Unit of Argument

Argument building block in case construction The Toulmin Model of Argument - Developed by British logican Stephen Toulmin to classify the parts of an argument - Used as a blueprint for creating individual units of argument 1. Claims - Conclusion derived from information on the topic - Begins and ends the argumentation process - Four types: a. Factual claims concerned with things that can be verified; argue what was, is, or will be b. Definitional claims used when the precise definition of a term becomes a contested issue; argue how something is to be defined or categorized c. Value claims express an attitude toward something and they are identified by the use of evaluative language; argue evaluation or pass judgement on something d. Policy claims state that an action should be taken or a behaviour should be altered; argue that something should be done - May be phrased as simple statements or as compound statements Compound statements often make arguments more economical The arguer saves time using compound statements It also keeps related ideas together Compound statements allow the arguer to set up patterns of reasoning through comparisons 2. Grounds - Grounding the claim provides the foundation of information on which an argument rests - Answers the questions What information supported this claim and Upon what foundation is this claim based? - Materials which can be used for grounding: experimental observations, statistics, expert opinion, personal testimony, matters of common knowledge, or previously established claims - Claims must always be supported by grounds; claims alone are only tentative hypotheses until supported - Ground should always lead the audience directly toward the conclusion (claim) 3. Warrant - Shows the relationship between grounds and the claim, making the mental leap from one to the other (reasoning) - Justifies movement from the grounds to the claim - Found in things already accepted as true - Often defines the locus of controversy between the advocate and the opponent - The claim stands or falls on the validity of the warrant

4. Backing - Offers explicit information to establish the reliability of the warrant - May be unnecessary if the audience is knowledgeable on the subject being argued - Together with warrant, helps an audience to interpret and understand the factual basis upon which the claim rests 5. Qualifiers - Help the arguer indicate the force or strength of the claim - Show the degree of force the arguer believes the claim possesses 6. Rebuttals - Provide a means of accommodating the limitations of the claim - Anticipate objections to the claim - Help in avoiding errors in reasoning - Two circumstances where rebuttals are important: a. When grounds, warrant, and backing support the claim only under certain conditions b. When grounds, warrant, and backing provide only partial support for the claim Simple, Chain, and Cluster Arguments Simple exists whenever a single claim supports an arguers contention Chain a series of claims that are linked together in such a way that each becomes an integral part of the next, providing grounds, warrant, or backing Cluster number of claims independently pointing to the same conclusion