CONCEPT: PROBLEM

UNIT III: SELECTING AND IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH

PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES: 1. Safe and quality nursing care A. Demonstrates knowledge base on the health/illness status of individual/groups 2. Personal and professional development A. Identifies own learning needs 3. Quality improvement A. Gathers data for quality improvement 4. Research A. Gathers data using different methodologies TOPIC: SELECTING AND IDENTIFYING A RESEARCH PROBLEM SOURCES OF NURSING RESEARCH PROBLEMS The sources for generating appropriate nursing research problems are numerous. Four of the most important ones are (a) personal experience, (b) literature sources, (c) existing theories, (d) previous research. PERSONAL EXPERIENCES One disadvantage in using personal experiences as the source of research problems is that this practice frequently leads to a large number of small, unrelated studies with limited generalizability of study results. LITERATURE SOURCES The existing nursing literature is an excellent source of ideas for research. Nearly every study that has been published concludes with recommendations for further studies. EXISTING THEORIES If an existing theory is used in developing a researchable problem, a specific propositional statement or statements from the theory must be isolated. Generally, an entire theory is not is not tested; only a part or parts of a theory are subjected to testing in the clinical situation. PREVIOUS RESEARCH A body of knowledge should be developed on sound foundations of research findings. If nursing practice is to be guided by research, the results of studies must be verified. Replication studies therefore are needed. Replication studies involve repeating a study with all the

essential elements of the original study held intact. Different samples and settings may be used. Replication studies in nursing have not been numerous, and the lack of these studies has hindered the development of cumulative body of nursing knowledge. Note: Discuss the difference between replication studies and plagiarism PERSONAL LITERATURE THEORIES EXPERIENCE PREVIOUS RESEARCH

NURSING RESEARCH PROBLEM After identifying the sources of the nursing research problem, we must now identify what would be the characteristics of a good nursing research problem. CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCHABLE PROBLEMS 1. ORIGINALITY The problem is relatively new and represents untapped or rarely tapped subjects of inquiry. 2. SIGNIFICANCE Research problems may represent a response to established priorities in the nursing profession. Giving importance to prevailing nursing problems is a good starting point for exploring research subjects. Significance of the problem is established if results of the study indicate the following: A. The inquiry helps solve persistent, prevailing problems B. It relates to and is useful to a particular group of people C. It makes a difference between past and current theory and practice D. It further refines already established concepts, conditions, practices and situations E. It contributes to the stockpile of knowledge in the particular field

3. MANAGEABILITY The nature and scope of the study are specific and well-defined. 4. MEASURABILITY The time is time-bound, and variables can be subjected to quantitative and/or qualitative analysis 5. RESOURCE AVAILABILITY Human, material, physical and fiscal resources needed to pursue the research are adequately provided for. 6. The problem should express relation between 2 or more variables 7. The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously in question form 8. The problem can submit to empirical testing 9. The problem is one that can be investigated within the level of the research skill of the investigator 10. The problem is ethical WRITING A RESEARCH QUESTION Although there are no hard-and-fast rule for asking research questions, there are guidelines that you can follow that will simplify the process. The way research questions are worded can have a profound effect on the research process that follows. There are two basic components to every question, the stem and the topic: STEM TOPIC What are characteristics of successful dieter?

The topic is even more complex when you ask a question begging with a why stem. Why questions starts with a set of relationship that have already been established through research, and the theoretical explanation for the relationship is being questioned. STEM TOPIC Ex. Why does postoperative anxiety? preoperative teaching decrease

This questions are still simple from the standpoint that they have one stem and one topic; however, a topic developed for a why stem becomes quite complex because it shows that a cause-and-effect relationship has been established between the two concepts The type of question you ask about your topic is the basis for the design of your research plan. LEVELS OF QUESTIONS Research falls into one of the three major levels; each level is based on the amount of knowledge or theory about the topic understudy. LEVEL I QUESTIONS. At the first level, there is little to no literature available on either the topic or on the population and the purpose is to describe what is found as it exists naturally. At this level, the stem question is always what is or what are and the topic is a single entity or concept. Level I questions are asked in such a way that they lead to exploration (by the researcher) and result in a complete description of the topic. EXAMPLES: What are the eating problems of retarded children? What are the characteristics of suicidal patients? What are the spiritual needs of transplant patients?

Ex.

