WHAT IS PETROLEUM ?

Petroleum or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and other liquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneath the Earth's surface. Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a large number of consumer products, from gasolineand kerosene to asphalt and chemical reagents used to make plastics and pharmaceuticals. In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes all liquid, gaseous, and solid (e.g., paraffin)hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while pentane and heavier ones are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in an underground oil reservoir the proportions of gas, liquid, and solid depend on subsurface conditions and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.[5] An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form natural gas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles petrol in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile light crude oils. The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture varies greatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils and bitumens. The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows: Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.

WHAT IS BIOGAS ?
Biogas typically refers to a gas produced by the biological breakdown of organic matter in the absence of oxygen. Biogas originates from biogenic material and is a type of biofuel. Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion or fermentation of biodegradable materials such as biomass, manure, sewage, municipal waste, green waste, plant material and energy crops.[1] This type of biogas comprises primarily methane and carbon dioxide. Other types of gas generated by use of biomass is wood gas, which is created by gasification of wood or other biomass. This type of gas consist primarily of nitrogen, hydrogen, and carbon monoxide, with trace amounts of methane. The gases methane, hydrogen and carbon monoxide can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. Air contains 21% oxygen. This energy release allows biogas to be used as a fuel. Biogas can be used as a low-cost fuel in any country for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can also be used in modern waste management facilities where it can be used to run any type of heat engine, to generate either mechanical or electrical power. Biogas can be compressed, much like natural gas, and used to power motor vehicles and in the UK for example is estimated to have the potential to replace around 17% of vehicle fuel.[2] Biogas is a renewable fuel, so it qualifies for renewable energy subsidies in some parts of the world. The composition of biogas varies depending upon the origin of the anaerobic digestion process. Landfill gas typically has methane concentrations around 50%. Advanced waste treatment technologies can produce biogas with 5575% CH4 [12] or higher using in situ purification techniques[13] As-produced, biogas also contains water vapor, with the fractional water vapor volume a function of biogas temperature; correction of measured volume for water vapor content and thermal expansion is easily done via algorithm.[14] In some cases biogas contains siloxanes. These siloxanes are formed from the anaerobic decomposition of materials commonly found in soaps and detergents. During combustion of biogas containing siloxanes, silicon is released and can combine with free oxygen or various other elements in the combustion gas. Deposits are formed containing mostly silica (SiO2) or silicates (SixOy) and can also contain calcium, sulfur, zinc, phosphorus. Such white mineral deposits accumulate to a surface thickness of several millimeters and must be removed by chemical or mechanical means. Practical and cost-effective technologies to remove siloxanes and other biogas contaminants are currently available

WHAT IS BIODIESEL ?
Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of longchain alkyl(methyl, propyl or ethyl) esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g.,vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol. Biodiesel is meant to be used in standard diesel engines and is thus distinct from the vegetable and waste oils used to fuel converted diesel engines. Biodiesel can be used alone, or blended with petrodiesel. Biodiesel can also be used as a low carbon alternative to heating oil. Biodiesel has better lubricating properties and much higher cetane ratings than today's lower sulfur diesel fuels. Biodiesel addition reduces fuel system wear,[28] and in low levels in high pressure systems increases the life of the fuel injection equipment that relies on the fuel for its lubrication. Depending on the engine, this might include high pressure injection pumps, pump injectors (also called unit injectors) and fuel injectors. The calorific value of biodiesel is about 37.27 MJ/L.[29] This is 9% lower than regular Number 2 petrodiesel. Variations in biodiesel energy density is more dependent on the feedstock used than the production process. Still these variations are less than for petrodiesel.[30] It has been claimed biodiesel gives better lubricity and more complete combustion thus increasing the engine energy output and partially compensating for the higher energy density of petrodiesel.[31] Biodiesel is a liquid which varies in color between golden and dark brown depending on the production feedstock. It is immiscible with water, has a high boiling point and low vapor pressure. *The flash point of biodiesel (>130 C, >266 F)[32] is significantly higher than that of petroleum diesel (64 C, 147 F) or gasoline (45 C, -52 F). Biodiesel has a density of ~ 0.88 g/cm, higher than petrodiesel ( ~ 0.85 g/cm). Biodiesel has virtually no sulfur content, and it is often used as an additive to Ultra-Low Sulphur Diesel (ULSD) fuel to aid with lubrication, as the sulfur compounds in petrodiesel provide much of

WHAT IS LANDFILL GAS ?

