 4). Another 47 m of pipeline had to be pulled over dry beach. On March 8 the first weld reached the final position of the pulling head, approximately 82 m in front of the winches. The pull-in operation was finished and normal pipelay on board Solitaire commenced.
Picture 4: Pipe arrival at landfall site near Rustville, Trinidad.

criteria and concrete crushing criteria were checked. Based on the results the use of a buckle detector during the pipelay operation was considered. Offshore Installation Specification (2) Detailed engineering studies and calculations had to be prepared prior to mobilization and had to include pipelay configuration drawings, stinger configuration drawings, engineering details of the design and fabrication of the laydown head and stress analysis for the pipe considering tension variations, barge motions, normal laying and laydown. The laydown head had to be able to withstand the laydown forces and be flanged connected to the pipeline. The limiting bending strain during pipelay should be 0.18% at the outer diameter of the pipe in the overbend and the combined stress in the pipe should not exceed 80% of the SMYS in the sagbend. The results of the strain analysis had to comply with local buckling criteria and concrete coating criteria according to DNV OS-F101 (4). Installation parameters, such as tension, overbend and sagbend stresses, pipe departure angle and location of touchdown point had to be continuously monitored as well as the performance of the buckle detector and buckle detector cable tension. This detector had to be pulled continuously through the pipeline in order to position itself at a minimum of 25 m behind the pipe touchdown point. The touchdown point of the pipeline had to be within a corridor of +/- 10 m from the centerline of the designed pipeline route at a tolerance on bearing of +/-2. Within 500 m of the pipeline termination point, the corridor width was +/- 5 m. The pipeline laydown head should be positioned with a lateral tolerance of +/- 1 m, a longitudinal tolerance of +/- 2 m and a heading tolerance of +/- 1. During pipeline installation the sequential pipe numbers should be painted in white on both sides of each pipe near the field joint at the 10 o'clock and 2 o'clock positions, in order to maintain full traceability of each joint length. Pipeline installation analyses Shortly after the pull-in operation the stinger had to be rotated downwards in order to comply with the specified stress and strain criteria (2). For the same reason a second rotation and additional change of rollerbox heights was needed approximately 2 km further along the route. This resulted in stinger settings characterized by a stinger length of 110 m and a stinger radius of 330 m, which could be used until pipeline laydown. A maximum allowable sagbend strain of 0.174% was derived from the sagbend stress as noted in the Offshore Installation Specification (2). Strain analyses were initially based on DNV OS-F101 simplified criteria (Section 12, K300; 4) in addition to DNV OS-F101 regulations for local buckling (Section 5, D500; 4) and concrete crushing (Section 12, K200; 4). These criteria

Pipeline Installation Preparations of the pipelay operation were based on Solitaire's capacities and the Offshore Installation Specification (2). In order to install the heavy 48-inch pipeline pipelay tensions were determined and DNV OS-F101 (4) local buckling

6 could be checked by making static and dynamic analyses for minimum and maximum water depths of all pipeline sections. A maximum static overbend and sagbend strain of 0.204% and 0.145% respectively, were calculated for a water depth of approximately 51 m. A maximum static tension of approximately 300 mT was recommended near the laydown location. This tension corresponded with a minimum tip clearance of 0.3 m. Additional static analyses were made to check the possibility of installing the pipeline in a curve. The average water depth in the first curve along the route was approximately 32 m and soil conditions in the curve varied from very soft sandy clay to soft clayey sand. The minimum radius that could be installed by Solitaire was determined using the static bottom tension in the curve, the submerged weight of the pipeline and a lateral soil friction factor. A study of OTC papers (5-9) resulted in the determination of this factor. Three intervals were determined: 1) soft clay 0.3 0.5; 2) silty fine sand 0.75 - 1.00; 3) medium sand 0.70 - 1.00. Based on these values a soil friction factor of 0.4 was chosen, resulting in a minimum radius of approximately 1153 m. As this value was less than the defined radius of the curve, installation was possible. Dynamic pipelay analyses were made based on the mean Hs, corresponding Tz and bow quartering wave angle of incidence using a Pierson Moskowitz wave spectrum model and an actual tensioner deadband setting. Maximum dynamic strains and tensions were recommended at a water depth of 51 m and 67 m respectively. Corresponding loads on the stinger were within Solitaires capacities. Although the maximum dynamic sagbend strain complied with the Offshore Installation Specification (3), the maximum dynamic local overbend bending strain was larger than 0.18%. Local buckling Based on the dynamic strain analyses and local buckling criteria according to DNV OS-F101 (Section 5, D500, 4) unity checks were calculated using equations 5.24 and 5.26. For D/t ratios larger than 45, i.e. when equation 5.24 did not apply, the bending moment capacity (Mp) had to be reduced. The reduction was defined by BPTT.

