PROJECT OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAIVOR

SUBMITTED TO SIR WAQAS RAJA SUBMITTED BY FARZANA PERVEEN SHABANA BATOOL MADIHA SEHAR

FATIMA JINNAH WOMEN UNIVERSITY

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
May ALLAH bless me with such kind of dedicated teacher in future. Thanks to Sir Waqas Raja, under his dynamic guidance I am able to express myself. And I am now at the stage to complete my project. He is beyond my thoughts and much more than this acknowledgement. And finally I am thankful that he cooperated with me

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 2 TABLE OF CONTENTS 3 DEFINITION AND HISTORY OF4 REINFORCEMENT THEORY REINFORCEMENT,EXTINCTION AND4,5 PUNISHMENT SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT 7 RULES OF REINFORCEMENT 8 REINFORCEMNT THEORY9,10 IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS REINFORCEMENT AT INDIVIDUAL11 LEVEL REINFORCEMENT AT12 ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL REINFORCEMENT AT TEAM LEVEL 13 EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT AT14,16 ORGANIATIONAL FUNCTIONS ARTICLE 17 SIMILARITES AND DIFFRENCES 20 CONCLUSION 21 REFERENCES 21 NO

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequences of the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior.

BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Behavioral theories of learning and motivation focus on the effect that the consequences of past behavior have on future behavior. This is in contrast to classical conditioning, which focuses on responses that are triggered by stimuli in an almost automatic fashion. Reinforcement theory suggests that individuals can choose from several responses to a given stimulus, and that individuals will generally select the response that has been associated with positive outcomes in the past. E.L. Thorndike articulated this idea in 1911, in what has come to be known as the law of effect. The law of effect basically states that, all other things being equal, responses to stimuli that are followed by satisfaction will be strengthened, but responses that are followed by discomfort will be weakened. B.F. Skinner was a key contributor to the development of modern ideas about reinforcement theory. Skinner argued that the internal needs and drives of individuals can be ignored because people learn to exhibit certain behaviors based on what happens to them as a result of their behavior.

REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT, AND EXTINCTION TYPES OF REINFORCEMENT:

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Positive reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency of behavior due to the addition of a stimulus immediately following a response. Giving (or adding) food to a dog contingent on its sitting is an example of positive reinforcement (if this results in an increase in the future behavior of the dog sitting). Negative reinforcement is an increase in the future frequency of behavior when the consequence is the removal of an aversive stimulus. Turning off (or removing) an annoying song when a child asks their parent is an example of Negative reinforcement (if this results in an increase in asking behavior of the child in the future). Another example is if a mouse presses a button to avoid shock. Do not confuse this concept with punishment. Avoidance conditioning is a form of negative reinforcement that occurs when behavior prevents an aversive stimulus from starting or being applied. Skinner discusses that while it may appear so, punishment is not the opposite of reinforcement. Rather, it has some other effects as well as decreasing undesired behavior.

decreases behavior presented taken away

likelihood

ofincreases behavior

likelihood

of

positive punishment negative punishment

positive reinforcement negative reinforcement

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN REINFORCEMENT:

POSITIVE

AND

NEGATIVE

Distinguishing "positive" from "negative" can be difficult, and the necessity of the distinction is often debated. For example, in a very warm room, a current of external air serves as positive reinforcement because it is pleasantly cool or negative reinforcement because it removes uncomfortably hot air. Some reinforcement can be simultaneously positive and negative, such as a drug addict taking drugs for the added euphoria and eliminating withdrawal symptoms. Many behavioral psychologists simply refer to reinforcement or punishmentwithout polarityto cover all consequent environmental changes.

