SMART LOW POWER OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE DEVICE by Ernesto Cividanes

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of The College of Engineering and Computer Science in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

Florida Atlantic University Boca Raton, Florida May 2010

Copyright by Ernesto Cividanes 2010

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SMART LOW POWER OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE DEVICE by Ernesto Cividanes This thesis was prepared under the direction of the candidates thesis advisor, Dr. Abhijit Pandya, Department of Computer & Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and has been approved by the members of his supervisory committee. It was submitted to the faculty of the College of Engineering and Computer Science and was accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. SUPERVISORY COMMITTEE: ____________________________ Abhijit Pandya, Ph.D. Thesis Advisor ____________________________ Ankur Agarwal, Ph.D. Thesis Co-advisor ____________________________ Bassem Alhalabi, Ph.D. ____________________________ Thomas Fernandez, Ph.D. ______________________________________ Borko Furht, Ph.D. Chairperson, Department of Computer & Electrical Engineering and Computer Science ______________________________________ Karl K. Stevens, Ph.D. Dean, College of Engineering and Computer Science ______________________________________ Barry T. Rosson, Ph.D. Dean, Graduate College iii __________________ Date

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I extend my heartfelt gratitude to those who helped me during my education especially Laura Cividanes, Nereida Cividanes, Dr. JP Keener and Licenciada Maria Teresa Lebrn. I would also like to thank my thesis committee for constantly being available to answer questions and providing great support before and during the project. The efforts of the College of Computer Science and Engineering staff, especially Dean Mohammad Ilyas and Jean Mangiaracina, are also greatly appreciated.

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ABSTRACT Author: Title: Institution: Thesis Advisor: Degree: Year: Ernesto Cividanes Smart Lower Power Obstacle Avoidance Device Florida Atlantic University Dr. Abhijit Pandya Master of Science 2010 Several technologies are being made available for the blind and the visually impaired with the use of infrared and sonar sensors, Radio Frequency Identification, GPS, Wi-Fi among others. Current technologies utilizing microprocessors increase the devices power consumption. In this project, a Verilog Hardware Language (VHDL) designed handheld device that autonomously guides a visually impaired user through an obstacle free path is proposed. The goal is to minimize power consumption by not using the usual microcontroller and replacing it with components that can increase its speed. Utilizing six infrared sensors, the handheld device is modeled after current technologies which use IR and sonar sensors which are reviewed in this project. By using behavioral modeling, an algorithm for obstacle avoidance and the generation of the obstacle free path is reduced using a K-map and implemented using a multiplexer.

DEDICATION This manuscript is dedicated to my family, particularly my mother who always believed that I should push forward regardless of any immediate or pending obstacles life presented. Also to my wife, Laura and my son Ernesto Antonio who had to endure my long hours of study during my education. Additionally, I dedicate this work to my confidant, mentor and friend JP and my aunt Titi Tesi whose guidance has always inspired me to reach for my dreams.

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SMART LOW POWER OBSTACLE AVOIDANCE DEVICE List of Tables .... List of Figure...... CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION. 1.1 Motivation........ 1.2 Problem Statement........... 1.3 Contribution. 1.4 Thesis Overview...... CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND RESEARCH.. 2.2 Technologies using Wheelchairs. 2.3 Technologies using canes 2.3 Inspirations for this projects design CHAPTER 3: REPLACING THE MICROCONTROLLER. 3.1 Introduction.. 3.2 The Analog to Digital Converter. 3.3 The Counter/Delay... 3.4 The Clock. x xi 1 1 2 3 4 5 5 10 13 14 14 15 19 22

3.4 Switching and power reduction 23 3.5 Choosing the right chip CHAPTER 4: THE CODE. vii 27 29

4.1 Introduction.. 4.2 The Smart Wheelchair algorithm. 4.3 Pseudo code for the proposed algorithm.. 4.4 Equations.. 4.5 The equation using CMOS... 4.6 The equations using a multiplexer... CHAPTER 5: THE SCHEMATIC 5.1 Introduction.. 5.2 Unused Sensors from Smart Wheelchair. 5.3 Schematic. 5.4 The Handheld Device.. 5.5 Smart Handheld Device functionalities... 5.6 Simulations and results CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK... Appendix A: Binary Representation of Pseudo Code Appendix B: Smart Wheelchairs algorithm translated to pseudo code Appendix C: Verilog Code for the SHD