Landfill gas is created by the action of microorganisms within a landfill. Landfill gas production results from chemical reactions and microbes acting upon the waste as the putrescible materials begins to break down[1] in the landfill. The rate of production is affected by waste composition and landfill geometry, which in turn influence the bacterial populations within it, chemical make-up, thermal characteristics, entry of moisture and escape of gas. [2] The spatially heterogeneous nature of most landfills means that there will be a wide range of physical conditions and biological ecosystems co-existing simultaneously within most sites. This heterogeneity, together with the frequently unclear nature of the contents, makes landfill gas production more difficult to predict and control than standard industrial bioreactors for sewage treatment. Due to the constant production of landfill gas, the increase in pressure within the landfill (together with differential diffusion) causes the gas's release into the atmosphere. Such emissions lead to important environmental, hygiene and security problems in the landfill.[3][4] Several accidents have occurred, for example at Loscoe, England in 1986,[5] where migrating landfill gas which was allowed to build up destroyed the property. An accident causing two deaths occurred from an explosion in a house adjacent to Skellingsted landfill in Denmark in 1991.[6] Due to the risk presented by landfill gas there is a clear need to monitor gas produced by landfills. In addition to the risk of fire and explosion, gas migration in the subsurface can result in contact of landfill gas with groundwater. This in turn can result in contamination of groundwater by organic compounds present in nearly all landfill gas.[7] Landfill gas is approximately forty to sixty percent methane, with the remainder being mostly carbon dioxide. Landfill gas also contains varying amounts of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, sulfur, and other contaminants. Most of these other contaminants are known as "non-methane organic compounds" or NMOCs. Some inorganic contaminants (for example mercury) are also known to be present in landfill gas. There are sometimes also contaminants (for example tritium) found in landfill gas. The non-methane organic compounds usually make up less than one percent of landfill gas. In 1991, the EPA identified ninety-four non-methane organic compounds including toxic chemicals like benzene, toluene, chloroform, vinyl chloride, and carbon tetrachloride. At least forty one of the non-methane organic compounds are halogenated compounds (chemicals containing halogens: typically chlorine, fluorine, or bromine). General options for managing landfill gas are: flaring, boiler (makes heat), internal combustion engine (makes electricity), gas turbine (makes electricity), fuel cell (makes electricity), convert the methane to methyl alcohol, clean it enough to pipe it to other industries or into natural gas lines.

WHAT IS NATURAL GAS ?

Natural gas is a gas consisting primarily of methane, typically with 0-20% higher hydrocarbons[1] (primarilyethane). It is found associated with other hydrocarbon fuel, in coal beds, as methane clathrates, and is an important fuel source and a major feedstock for fertilizers. Most natural gas is created by two mechanisms: biogenic and thermogenic. Biogenic gas is created bymethanogenic organisms in marshes, bogs, landfills, and shallow sediments. Deeper in the earth, at greater temperature and pressure, thermogenic gas is created from buried organic material.[2] Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes, and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulfur, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and sometimes helium and nitrogen. Natural gas is often informally referred to as simply gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as oil or coal. In the 19th century, natural gas was usually obtained as a byproduct of producing oil, since the small, light gas carbon chains came out of solution as the extracted fluids underwent pressure reduction from the reservoir to the surface, similar to uncapping a bottle of soda pop where the carbon dioxide effervesces. Unwanted natural gas was a disposal problem in the active oil fields. If there was not a market for natural gas near the wellhead it was virtually valueless since it had to be piped to the end user. In the 19th century and early 20th century, such unwanted gas usually was burned off in the oil fields. Today, unwanted gas (or 'stranded' gas without a market) associated with oil extraction often is returned to the reservoir with 'injection' wells while awaiting a possible future market or to repressurize the formation, which can enhance extraction rates from other wells. In regions with a high natural gas demand (such as the United States), pipelines are constructed when economics permit to take the gas from the wellsite to the end consumer. Another solution is to export the natural gas as a liquid - see Gas to liquids. Gas-to-liquid (GTL) is a developing technology that converts stranded natural gas into synthetic gasoline, diesel or jet fuel through the Fischer-Tropsch process developed in World War II Germany. Such fuel can be transported to users through conventional pipelines and tankers. Proponents claim GTL burns cleaner than comparable petroleum fuels. Most major international oil companies are in an advanced stage of GTL production, with a world-scale (140,000 barrels (22,000 m3) a day) GTL plant in Qatar scheduled to be in production before 2010.

Natural gas can be "associated" (found in oil fields) or "non-associated" (isolated in natural gas fields), and is also found in coal beds (ascoalbed methane). It sometimes contains significant amounts of ethane, propane, butane, and pentane heavier hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the methane being sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock. Non-hydrocarbons such as carbon dioxide,nitrogen, helium (rarely) and hydrogen sulfide must be removed also before the natural gas can be transported.[3] Natural gas is commercially extracted from oil fields and natural gas fields. Gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas or associated gas. The natural gas industry is extracting gas from increasingly more challenging resource types: sour gas, tight gas, shale gasand coalbed methane.