Generally speaking, there are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative. Positive reinforcement results when the occurrence of a valued behavioral consequence has the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. The specific behavioral consequence is called a reinforcer. An example of positive reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts extra effort to meet a sales quota (behavior) and is then rewarded with a bonus (positive reinforcer). The administration of the positive reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. Negative reinforcement results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior. Thus, both positive and negative reinforcement have the effect of increasing the probability that a particular behavior will be learned and repeated. An example of negative reinforcement might be a salesperson that exerts effort to increase sales in his or her sales territory (behavior), which is followed by a decision not to reassign the salesperson to an undesirable sales route (negative reinforcer). The administration of the negative reinforcer should make it more likely that the salesperson will continue to exert the necessary effort in the future. As mentioned above, punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors being exhibited. Punishment is the administration of an undesirable behavioral consequence in order to reduce the occurrence of the unwanted behavior. Punishment is one of the more commonly used reinforcement-theory strategies, but many learning experts suggest that it should be used only if positive and negative reinforcement cannot be used or have previously failed, because of the potentially negative side effects of punishment. An example of punishment might be demoting an employee who does not meet performance goals or suspending an employee without pay for violating work rules. 6

Extinction is similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior. The process of extinction begins when a valued behavioral consequence is withheld in order to decrease the probability that a learned behavior will continue. Over time, this is likely to result in the ceasing of that behavior. Extinction may alternately serve to reduce a wanted behavior, such as when a positive reinforcer is no longer offered when a desirable behavior occurs. For example, if an employee is continually praised for the promptness in which he completes his work for several months, but receives no praise in subsequent months for such behavior, his desirable behaviors may diminish. Thus, to avoid unwanted extinction, managers may have to continue to offer positive behavioral consequences.

The timing of the behavioral consequences that follow a given behavior is called the reinforcement schedule.

Types of reinforcement schedules:

CONTINUOUS: If behavior is reinforced each time it occurs, it is called continuous reinforcement. Research suggests that continuous reinforcement is the fastest way to establish new behaviors or to eliminate undesired behaviors. However, this type of reinforcement is generally not practical in an organizational setting. INTERMITTENT. Intermittent reinforcement means that each instance of a desired behavior is not reinforced. There are at least four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio. Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement occur when desired behaviors are reinforced after set periods of time. The simplest example of a fixed interval schedule is a weekly pay check. A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement does not appear to be a particularly strong way to elicit desired behavior, and behavior learned in this way may be subject to rapid extinction. Example: reinforcement provided for the first response after 1 second Lab example: rat is reinforced for the first bar press after 15 seconds passes since the last reinforcement Real world example: calling a radio station is reinforced with a chance to win a prize, but the person can only sign up once per day Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement applies the reinforcer after a set number of occurrences of the desired behaviors. One organizational example of this schedule is a sales commission based on number of units sold. Like the fixed interval schedule, the fixed ratio schedule may not produce consistent, long-lasting, behavioral change. Example: every second response is reinforced Lab example: rat reinforced with food after each 5 bar-presses in a Skinner box Real-world example: Used car dealer gets a $1000 bonus for each 10 cars sold on the lot. Variable interval reinforcement schedules are employed when desired behaviours are reinforced after varying periods of time. Examples of variable interval schedules would be special recognition for successful performance and promotions to higher-level positions. This reinforcement schedule appears to elicit desired behavioral change that is resistant to extinction. Example: reinforcement is provided for the first response after an average of 3 seconds since the last reinforcement. Lab example: a rat is reinforced for the first bar press after an average of 10 seconds passes since the last reinforcement Real world example: a predator can expect to come across a prey on a variable interval schedule Variable ratio reinforcement schedule applies the reinforce after a number of desired behaviors have occurred, with the number changing from situation to situation. Organizational examples of variable ratio schedules are bonuses or special awards that 8

are applied after varying numbers of desired behaviors occur. Variable ratio schedules appear to produce desired behavioral change that is consistent and very resistant to extinction. Example: on average, every third response is reinforced Lab example: on average, a rat is reinforced for each 10 bar presses Real world example: a roulette player betting on specific numbers will win on average once every 37 tries