29 29 31 31 35 40 42 42 42 43 46 47 47 51 55 56 58

Appendix D: Full Compilation and Simulation Reports 61 Appendix E: Gate circuitry for Turn and Speed signal.. Appendix F: PowerPlay Analyzer Summary. 63 64

REFERENCES... 65

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TABLES Table 2.1: Available technologies for wheelchair designs. Table 2.2: Classification of technologies using canes... Table 3.1: Difference between two FPGA chips... Table 4.1: Example of a pseudo code binary representation. Table 4.2: Four test cases for Speed CMOS circuits Table 4.3: Two test cases for TurnRight CMOS circuit Table 4.4: Two test cases for TurnLeft CMOS circuit . Table 4.5: Speed MUX logic. Table 5.1: Chip voltage and temperature description Table 6.1: Voltage outputs from IR GP2D12 Table A.1: Pseudo code translated into binary representation.. 7 12 27 33 36 39 39 40 43 52 55

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FIGURES Figure 2.1: Smart Wheelchair Algorithm.. Figure 2.2: Smart Wheelchair Component System Figure 2.3: Sensor placement for SW Figure 2.4: SW moving between obstacles Figure 2.5: Mygo Cane.. Figure 2.6: K Sonar. 8 9 9 9 13 13

Figure 3.1: Design of the White Stick 15 Figure 3.2: ADC used in the microcontroller Figure 3.3: GP2D12 output voltage curve. Figure 3.4: Comparator chip LM339. 17 17 18

Figure 3.5: Comparator design... 18 Figure 3.6: GP2D12 IR delayed output waveform Figure 3.7: Waveform for adder. 20 21

Figure 3.8: Waveform of unstable outputs. 21 Figure 3.9: Block diagram of MM8512. Figure 3.10: MM8512 Pin configuration... 23 23

Figure 3.11: Using a multiplexer versus NAND, NOR and inverter gates 26 Figure 3.12: Pin placement on two FBGA board... 27 Figure 4.1: Flowchart from Smart Wheelchair (SW) algorithm to Mux... x 30

Figure 4.2: General situations for device... Figure 4.3: Speed CMOS stick figure Figure 4.4: TurnRight CMOS schematic... Figure 4.5 TurnLeft CMOS schematic.. Figure 4.6 TurnLeft Mux... Figure 4.7: TurnRight Mux Figure 4.8: Speed Mux. Figure 5.1: General design of SHD... Figure 5.2: Design schematic.

33 36 37 38 41 41 41 44 45

Figure 5.3: Smart Handheld device 46 Figure 5.4: SHD approaching obstacle.. Figure 5.5: SHD path to avoid font obstacle.. Figure 5.6: Compilation report of MUX Figure 5.7: Compilation result of combinatorial Figure 5.8: Waveform for SSH.. Figure 6.1: Distance measurement of one GP2D12 IR with 3 settings. Figure 6.2: Future work with five comparators. Figure 6.3: Future work with potentiometer.. Figure D.1: Compilation results for SHD. Figure D.2: Compilation warnings for SHD. Figure D.3: Simulation successful window for SHD Figure E.1: Gate circuitry for Turn and Speed signal 47 47 48 48 50 52 53 53 61 61 62 63

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Figure F.1: PowerPlay Analyzer Summary for Mux.

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

Smart designs have advanced to a point where many of the normal activities people engage in can be simulated by computers. This includes obstacle avoidance, obstacle free path generation, geographical localization, among others. Many of these designs are still in their exploratory phase but are rapidly becoming more available as speed, power consumption and cost are optimized.

Microprocessors in smart designs have been regarded as good practice for their cost, versatility and robustness. Such microprocessors allow the interfacing of multiple sensor chips and power motor driven devices in autonomous based designs. However, even though the microprocessor has the capability of going into sleep mode, increase in power consumption can occur when some of the chip is powered but not used.