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Concrete crushing Additionally crushing of the concrete coating was checked according to DNV OS-F101 (Section 12, K200, 4). Mean overbend strains were determined using maximum dynamic overbend bending strains and corresponding axial strains which were calculated by OFFPIPE. The limit mean strain giving crushing of the concrete (cc) was derived from linear extrapolation between conservative values for cc for 42-inch pipelines and 16-inch pipelines, 0.22% and 0.42% respectively. It was noticed that this resulted in an cc applicable at the middle of the concrete. Values for cc at the outside of the steel were determined based on the outside diameter, different wall thickness and linear interpolation. These values were compared with the product of corresponding mean overbend strains and defined safety factor for concrete crushing (equation 12.14, Section 12, K200, 4). It was concluded that the concrete on every pipeline section would not crush at using the recommended stinger settings. BPTT and Allseas agreed that an overbend bending strain above the defined limit noted in the Offshore Installation Specification could be used (2). The agreement was based on a global overbend bending strain (=D/2R) less than 0.18% (using a stinger radius of 330 m and 350 m) and buckling criteria and concrete crushing criteria which complied with DNV OS-F101 (4). Buckle detector Based on the presence of adequate means and controls to monitor safe pipeline installation on board Solitaire and engineering analyses to determine the maximum D/t value at which a pipe reaches its full plastic moment without buckling, Allseas and BPTT agreed on not using a buckle detector. Pipelay operation Shortly after the start of the pipeline installation Solitaire rotated the stinger downwards and pipelay continued with touchdown monitoring by ROV. A few kilometers further along the route rollerbox heights were changed and the stinger was rotated resulting in a stinger radius of 330 m. Pipelay continued while the strains in the overbend and sagbend were controlled by a combination of the recommended axial tension and the stinger configuration in order to remain within installation criteria which were defined in the Offshore Installation Specification (2) and were typical for Solitaire. Pipeline installation in the first curve and additional pipelay went smoothly. Minor problems with the line-up clamp, a welding box and sandblasting were solved professionally and lay speeds above the expected rates were achieved. Maximum tensions of 361 mT occurred, which was slightly above the maximum calculated tension. During the pipelay operation Solitaire had to wait for weather as the sea states were worse than the maximum allowable sea state.

Mp = Mp Mp
1.0 for

With:

D t 45

M p = 0.98 for 45< D t 50

0.96 for 50< D t 55

Despite the highly buckling-sensitive pipeline properties all local buckling criteria were met, i.e. buckling unity checks were less than 1 for every pipeline section with its characteristic D/t ratio (Table 2). It was noted that the maximum buckling unity checks for the overbend occurred for load condition a and the maximum unity checks for the sagbend for load condition b (4).