RULES OF REINFORCEMENT
There are three basic principles of this theory. These are the Rules of Consequences. The three Rules describe the logical outcomes which typically occur after consequences. Rewards increase behavior. Punishments decrease behavior. Neither Rewards nor Punishments extinguish behavior. These Rules provide an excellent blueprint for influence. If you want to increase a behavior (more frequent, more intense, more likely), then when the behavior is shown, provide a Consequence of Reward. If you want to decrease a behavior (less frequent, less intense, less likely), then when the behavior is shown, provide a Consequence of Punishment. Finally, if you want a behavior to extinguish (disappear, fall out of the behavioral repertoire), then when the behavior is shown, then provide no Consequence (ignore the behavior). Anything that increases the behavior is the reward and anything that decreases the behavior is punishment.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY IMPLICATIONS FOR MANAGERS:

Reinforcement theory provides implications for managers. 1st managers should keep in mind that motivated behavior is influenced by employee's learning what is acceptable / unacceptable to the organization, When working with employees to develop motivation, managers should do the following: Tell individuals what they can do to get positive reinforcement: the work standard lets all employees know what kind of behavior is acceptable; 9

Tell individuals what they are doing wrong: if rewards are not coming, the employee must know why. Providing feedback/information will allow the employee to improve motivated behavior; Rewards on performance: managers should not reward individuals in the same way. The higher the performance the better the reward should be; Administer the reinforcement as close in time to the related behavior as possible: to achieve maximum impact, the reinforcement should immediately follow the good performance; Recognize that failure to reward can also modify behavior: if a manager does not praise for good performance, the employee will not know what behavior the manager wants. By applying these guidelines managers help employees to focus on the organizational objectives while at the same time modifying employee behavior.

REINFORCEMENT AT INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

Reinforcement at individual level can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. Rewards are intrinsic in the form of employee recognition and extrinsic in the form of compensation system. Reinforces such as pay can motivate people that is why reinforcement can be used to motivate employees. Companies often underestimate its importance. A 2006 study found that only 41% of employers thought that pay was a key factor in losing top talent whereas 71% of top performers indicated that it was a top reason. Management can take three major strategic decisions to reward employees which are: What to pay? How to pay? How to construct employee recognition programs?

REINFORCEMENT AT ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL

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Employee recognition programs range from a spontaneous and private Thank you up to widely publicized formal programs in which specific types of behavior are encouraged and the procedures for attaining recognition are clearly identified. Some research has suggested that whereas financial incentives may be more motivating in the short term, in the long run non financial incentives are more motivating. A few years ago, 1500 employees were surveyed in a variety of work settings to find out what they considered to be the most powerful workplace motivator. Their only response was recognition. ]

REINFORCEMENT AT TEAM LEVEL

While rewarding individuals, management must take care that in addition to individual performance evaluations and incentives, it should give group based appraisals, small group incentives and any other kind of rewards that reinforce team effort and commitment as now days most companies are team based. The drawback of rewarding only individuals is that it can hinder or interfere with the development of high performance teams by setting competition among team members. So management must take such strategic decisions that individuals and teams, both are rewarded because if only individuals are rewarded then the team effectiveness will suffer and if only teams are rewarded then it can lead to social loafing.

EFFECTS OF FUNCTIONS:
PRODUCTIVITY ABSENTEEISM TURNOVER JOB SATISFACTION

REINFORCEMENT

AT

ORGANIZATIONAL

EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT

PRODUCTIVITY:
A performance measure including effectiveness and efficiency. An organization is effective if it achieves its goals and does so by transferring inputs to outputs at the lowest cost. Reinforcement counts for both its positive and negative effects because its effect can be repeated by any individual having influence of it.

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ABSENTEEISM:
Failure to report to work. Its obviously difficult for an organization to operate smoothly and to attain its objectives if employees fail to report to their jobs. The work flow is disrupted, and often important decisions must be delayed. In organizations they rely heavily upon assembly line production, absenteeism can be considerably more than a disruption; it can result in drastic reduction in quality of output, and, in some cases, it can bring about a complete shut down of the production facility. But absenteeism has direct impact on the effectiveness and efficiency of the organization. To reduce this kind of absenteeism reinforcement can be used by higher authorities. Like if bonus, Honour-rarium, sick leaves and promotions are given to the employees then there is less chances of absenteeism in any organization because if employee is satisfied then he can work with full devotion and concentration with the increase in the organizations production. Not all absences are bad because it can have a negative impact on the organization there are many situations in which the organization may benefit by an employees voluntarily choosing not to come to work. For instance illness, fatigue, or excess stress can significantly decrease an employees productivity.