In this project, a smart device is implemented using a low power CMOS design in order to reduce power consumption compared to those designs using microprocessors thus increasing the battery life of a hand held obstacle-avoidance and obstacle-free path generation device.

1.1 Motivation

Visually impaired persons who are familiar with their surrounding while at home can move from room to room avoiding any obstacles in their path. However, when an object has been moved out of place by another person or visitor, the visually impaired person runs the risk of tripping over the obstacle and potentially getting hurt. Current

technologies have been developed to aide the visually impaired navigate through indoor and outdoor environments with predefined paths. Some of these technologies concentrate on using navigation systems (e.g. GPS for outdoor), location identification (e.g. RFID for indoor/outdoor), among others to guide the user. Other technologies concentrate on obstacle avoidance implemented via ultrasound sonar sensors, infrared sensors, bump switches among others to indicate an obstacle has been detected in the path of the user. Other designs help users move about their surroundings using a wheelchair which can autonomously select an obstacle-free path.

1.2 Problem Statement

The goal of this thesis is to design a low power obstacle avoidance and obstacle-free path generation device for the visually impaired by replacing the microcontroller with a CMOS design and other necessary components (i.e. comparators, operational amplifiers, clock, and potentiometers). The behavioral model of an existing obstacle avoidance and obstacle-free path generation algorithm is used to design the devices code. Quartus, produced by Altera, is used to synthesize the design into a CMOS design. An optimal 2

implementation of the design would be via discrete logic. However, for this project, the CMOS circuit will be burned to a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA).

Assumption 1: Using behavioral modeling, an algorithm from an existing obstacle avoidance and obstacle free path generation device can be designed using CMOS technology implemented via a multiplexer in order to consume less power.

Assumption 2: By replacing the microcontroller with only the necessary CMOS transistors and other necessary components (i.e. comparator chip, clock, operational amplifier, potentiometer), power consumption can be reduced.

1.3 Contributions

Different devices are available in the market which can aid a user through indoor and outdoor environments via GPS, RFID among others. Obstacle detection devices and obstacle-free path generation devices are available for wheelchair users. However, a low power handheld device combining an obstacle detection and obstacle-free path generation algorithm has not been designed to aide the visually impaired move about their home while avoiding objects which have been misplaced. Current available system designs use microprocessors which can increase power consumption. This project discusses how to reduce power consumption using CMOS and some other necessary components (i.e. comparators, clock, potentiometer, operational amplifier) in order to provide a lower power smart design which provides a solution for the visually impaired that could benefit from an obstacle avoidance device that can direct a user through an obstacle free path. 3

The delays associated with infrared sensors are addressed by using nonblocking assignments in Verilog. In order to implement the design, an FPGA is used. The main contributions from this project are to design a lower power obstacle avoidance device which can direct a user through an obstacle free path. The design will be as follows:

Implemented using CMOS technology Does not use a microprocessor Algorithm designed to minimize power consumption Uses a multiplexer to minimize number of transistors Accounts for infrared sensor chip delays Device is constructed and demonstrated

1.4 Thesis Overview

The background research of this thesis is discussed in Chapter 2. In Chapter 3 is a brief overview of how a microprocessor dissipates power and how it can be replaced with a CMOS design and other necessary components (i.e. comparators, clock, potentiometer, operational amplifier). Chapter 4 proposes a novel algorithm superior to existing

obstacle avoidance and obstacle free path generation algorithms due to its power efficiency. Chapter 5 discusses the design, the schematic of implementing the design and the final product along with the simulation results. Lastly in Chapter 6 is the conclusion and future work.

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND RESEARCH

2.1 Introduction

Much of the technologies available for the visually impaired include obstacle avoidance and obstacle-free path generation algorithms implemented via wheelchair and walking sticks/canes. These technologies have been researched by several institutions (professional and academic), for the implementation of a smart device capable of directing a user through different environments. In this chapter, a review of the

technologies available and not yet available on the market is discussed.