1st rule: Question is simple (one stem, one topic) 2nd rule: Demands action (not answerable by yes or no) In this example, the topic is a fairly simple specific concept characteristic of successful dieter, as topic become more complex they deal with two or more concepts in relationship to one another, and they may require a different stem: Ex. STEM TOPIC What is the relationship between dietary intake and birth weight?

LEVEL II QUESTIONS. At the second level, there is knowledge about the topic and about the population, but the intent of the researcher is to do a statistical description of the relationship among the variables. Secondlevel research questions build on the results of studies at the first level. When the topic has been thoroughly described, it is possible to identify measurable variables. The next step is to look for relationships between these variables. At Level II, the stem question asks what is the relationship? and the topic contains two or more variables. The answer to the question at the second level is determined by the statistical significance of the relationship between variables.

Because Level II questions are built on existing knowledge, some research literature will always be available on all variables in the question. When, you study variables together you need to have a rationale to explain the proposed relationship. EXAMPLES: What is the relationship between educational level of nurses and their membership in professional organizations? What is the relationship between preoperative teaching and postoperative anxiety? What is the relationship among prenatal nutrition, birth weight of newborn, and age of the mother LEVEL III QUESTIONS. There is a great deal of knowledge and theory about the topic and the purpose of the study is the theory through direct manipulation of the variables. The third level of research builds on the result of previous research. Research at this level begins at a significant relationship between variables. At the Level III, the question asks why this relationship exist and you must provide the answer, which always begins with because and ends with an explanation. All LEVEL III questions lead to experimental designs. EXAMPLES: Why does patient satisfaction increase with positive attitudes toward selfcare? Why is a decrease in dietary iodine associated with goiter development? Why does increased vitamin C in the diet decrease skin fragility in elderly people? The process of asking a LEVEL III question is more complex than either of the other levels because much more information is needed to begin. You must answer the initial why question before you can propose to test the exact relationship between variables. DEFINING AND IDENTIFYING VARIABLES Variable is a quality, property or characteristics of the persons or things being studied that can be quantitatively measured or enumerated. Types of Variables: 1. INDEPENDENT

Is one which is measured and manipulated to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. It is also known as stimulus variable, causal, experiment and treatment variable. 2. DEPENDENT The factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. Also known as criterion measure and effect variable Illustrations: 1. Effect of a single independent variable on several dependent variable: Psychological Responses Nursing Care effect on (Independent) Physiologic Responses 2. Multiple independent variables on a single dependent variable Proportion of Care Provided Effects on Patient Welfare Method of Organization COMPOSING A NURSING RESEARCH PROBLEM The important criteria for research problem statement are that it (a) is written in an interrogative sentence form, (b) includes the population, (c) includes the variable/s, and (d) is empirically testable. WRITTEN IN INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE FORM A research problem should always be stated in a complete and grammatically correct sentence. The problem statement should be stated in a manner that the research consumer can read, understand and respond to.

INCLUDES THE POPULATION The population should be delimited (narrowed down) to the main group of interest. A population such as nurses, students or patients is too broad to be examined. It would be better to identify these populations. This narrowing down of the population in the problem statement still will not identify the specific study population. The specific population need to be discussed in detail in another area of research proposal or research report. INCLUDES THE VARIABLES The problem statement should contain the variable/s to be studied. One-variable studies. When a study is of an exploratory nature and contains only one variable, it may be called univariate study (ex. What are the sources of work stress identified by thoracic intensive care nurse?) Two-variable studies. Generally nursing research is concerned with more than one variable. When two variables are examined, the study can be called a bivariate study. (ex. Is there a correlation between the number of sources of stress and desire to leave employment among thoracic intensive care unit nurses?) Multiple-variable studies. Whenever more than two variables are examined in a study, the research can be considered as a multiplevariable or multivariate study PROBLEM STATEMENT FORMAT Problem statements for studies that examine more than one variable are usually written as correlational or comparative statements I. CORRELATIONAL STATEMENT FORMAT: Is there a relationship between X (independent variable) and Y (dependent variable in the population Z? EXAMPLE: Is there a relationship between anxiety and midterm examination scores among nursing students? II. COMPARATIVE STATEMENT