TURNOVER:
Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from the organization. A high rate of turnover can also disrupt the efficient running of an organization when knowledgeable and experienced personal leave and replacements must be found and prepared to assume positions of responsibility. All organizations, of course, have some turnover. In fact, if the right people are leaving the organization the marginal and sub marginal employees turnover can be positive. It may create the opportunity to replace an underperforming individual with someone who has higher skills and motivation, open up increased opportunities for promotions, and add new and fresh ideas to the organization. But on other hand turnover can also be harmful for organization as it lost its old trained and skillful employees, to retain these employees there should be some kind of reinforcement like rewards, promotions, bonus and extra pay for extra work so the workers and employees will work hard with full concentration and their will be employee involvement in the job as well which will cause low turn over and organization will not loose its employees, so there will be more production due to job satisfaction. Such reinforcement can be helpful in maintaining a constant environment in the organization.

JOB SATISFACTION:
A general attitude towards ones job; the difference between the amount of rewards workers receive and the amount they believe they should receive. It is also an important element for any employee working in any organization because if

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an employee is not satisfied with his job then he may cause some trouble for his organization through absenteeism, turnover and less job involvement. The reason might be not contented with the pay or the facilities that particular organization is providing. It can be some domestic problem as well. Thus it would affect the level of productivity in any organization for this purpose if the organization provides him with the necessary facilities and other conveniences as a reward of working hard on his task or completing the task on time would a reinforcement for him. This would motivate him to improve his work and he will be much satisfied with his job and will work with more concentration.

EMPLOYEE INVOLVEMENT:
A participative process that uses the entire capacity of employees and is designed to encourage increased commitment to the organization success. The underlying logic is that by involving workers in those decisions that affect them and by increasing their autonomy and control over their work lives, employees will become more motivated, more committed to the organization, more productive and more satisfied with their jobs. This shows that employee involvement also plays an important role in the organization. So the involvement of the workers can also be used as a source of reinforcement. This would be too much helping for the organization to retain its employees.

ANALYSIS OF ARTICLE:

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This Article describes the problems that occur during the teaching of reinforcement theory. According to James V. Michigan, the concept of negative reinforcement is difficult to teach. These are the reasons why this is so Surplus Meaning of Negative and Punishment Websters New Collegiate Dictionary defines reinforcement as the acts of strengthening. Negative as disagreeable & Punishment as suffering pain or loss. Two types of Reinforcement but only one type of Punishment The fact Skinner described two types of reinforcement but only one type of punishment Feelings Rather Than Behaviors Most of the students have to perceive reinforcement and punishment in terms of their effects on organisms emotion rather than behaviors. Skinners Definitions Skinners habit of using word in at least two different ways. Most of the time skinner defined reinforcement as a behavioral consequences that increases the probability that a response will be repeated in the future. But James pointing out that there are two types of punishment positive and negative as well two types of reinforcement positive and negative.

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CONCLUSION:
Reinforcement theory is simple and widely applicable. It is also probably the one influence tool that almost every manager knows. Given the discussion of the limitations of reinforcement theory, one should realize that it is not the Swiss Army Knife of persuasion that can be ingeniously applied anytime anywhere with anyone. In fact it is used too often by managers and typically under the wrong conditions. The reinforcement theory will work marvelously when it is properly employed. Under the correct conditions, everyone will be strongly influenced through the skilful use of reinforcement principles.

USING REINFORCEMENT TO BEST EFFECT

For using reinforcement to its best following conditions should be fulfilled: 1. The source is well-trained in the theory and practice of reinforcement. 2. The source has complete control of all significant reinforces for all receivers. 3. The source has complete control of each receiver (i.e. what the receiver does, when the receiver does it, what other receivers are in the situation). 4. The source has a detailed and consistent plan of reinforcement. 5. The reinforces are always delivered under the same conditions to each different receiver.

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REFERENCES
WWW.GOOGLE .COM WWW.JSTORES WWW. SCRIBD .COM

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