2.2 Technologies using Wheelchairs Several technologies have been developed for smart wheelchairs. The ComputerControlled Power Wheelchair Navigation System (CPWNS) uses vision and dead reckoning and after the system has been manually driven from a starting point to a goal point, the wheelchair automatically reproduces that route [Yoder JD, et al., 1996]. Based on TinMan, the Intelligent Wheelchair uses vision, infrared and sonar for landmark detection and can autonomously explore an environment [Gribble WS et al., 1998]. Another technology based on the TinMan is the RobChair which uses Sonar, Infrared, 5

and bump sensors to help a user navigate while avoiding obstacles. Using facial features, a user can send a signal to the Intelligent Wheelchair System wheelchair which is interpreted by gesture recognition. With this input and inputs from its Vision and Sonar sensors, the wheelchair responds accordingly [Pires G, Nunes U, 2002]. The TetraNauta uses vision, infrared, sonar and bump sensors to navigate by following landmarks [Balcells AC, Gonzalez JA. 1998]. More technologies based on wheelchairs outlined by [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] are listed in Figure 2.1.

The algorithm (Figure 2.2) proposed by [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] was designed for the Smart Wheelchair (SW). The algorithm includes input from the

following: IR sensors, sonar sensors, and the joystick. The IR and sonar sensors are used for obstacle avoidance and the joystick outputs forward, reverse, left or right per the users request. Figure 2.3 lists the components that make up the Smart Wheelchair Component System (SWCS) [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004]. The algorithm uses the users input from the joystick to begin navigating. If there is obstacle present in the direction the user wishes to go, the wheelchair navigation assistance software will prevent the wheelchair from moving in that direction. It will then begin to search in different directions (default to look left first) to determine if that is an obstacle free path. If it is, it will move the wheelchair in that direction. If it is not possible, continue to search a possible path. In cases that the wheelchair has wrongfully decided to stop, the user has the option of overriding the system.

Table 2.1: Available technologies for wheelchair designs [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004].

Figure 2.1: Smart Wheelchair Algorithm [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004]

Figure 2.2: Smart Wheelchair Component System [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] The sensors in the Smart Wheelchair include infrared, Sonar and bump sensors. The general placement of the sensors presented by [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] is shown in Figure 2.3. Using these sensors, the navigation system would be able to determine if there is sufficient room to navigate between two obstacles as shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.3: Sensor placement for SW [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004].

Figure 2.4: SW moving between obstacles [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] 9

2.3 Technologies using canes The walking stick using artificial intelligence has been designed by a group of student Engineers from Central Michigan University. In the Smart Cane, the cane has Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology which communicates with other RFID which are placed within the walking area and a vibration is sent to the user depending on the distance between the cane and the RFID tags. A glove is used in order to feel the vibrations. Each glove finger sends a different vibration to indicate corresponding

distances. Sound, instead of vibrations, is also available through a speaker on the strap of the bag which comes with the cane. The battery life for the Smart Cane is one week and it must be charged for one hour [CMU Media Channel, 2009]. The technology has also been researched by the JRC in the SESAMONET Project [B Barshan, 2007]. The RFID can be summarized by viewing how the user and the device interact and how the developers must prepare the environment. 1. The user carries the RFID reader a. Accurate and simple b. Cost limitations because of reading devices c. User must carry uncomfortable and expensive device 2. Using an RFID reader in a RFID tagged zone a. Previous mapping of RFID tags b. Requires reading infrastructure c. Requires additional unit d. Cost limitation if mapping an extended area 10

Another similar technology produced using the same RFDI tags but the bag and bag strap is replaced by a PDA and a blue tooth headset [Ugo Biader Ceipidor et al., 2007]. Since, there has been research done using Ultrasound, WiMAX, UWB, Bluetooth, WiFi, and GPS. Each of these technologies present a solution with advantages and drawbacks. Much of the existing research has to do with location and guidance of people with disability (ELISA project: Entorno de Localizacin Inteligente para Servicios Asistidos). For this reason, visual sensing has exited engineers to research further into how these technologies can improve AI [Zhiheng Li et al., 2009]. In [Zhiheng Li et al., 2009], the authors explain what visual sensors can do in order to maximize the effectiveness of AI in vehicle vision systems. Inclusive, lighting, road, and weather conditions are considered which can also affect the effectiveness of an AI walking stick. In Table 2.2 is a summary of the functions and operations of several of these technologies.