FORMAT: Is there a difference in Y (dependent variable) between people in the population who have X characteristics (independent variable) and those who do not have X characteristics? EXAMPLE: Is there a difference in readiness to learn about preoperative teaching between preoperative patients who have high anxiety levels compared with preoperative patients who do not have high anxiety levels? III. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY FORMAT: What is the effect of X (independent variable) on the Y (dependent variable) among population Z? EXAMPLE: What is the effect of room temperature on the oral temperature measurements of children? EVALUATING A NURSING RESEARCH PROBLEM 3 important considerations: A. Significance C. Feasibility B. Researchability A. SIGNIFICANCE. A crucial factor in selecting a problem in selecting a problem to be studied is its significance to nursing---especially to nursing practice. Evidence from the study should have the potential of contributing meaningfully to nursing knowledge. - Is the problem an important one? - Will patients, nurses or broader health care community or society benefit by the knowledge produced? - Will the result lead to practical applications? - Will the results have theoretical relevance? - Will it help to formulate or alter nursing practices or policies B. RESEARCHABILITY Not all problems are amenable to study through scientific investigation. Problems or questions of a moral or ethical in nature although provocative are incapable of being researched. Take for example, should assisted suicide be legalized? The answer to such question is based on a persons values. There is no right or wrong answers, only points of view. - Variables are precisely defined and measured C. FEASIBILITY

- Capable of being finished or brought about 1. Time and timing deadline and time allotment 2. Availability of subject available and willing to cooperate Demand to comfort and time is minimal = cooperation 3. Cooperation of others permission from other institution 4. Facilities and equipment technical equipment and apparatus, laboratory facilities 5. Money - literature cost - printing cost - personnel cost - equipment - subject cost - laboratory fee - supplies - transportation cost 6. Experience of the researcher investigator should have prior knowledge or experience (technical expertise) 7. Ethical consideration 8. Interest to researcher Unit II THE RESEARCH PROBLEM A. Sources of Problems Authorities in the field Review of Literature Researchers own background and experiences Theories and/or Models Procedure-oriented topics 6. as suggested by practical concerns or by scientific or intellectual interests 7. Work environment 8. Socio-political and economic milieu. B. Defining and Identifying Problems The selection and definition of a research problem involves a series of refinement processes that begin with the identification of a problem area and terminates with one or more testable hypothesis or answerable questions. PROBLEM Is any question that needs answering; represents some situations in need of solution, improvement, modification or change.

PROBLEM AREA Found in every area of life: personal, professional, social, and institutional THE RESEARCH PROBLEM Is one or more questions to be answered empirically by factual investigation.

C. Characteristics of a Good Problem (Kerlinger, 1986)

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The problem should express a relation between 2 or more variables The problem should be stated clearly and unambiguously in question form The problem can submit to empirical testing The problem can be investigated through the collection and analysis of data The problem has practical and theoretical significance The problem is one that can be investigated within the level of the research skill of the investigator

D. Defining and Identifying Variables The variables that are conceived and picked out from the theoretical framework are the categories of concepts of the research paradigm the selection of the variables entails a rigorous process. Variable is a quality, property or characteristics of the persons or things being studied that can be quantitatively measured or enumerated. Types of Variables: 3. INDEPENDENT Is one which is measured and manipulated to determine its relationship to an observed phenomenon. It is also known as stimulus variable, causal, experiment and treatment variable. 4. DEPENDENT The factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the independent variable. Also known as criterion measure and effect variable 5. MODERATE VARIABLE A special type of independent variable. A factor that is being measured, manipulated or selected to know whether it

modifies the relationship of the independent variable to an observed phenomenon. E. Writing the Title of the Study The conception of a title should come after the topic has been established based on the criteria of topic conceptualization. The title should have utility value in any bibliographic listing. GUIDELINES IN WRITING THE TITLE The title should be concise, descriptive, and comprehensive. The wording should indicate or summarize the content of the paper. It should be short and simple but fully explanatory. There should be no redundant words. The title should convey the subject matter of the study by the use of key terms, and should note categories that define the topic such as time, geography or occupation. As one grows more certain of what belongs and does not to the investigator, the title begins to be delimited accordingly. One may consult the works of outstanding researchers on how they use their thoughts in the words of the title. STATEMENT OF THE MAIN PROBLEM AND SUB-PROBLEMS The Main Problem The main problem is usually stated in a declarative form and covers the broad problem area. It states the intent of the investigation, in a clear grammatical sequence, shows congruence with the title and theoretical framework and provides for linking with the methodology to be employed. The Sub-problems The sub-problems are interrelated parts of the main problem that allow the researcher to confront the main problem into smaller sub-parts. By being resolved separately, the sub-problems resolve the main problem piecemeal. Characteristics of Sub-problems Each is a complete research unit within which interpretation of the data must be apparent It adds to the totality of the research problem

It contributes to finding solutions to the main problem Each should be completely researchable units, amenable to testing and verification

F. Significance of the Study ( who will benefit from the results of the study) Guidelines This should be a convincing rationale to justify the problem It should be a critical value judgment that concerns the significance of the entire research It may be: Testing a theory vs. practice Expressing the studys practical importance Using research methodologies, measurement procedures, treatment, sampling or gaps in literature Visualizing who the readers will be and how they will be benefited by the results of the study. Greater readership increases the significance.

