CHAPTER 2

FUNDAMENTALS

Basic Definitions And Laws Of Electromagnetic Radiation

Sensors collect electromagnetic energy Q emitted from a surface area (pixel), during a time interval t, arriving at the sensor aperture with a solid angle characterize the intensity of electromagnetic radiation we must get rid of , t and ! Basic definitions (Q = energy) radiant flux (t): radiant exitance M(t,P): irradiance E(t,P): illuminance L:

=
M = E =

Q t
A

dQ dt
d dA

(power) (emitted) (incident) ( = half upper space)

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M= E= L=

d dA E

Electromagnetic signals x(t) consist of sines and cosines

sin(t ) = sin(2 t / T ) = sin(2 tc / ) cos(t ) = cos(2 t / T ) = cos(2 tc / )

with varying periods T, or angular frequencies = 2/, or wavelengths = cT (c = light velocity)

1 Fourier representation: x(t ) = 2

X () eit d

eit = cos(t ) + i sin(t )

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Signal power: P = lim

[ x(t )]2 dt =

P ( )d = P ( )d

-

P () = power spectral density function

Radiant flux (power):

= M = L=

- +

( ) d

= =

Exitance

- +

- +

( ) d

( ) d

Irradiance

dL L = d

L ( ) d = L ( ) d

-

- +

( ) d

Spectral irradiance

M =

dM d

Spectral exitance
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

A 0.1 0.3 0.2 1 A 3 30 300 0.3 3 10 102 103 104 105 106 300 0.1 0.3 1 cm 3 10 30 102 3

cm 103 m 30 300 3 30 104 105 106 107 km 300

30

RADAR RADIO MICROWAVES AUDIO AC

UV VISIBLE

IR

UV (Ultraviolet) Violet

Red IR (Infrared)
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The laws of the electromagnetic radiation A body surface can 1. absorb incident radiation, 2. reflect incident radiation, a) as a mirror b) with spherical symmetry (Lambert) 3. transmit incident radiation, 4. emit radiation. The characteristics are a function of the wavelength of the radiation.

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Laws of Electromagnetic Radiation black body : an idealized body absorbing all wavelengths of incident radiation or emitting radiation at all wavelengths Physical approximation = sun! Law of Plank: (spectral exitance of black body)

M ,b ( ,T ) =

c1
c2 5 e T

- 1)

T = temperature

Law of Stefan-Bolzman: (total spectral exitance)

Mb (T ) = M ,b ( ,T )d = T 4
0

Law of Wien: ( of maximal spectral exitance)

max =

c3 T

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M ,b ( max ,T ) = max M ,b ( ,T )

The Solar Electromagnetic Radiation

solar irradiance below atmosphere

atmospheric absorption

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The real body

The exitance is not equal to the black body: the emissivity of the body is defined as

e( ) = M ( ) / M , B ( )

0 e( ) 1

In case of incident energy, a body reflects, absorbs and transmits

( ) = Er ( ) / Ei ( ) ( ) = Ea ( ) / Ei ( )

0 ( ) 1

reflectivity absorptivity, trasmittivity,

0 ( ) 1
0 ( ) 1

( ) = Et ( ) / Ei ( ) ( ) + ( ) + ( ) = 1
e( ) = ( )

Energy conservation law Kirchhoff law

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Some definitions Optical window 0.1 m (10-4 mm) - 20.0 m (2 10-3 mm) Ultraviolet, 0.38 m: atmospheric diffusion Visible, 0.38 m - 0.75 m: reflected by the earth surface Near infrared, 0.75 m 1.5 m: reflected by the earth surface Near/mean infrared, 1.5 m 3.0 m 7.0 m: reflected / emitted by the earth surface Mean infrared, 5.0 m 7.0 m: absorbed by the water vapor in the atmosphere Thermal infrared,7.0 m 20.0 m: emitted by the earth surface Radar window 0.2 cm - 100.0 cm
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The spectral signature of a surface

The function

( )
that describes the reflectivity of a surface / material as a function of the wavelength of the incident radiation.

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Examples of typical spectral signatures

Non vegetated areas: concrete more reflective, Concrete can be clustered: roadways, parking lots, swimming pools, buildings Vegetated areas: a completely different behavior, Tree can be clustered: deciduous, oaks, maples, evergreen
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Remote sensing: the ideal case

A set of sensors measures the irradiance reflected by a pixel, on all the wavelengths. The pixel spectral signature has been observed. The observed spectral signature is compared with a library of known spectral firms. The pixel is classified in the class whose known spectral signature is equal to the observed spectral signature.

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The real case

Sensors behavior

Atmosphere and shadows

Class heterogeneity and mixed pixels

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Sensors respond to exitance only within a spectral band 1 2 :

2

Ideal sensor:

M[ 1 , 2 ] =

M ()d
1

Actual sensor:

M[ 1 , 2 ] =

M ()w()d
1

w() = sensor sensitivity response function

response functions for the 4 sensors of the Landsat satellite Multispectral Scanner

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Spectral Bands of Landsat Satellite - Thematic Mapper (T1, T2, T3, T4, T5) and SPOT4 Satellite HRVIR (S1, S2, S3, S4)

1. water 2. vegetation 3. bare soil 4. snow

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The heterogeneity of a class and the mixed pixels

The Tree class: different species of trees, different ages of the same species: spatial heterogeneity; different humidity, different foliations: temporal heterogeneity. Often, in the same pixel, different classes: building and garden, highway and crops To solve the absolute classification problem: the spectral firm library should be complete for all the classes / all the conditions, the pixel spatial resolution should be very fine.
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Class heterogeneity
The same class can present great variability

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Mixed pixels
Intermediate classes dont exist. A pixel containing more classes is classified in the majority class.

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Seasonal variability
The same landscape assume completely different aspect in summer and winter

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