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Table 2.2: Classification of technologies using canes [Zhiheng Li et al., 2009]

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2.4 Inspirations for this projects design

Mygo Cane (Figure 2.5), designed by student Sebastian Ritzler in 2007 at the Muthesius Academy of Art and Design in Kiel Germany [Gizmodo, 2007], has the ability to send real-time information about the ground to the user. Mygo cane has a steering engine that helps the user steer by providing feedback through the grip and auditory feedback is sent to the headset. The wheel has a motor which helps the user by moving the cane forward and has a battery life of 6 hours [The Coolest Gadgets, 2007]. There is a limited amount of information on this product on its design and functionalities therefore its ability to avoid obstacles or offer alternate routes is unknown.

Figure 2.5: Mygo Cane [The Coolest Gadgets, 2007]

Figure 2.6: K Sonar[AbleData, 2005]

American Printing House for the Blind, Inc designed the 'K' SONAR (MODEL 107000-00) (Figure 2.6) as an electronic obstacle detector which gives the user information of obstacles via headphone [AbleData, 2005]. This design among other obstacle detectors does not have the ability to offer the user an alternate route.

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CHAPTER 3 ARCHITECTURAL SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 Introduction

The microcontroller performs tasks that are necessary when building smart devices and radio controlled robots and many other types of designs. However the microcontroller is a general purpose processing chip which has much functionality that is not used in most smart designs. Pertaining to the handheld smart device in this thesis, the necessary microcontroller functions are the following: provide a clock signal, receive an analog input from the infrared (IR) sensor and convert it to digital, handle delays in IR signals, and output a signal to external components. By replacing the microcontroller functions with a CMOS design and other necessary components (i.e. comparators, potentiometers, a clock and operational amplifiers), a low power design is possible. The design in Figure 3.1 by [S. Innet, 2008] offers a view of how the microcontrollers connects with some of the needed external components needed for the Smart Handheld Device (SHD) to function. "By optimizing an architecture for the common functions it performs, we can not only achieve greater performance, but also get power efficiency by better utilization of device hardware, efficient use of hardware resources." [Cho, 1994] 14

In other words, the microcontroller is replaced with only the necessary components [Texas Instruments]. In this chapter the microcontrollers components

needed for the design are discussed and how can using a CMOS design decrease power consumption.

Figure 3.1: Design of the White Stick [S. Innet, 2008] 3.2 The Analog to Digital Converter

IR sensors output an analog signal that needs to be converted into a usable digital signal via an Analog/Digital converter (ADC). The microcontroller has the ability of receiving these analog inputs and converting them into a 10-bit digital number [Microchip Technology Inc., 2001]. An IR signal gives an increasing or decreasing analog voltage output depending on how far or near the object has been detected. 15

Therefore it is necessary to determine whether the voltage has risen above a threshold to know how close the object is which does not require converting the signal into a 10-bit digital number. Such long conversion operations take time and energy to complete. By utilizing a comparator, the voltage can be compared to a predefined voltage signal and the comparator will output 0 or 1 depending whether the threshold was exceeded.

The White Stick design by [S. Innet, 2008] includes the microcontroller PIC16F877 which uses an Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) to derive a 10-bit digital result of the analog input from the IR. The ADC is important because it receives the

analog output from the IR and converts the signal to a usable digital signal. The ADC operates via successive approximation [Microchip Technology Inc., 2001] with a successive approximation register (SAR), a digital to analog converter (DAC), a sample and hold capacitor (S/H), a Voltage In (VIN) and Voltage Reference (VREF) is shown in Figure 3.2 [Freescale Semiconductor, 2010]. For the SHD, it is only necessary to test whether the analog voltage signal has exceeded a threshold. Therefore, since the analog voltage outputs are already known for the IR (as seen in Figure 3.3) reducing the successive approximation process down to testing whether the voltage has exceeded a threshold using only the comparator (circled in Figure 3.2) is all that is needed. Thus power consumption is reduced.