Reasons for including a discussion on the significance of the study (Estolas and Boquiren, 1989): To convince oneself of the worthiness of the problem To convince others that the topic needs to be explored To create in the researcher a feeling of awareness of a need at the time To bolster the morale of the researcher or investigator. J. Theoretical/Conceptual Framework Research is the marriage between theory and data. There are two things one must avoid in research: 1. theorizing without the support data 2. data gathering without a theoretical framework Research must have a theoretical underpinning that provides the legitimate basis for defining its parameters. It is theory, not the existence of relationship that provides or confers meaning on a relationship of variables. The fact that the variables can be shown to be associated does not guarantee that the relationship has significance.

2. Null Hypothesis (Ho) States that there is no difference between variables Models or Paradigms are well-developed descriptive analogies used to help visualize often in a simplified and miniature way, phenomena that can be directly observed. Each model is a projection of a possible system of relationships among phenomena in verbal material, graphic or symbolic terms. A paradigm is a model that shows the interrelationship among concepts stated in a theory. Replica models are usually material or pictorial representations made with a change in temporal or spatial scale. Symbolic models tend to be intangible using abstract, verbal, graphic, or symbolic representation to stand for the conceptual system. (Kerlinger,1986) Theoretical Format consists of: A synthesis of a combination of sets or various sets of theories serving as theoretical backbone of the investigation It is a product of the review of literature It is translated into symbolic terms organized around a concept of what research problem ought to be like or how it ought to be viewed The research paradigm simplifies, organizes the process of research and provides ground for interpreting and generalization. K. Hypothesis Hypotheses are statements of expected relationship/s among the phenomena being studied (variable). Kinds: 1. Alternative Hypothesis (H1) A statement of the hypothesis that represents the expectation of the researcher Data As evidence of facts Sources of Hypothesis: 1. Re-testing/restatement of old hypothesis 2. Personal experiences 3. Keen observations: Making an analogy (similar conditions, situation, or work) 4. Deep understanding of human behavior 5. Broad background reading Advantages of Stating Hypothesis: 1. It forces the researcher to state the situation under investigation in precise scientific knowledge. 2. A specific hypothesis is easier to test. 3. A specific hypothesis can be relevant finding easily understood and replicated. Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. It should be reasonable It should be consistent with known facts It can be tested as true or false It is stated in simple terms or in precise scientific language It can be easily understood and replicated It renders itself to many ways of testing and measurement It can yield relevant findings and provide valuable information It is theoretically based The Theory-Hypothesis Connection Theory Explains, answers why something happens Hypothesis Something that connects theory with data. This tests the theory.

4. A hypothesis with a specific connotation has many ways of testing it. 5. Stated specifically, the researcher can avoid a broad range of selective evidence that can be much more definite in the testing process. 6. For accurate measurement of data 7. Theoretically related hypothesis will yield relevant findings and provide valuable information. When is Null Hypothesis Used? The null hypotheses are required in many statistical tests to measure whether the differences between the variables are real differences or the result of sampling error. Level of significance is arbitrarily determined by the researcher beforehand. L. Assumptions Assumptions are postulates that may or may not influence the findings of the study. It is a proposition of some occurrence or considerations that may be considered in delimiting the area of the study. M. Scope and Limitations of the Study Limitation Shortcoming/s confronting the researcher which is/are either anticipated or unanticipated. It may be constraint in resources, sources of data and administrative permission. Scope May include the geographic boundaries of research, clearly and specifically delimited. It is also the inclusive frame of reference. Delimitation Sets the boundaries of the problem area, the variables, the samples, what the researcher will include and exclude. Delimitation is the restriction that the researcher placed on the study prior to gathering data. Example: Only nurses with 5 years experience, etc The setting of the problem should be stated in terms of geography, period covered, subjects and area limitation, sampling methods, and restrictions imposed by the study design on the interpretation of findings.

N. Definition of Terms Definition of terms gives the contextual and operational meanings of the variables in the study. As a rule, all terms in the title of the study and in the research paradigm should be defined contextually and operationally. Words with special meaning in the study, newly invented words and technical terms must be defined.