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On April 25 Solitaire was ready for pipeline laydown. Previously a transponder was attached on top of the pipeline in order to determine the final length of the cut-to-length piece which had to be welded between the last joint and the 23.5 mT laydown head. The pup piece length was determined on the basis of the position of this transponder, the defined laydown position and pipe tally sheets. A second transponder was installed on top of the pipeline approximately 50 m from the end of the pipeline. Together with a third transponder that was attached to the rollerguide, which protected the Taper-Lok flanges, it was possible to check the pipeline heading and position of the pipeline end. The laydown head complete with Taper-Lok flange assembly was welded to the pipeline and the 4-inch A&R cable was attached to the 400 mT pad-eye of the head via a 4-inch doubled sling. During the laydown operation tension was transferred from the tensioners to the A&R winch and Solitaire paid out A&R cable. Just before the laydown head left the stinger, tensions increased considerably after which they decreased to approximately 39 mT once the head was on the seabed. A maximum tension of 359 mT was applied, which was slightly above the static recommended 346 mT. On April 26 the pipeline was successfully laid down in the defined laydown area near the future location of Cassia B platform, thereby achieving a major milestone of the Bombax Pipeline Project. Approximately 5130 buckling-sensitive joints were safely installed in S-mode by Allseas' Solitaire. Solitaire was ready for another challenge. Acknowledgements The author gratefully acknowledges support from colleagues and clients in reviewing the drafts of this paper. References
1. Fugro Geoservices Inc.; Pipeline Surveys and Assessments Proposed Pipeline Routes Trinidad Gas Transportation Expansion Project Offshore Southeast Trinidad; Fugro Geoservices, Inc.; Houston, 2001. BP Trinidad and Tobago LLC; Offshore Installation Specification; BP Trinidad and Tobago LLC; August 16 2001. BP Trinidad and Tobago LLC; Shore Approach Pipeline Installation Specification; BP Trinidad and Tobago LLC; August 16 2001. Det Norske Veritas; Offshore Standard OS-F101 Submarine Pipeline Systems; Det Norske Veritas; Hvik, Norway; 2000. Lyons, C.G.; Soil resistance to lateral sliding of submarine pipelines; OTC 1876; Esso Production Research Co.; 1973. Karal, K.; Lateral stability of submarine pipelines; OTC 2967; River and Harbor Laboratory at the Norwegian Institute of Technology; 1977. Brennodden, H., Sveggen, O., Wagner D.A. and Murff J.D.; Full-scale pipe soil interaction tests; OTC 5338; Sintef, Statoil, Exxon Production Research Co.; 1986. Brennodden, H., Sveggen, O., Wagner D.A. and Murff J.D.;

9.

Pipe-soil Interaction Model; OTC 5504; Sintef, Statoil, Exxon Production Research Co.; 1987. Palmer, A.C., Steenfelt, J.S., Steensen-Bach, J.O., Jacobsen, V.; Lateral resistance of marine pipelines on sand; OTC 5853; Andrew Palmer & Associates, Engineering Academy of Denmark, Danish Geotechnical Inst., Danish Hydraulic Inst.; 1988.
Multiplication factor 2.205 3.278 0.039 0,984 English unit pound [lbs] foot [ft] inch [inch] ton [t]

Conversion Table
SI unit kilogram [kg] meter [m] millimeter [mm] metric ton [mT]

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Table 1: 48-inch Gas Export Pipeline properties per pipeline section.

Property Wall thickness t D/t Concrete weight coating thickness OOD Dry weight joint Submerged weight joint SI-unit mm mm mm mT mT A 24.3 50 114.3 1449 26.6 5.9 B 23.8 51 95.3 1411 23.2 3.7 C 23.4 52 101.6 1424 24.1 4.2 D 23. 8 51 127 147 4 28. 5 7.2 E 24.3 50 114.3 1449 26.6 5.9 F 24.3 50 127 1474 28.7 7.4 G 28.2 43 127 1474 30.1 8.7

Table 2: Maximum strains and corresponding buckling unity checks per pipeline section for a mean sea state during pipeline installation.
Parameter Overbend bending strain Combined overbend strain Sagbend strain Maximum buckling unity check overbend Maximum buckling unity check sagbend SI-unit % % % A 0.191 0.207 0.164 0.799 0.714 B 0.192 0.202 0.154 0.822 0.677 C 0.193 0.206 0.159 0.830 0.747 D 0.194 0.208 0.174 0.838 0.725 E 0.193 0.205 0.168 0.751 0.709 F 0.177 0.194 0.172 0.744 0.717