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Figure 3.2: ADC used in the microcontroller [Freescale Semiconductor, 2010]

Figure 3.3: GP2D12 output voltage curve [Sharp] The microcontroller Analog/Digital Converter will be replaced by a design that can compare the analog input with a predefined voltage. The voltages can be compared (using a comparator chip as seen in Figure 3.4) with predetermined [Sharp IR Rangers Information, 2008][Innet, S.; Ritnoom, 2009] voltages (Figure 3.3) to ascertain the 17

distances of the obstacles seen by the IR. By comparing the voltages, the analog signal is no longer an issue since the comparator will output a digital 0 or 1 accordingly. Replacing the PICs ADC is the LM339 comparator (Figure 3.4). This chip uses minimal power while providing a logical 0 or 1 depending on whether the IR_OUT voltage is less or more than the input voltage [National Semiconductor].

Figure 3.4: Comparator chip LM339 [LM339] As seen on Figure 3.5, the comparator chip will connect between the IR and the new chip. The main concern here is converting the analog output from the IR to a usable digital signal.

Figure 3.5: Comparator design

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3.3 The Counter/Delay The microcontroller handles delays associated with the IR signals. After turning on the IR sensor, there is a time where the output is unstable and needs to be ignored. After a good output from the IR, there is another delay while the sensor propagates another voltage signal which is also unstable. Although this delay is far shorter than the initial one, it must also be considered. The microcontroller offers the feasibility of interfacing with infrared sensors by allowing the designer to easily manage the delays associated with the sensors and converting the analog input from the IR to a usable digital input. These are important aspects of dealing with an IR that must be handled and addressed with the CMOS design.

The IR delay to startup is ~38.3 9.6 ns and the delay for a stable output is 5 ns. Therefore the Verilog design will have to account for this delay by reading from the comparator at the appropriate times (Figure 3.6). The microcontroller can delay the

amount of time necessary to gather stable inputs from the infrared sensors. Verilog has a similar ability by adding a delay to the code. As an example proposed by [Cummings, 1999], Algorithm 1 below receives inputs from devices that have delays so it is designed to only calculate the output 12 ns after all the inputs are stable.

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Figure 3.6: GP2D12 IR delayed output waveform [GP2D12, datasheet]

This type of assignment is called a right handed side (RHS) Nonblocking assignment since the right hand side of the equation is delayed before entering the information into the left hand side. module Adder (Carry_Out, Sum, a, b, Carry_In); output [3:0] Sum; output Carry_Out; input [3:0] a, b; input Carry_In; reg Carry_Out; reg [3:0] Sum; always @( Carry_In or a or b) {Carry_Out, Sum} <= #12 a + b + Carry_In; // Nonblocking endmodule Algorithm 1: RHS Nonblocking Assignment

[Cummings, 1999] discusses the waveform simulation (Figure 3.7) from Algorithm 1 and shows an always block being triggered by a change in any of the inputs a, b, or Carry_In. Then there is a delay of 12 ns before calculating the outputs. The always block is triggered with each change in the inputs. Using this type of delay will allow the device to first receive all stable inputs from the comparators (which are 20

receiving the analog inputs from the infrared) before calculating the direction and speed. Since the infrared sensors go through 5 ns delay before having a stable output, the device will have to sample the outputs until they are stable. improperly designed code can have unstable outputs. As seen on Figure 3.8, an

Figure 3.7: Waveform for adder [Cummings, 1999]

Figure 3.8: Waveform of unstable outputs

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Proper blocking technique will ensure that all the inputs are stable prior to calculating the speed and direction. The algorithm for the individual IRs would be as follows: 1. Turn_Device_ON 2. WAIT(IR_START_TIME) // IR needs time to send out its infrared signal 3. WAIT(IR_GOOD_SIGNAL_TIME) // IR needs additional time to produce a // good output 4. WHILE(Device is ON) a. READ OUTPUTS b. WAIT FOR IR_DELAY 5. end IR_START_TIME and IR_GOOD_SIGNAL_TIME will vary pending on the IR chip used. For the GP2D12 used in [S. Innet, 2008], the delay is 38.3ms 9.6 ms and an additional 5.0ms in between readings respectively.

