Ways of expressing different concepts (2): cause and effect 1 We can indicate the relationship between cause and

effect by using: verbs / verbal phrases Smoking can cause lead to result in

lung cancer.

the nouns cause, result and reason. The strike was the reason for the cause of the delay.

The delay was the result of a strike. Prepositions / prepositional phrases Her absence was due to her illness. Owing to her illness, she had to take a day off yesterday. Note: We also use due to as an adjective. The delay due to the strike has caused damage to the company. In modern English, however, it can be used like owing to. Due to her illness, she had to take a day off yesterday. We cancelled our picnic because of on account of owing to

the bad weather.

Note: We cannot use a clause after because of, on account of, due to, owing to, as a consequence of and as a result of. Wrong: We cancelled our picnic because of the weather was bad.

She gave the beggar some money out of sympathy. He made the mistake through carelessness. Note: We use words expressing certain feelings (kindness, pity, concern, curiosity, jealousy, affection, regard, love, etc.) with out of.

Conjunctions

He was tired (and) so he went to bed early last night. He went to bed early last night because he was tired. As Since he was tired, he went to bed early last night. He went to bed early last night, for he was tired. The reason (why) he went to bed early last night was that he was tired. Note: As and since are usually placed at the beginning of the sentence. Because may come either before or after the main clause. For cannot be put at the beginning of the sentence. It cannot be used to answer the question Why? or with not, but or any other conjunctions. Why did he go to bed early last night? Because he was tired. Wrong: For he was tired. He criticised you not because he hated you, but because he did not want to see you repeat the same mistake in the future. So ... that and such ... that He was so tired that he went to bed early last night. Note: Above, we use the structure so + adjective + that; below, we use the structure so + adverb + that. He spoke so rapidly that we could not understand him. It was such a difficult question that only a few of us could answer it. Note: In the example above we use the structure such + adjective + noun + that. Compare: The question was so difficult that only a few of us could answer it.

But we use so, not such with many and much. There were so many people at the beach that we could not enjoy ourselves. There was so much homework to do that I could not finish it. Connectives

He wasted a lot of time on television and comic books. Consequently, As a result, As a consequence, Therefore, Thus, he failed the examination. Note: We can also put as a result and therefore before a clause like this: He was late and as a result we missed the ferry. He was late and therefore we missed the ferry. We can also use thus in this way. She came to help, and thus made it possible for us to finish the job as planned. The team failed to arrive in time for the match. Accordingly they were disqualified. Too ... to and not ... enough to The book is too difficult for me to read. The book is not easy enough for me to read. Note: Avoid these mistakes: The shirt is too large for me to wear it. The shirt is too large for me to wear. (incorrect) (correct) (incorrect) (correct)

The bag is not big enough to put all the groceries in it. The bag is not big enough to put all the groceries in. 2

We can use the structure have + noun / pronoun + past participle to talk about the action of causing something to be done. I'll have my hair cut tomorrow. We had our dog clipped on Saturday. We had our flat redecorated last month. Compare: We redecorated our flat last month. (We did the job ourselves.) We had our flat redecorated last month. (We arranged for someone to do the job for us.)

Note: In informal style it is acceptable to us get instead of have. I'm going to get my coat cleaned.

We can also use this structure to talk about something resulted form actions other than our own. I had my wallet stolen yesterday. We often use this structure in this way when something unpleasant or unexpected happens to someone. Mr Lee had his new car damaged in an accident. Do not confuse this structure with the have + someone + bare infinitive structure. Mr Lee: Compare: Mr Lee: I'll have the letter typed at once. (= I'll arrange to have it typed.) I'll have my secretary type the letter at once. (= I'll instruct my secretary to type the letter at once.)

Choose the correct words to complete these sentences. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Smoking can (lead / cause) to heart disease. (As a result / As a result of) the typhoon, all the flights were cancelled. Success can be achieved only (through / thorough) hard work. What was the (cause / reason) for his popularity? Can anyone tell us the (reason / cause) of her absence today? There was (so / such) much work to do that they had to work overtime. She read the letter (out of / because) curiosity. It was wet and cold, and (consequently / so) we stayed at home all day. They'll have the goods (deliver / delivered) to us tomorrow morning at the soonest. The dispute at the bar last night resulted (in / from) a brawl. The trains from Shanghai will be delayed (because / due to) the flood. The company lost a lot of money (because / on account of) poor management.

Complete this short passage using the given words. Each word can be used ONCE only. causes result as too consequently

enough

since

(so) so

thus

leads it makes sense to invest in a quality

We spend about a third of our lives in bed difficulty deciding which one to choose.

mattress. _______________ there is a great variety of mattresses on the market, we often have What are the features to look for when selecting a mattress? Support, comfort and durability are important when choosing a mattress, the marketing manager of a bedding manufacturer told us. Good support can _______________ in healthy sleep. A good mattress should support the body contours and keep the spine correctly aligned. But she said it was a myth that firmer was better. If the mattress is _______________ firm, it won't support the body evenly. Only the body's heaviest parts, that is, the shoulders and hips, will be supported. This tends to create pressure points at the shoulders and hips, _____________ reducing blood circulation. This is what ________________ people to toss and turn. But a softer mattress will not provide ______________ support to keep the spine correctly aligned. This ______________to tension, and ________________ the muscles try to compensate for the problem, tiredness, aches and pains are ___________________ felt in the morning. Join the two sentences using either so or such. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I was excited. She is a nice person. The road was slippery. The water was cold. There were many cars. It was lovely weather. I couldn't sleep. Everybody likes her. It made driving dangerous. We decided not to swim. They couldn't find a place to park. The beach was packed with holiday makers. I was so excited that I couldn't sleep. She _____________________________________everybody likes her. The road _____________________________________ made driving dangerous. The water _____________________________________ decided not to swim. There were _________________________________ couldn't find a place to park. It was _______________________ that the beach was packed with holiday makers. The suitcase was heavy. She couldn't carry it.

The suitcase was ______________________________couldn't carry it. 8 9 10 They are good friends. They have no secrets from each other. I could not afford to buy it. We were exhausted after the journey. They are ______________________________ have no secrets from each other. It was an expensive watch. The flight took a long time. It was _________________________________________ could not afford to buy it. The flight took ___________________________ we were exhausted after the journey. Complete the following dialogues by using too ... to or (not) enough to and the given words. 1 busy / talk about Tom: Ron: 2 Paul: Sally: 3 late / see Dick: Ann: 4 soon / reach John: Brian: 5 good / do Mr Wong: Mr Lau: 6 Janet: Lily: 7 time / finish Kate: Sue: Let's clean the carpet, too. We'd better leave the job for tomorrow. There ___________________________ Can we ask Miss Lam to act as our interpreter? I don't think her English ______________________________________the job. Are you going to Europe for your holiday? No, I don't have ____________________________________ a holiday abroad. What caused the plane crash? It ________________________________ a conclusion yet. The accident is still under investigation. Let's go to the cinema. Don't you think it ________________________ the 7:30 show? It's 7:25 now. Shall we discuss the matter now? I'm afraid I am too busy to talk about it now. What about this afternoon?

old / take a driving test Has your brother got a driving licence? No, he is not old enough to take a driving test . He's only 17.

money / pay for

______________ it today. My father will be home soon. 8 experienced / deal with Mr Kwok: Miss Tam: 9 risky / climb Julia: Peter: 10 Are we going to climb the mountain today? I think it _______________________________ in such wet and windy weather. Let's do it some other time. Is our company planning to build one more office tower? No, we don't have ____________________________________________that. Can we trust Robert with these documents? I'm afraid Robert ________________________________________ them on his own. I'll handle them myself.

resources / do Jasmine: Jacky:

Combine these sentences by using the words given in brackets. Make any changes you think are necessary. 1 2 3 4 It was raining. We decided to stay at home. It was too noisy. (so) It was raining (and) so we decided to stay at home. He couldn't concentrate. She was curious. It rained heavily. (because of) He couldn't concentrate _____________________________________________ She asked him. (out of) She asked him ____________________________________________________ Public transport in many parts of the territory was disrupted. (owing to) ____________________________, public transport in many parts of the territory was disrupted. 5 6 7 8 9 She was cold. She was shivering. (with) (as a result) (reason) (as) She was shivering _________________________________________________ He was often late. He lost his job. She declined the invitation. He was often late and ______________________________________________ She did not feel well. The ________________________________________ was that she did not feel well. Everybody says Spider-Man 2 is good. I think I'll go and see it. She didn't get a reply. She wrote another letter. (therefore) As _________________________________________________________________

She ________________________________________________________________ 10 Mr Chan retired last year. He was in poor health. (on account of) Mr Chan ____________________________________________________________ Read the first sentence and then complete the second by using the given words in the structure have something done. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 it / repair This washing machine isn't working. We must have it repaired it / cut Your hair is too long. You should _____________________________________________ them / let down You can wear your new trousers to work. I've ___________________________________ them / adjust My glasses keep falling off. I'm going to ________________________________________ tooth / fill Susan went to the dentist yesterday. She _______________________________________ new tyres / fit Mr Chan can't use his car today. He's ______________________________________ on it. eyes / test I can't see the blackboard clearly from where I sit. I think I'll _________________________ tomorrow. 8 telephone / install We've just moved into our new flat. We haven't ____________________________________ yet. 9 10 it / tune You may not want to play the piano. My sister hasn't ___________________________ yet. your ears / pierce If you'd like to wear earrings, why don't you ______________________________________? as soon as possible.