3.4 The Clock

A 10-MHz crystal generates the clock signal for the microcontroller [J. R. Fisher & Carla Beaudet, 2005]. The designer can choose between 32 kHz, 100 kHz or 200 kHz depending on which clock frequency is necessary for the external component. Since the IR nor the comparator [LM339] require a clock [Sharp] [National Semiconductor], there is only a need to add a clock to the CMOS design. This clock can be replaced by the MM8511-12[Mobius Microsystems] (Figure 3.9 and Figure 3.10) which has a monolithic die thus eliminating the quartz crystal, reduces clock jitters, removes bulky packages from the system, reduces electromagnetic interference and improves performance by

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reducing peak electromagnetic interference (EMI)[Mobius Microsystems].

However,

how the clock can optimize power performance is beyond the scope of this project.

The GP2D12 IR does not need an external clock. Once it is powered, it will continue to output the voltages with the delays shown in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.9: Block diagram of MM8512 [MM8512]

Figure 3.10: MM8512 Pin configuration [MM8512] 3.5 Switching and power reduction

In order to configure the Field Programmable Gate Array, the chip will be coded in one of the two dominate hardware design languages, Verilog (the other language being VHDL). Verilog offers the ability to configure the FPGA at the register transfer level (RTL) which minimizes the amount of switching occurring at the gate level thus reducing 23

power consumption.

According to [Anantha P. Chandrakasan, 1995], the power

consumed by a CMOS circuit is summarized by the following:

Pavg = Pswitching + Pshort-circuit + Pleakage

By reducing Pswitching less power is consumed by the circuit. Pswitching is contingent on three different factors such as the probability (a 0->1) that the switching (from a power consuming 0 to 1) will occur during a clock cycle with a capacitance load CL times the clock rate fclk. The equation for Pswitching becomes the following:

Pswitching = a 0->1 CLVdd2 fclk

Minimizing the amount of switching that occurs from 0 to 1 should be avoided. This presents a problem if the algorithm requires the output to switch frequently, such as using NAND or NOR gates since these gates have a higher probability of switching from 0 to 1 [Anantha P. Chandrakasan, 1995]. Therefore any efforts made to minimize

number of transistor used and avoid high number of switching will ensure minimal power is consumed. Consider the equation:

While using a hardware design language, the correct implementation of the hardware with the intent of reducing power consumption, the circuitry must meet the following: 1. Minimize amount of transistors used 24

2. Minimize amount of switching (especially switch from 0 to 1)

There are two circuit options shown in Figure 3.11 for designing a XOR function: using NAND and NOR gates (Figure 3.11A) versus using a multiplexer (Figure 3.11B, C and D). Both these circuit designs accomplish the same combinatorial function however it is evident that by using a multiplexer, the number of transistors can be reduced from 22 to 4. Therefore choosing the right circuitry with the least amount of transistors and least amount of switching for the design is an important factor in power consumption. The style of logic used during the design will influence the following: speed (number of inversion levels, how many transistors are in series, the width of the channel, and wiring capacitances both inside and outside of the cell), size of circuit (number of transistors, their size and wiring complexity), power dissipation (switching activity and the node capacitances), and wiring complexity (number of connections and their lengths) [Reto Zimmermann and Wolfgang Fichtner, 1997]. Since these variables change from one logic style to another, it is best to carefully choose the circuitry.

It is also important to consider the high power dissipation that occurs when a dynamic logic style is used versus static. Dynamic logic offers great speed but the clock necessary to drive the circuits during the two stages (precharge and evaluation) results in a high amount of power dissipation [Reto Zimmermann and Wolfgang Fichtner, 1997]. Since there is a need for a clock in this design, an overall low-power design is not possible. However, since a multiplexer will be used, the design will ultimately reduce power consumption in comparison to using the microcontroller. 25

A: XOR Function using NAND, NOR and Inverter gates (22 transistors)

B: Mux truth table

C: Multiplexer

D: Multiplexer design (8 transistors) Figure 3.11: Using a multiplexer versus NAND, NOR and inverter gates

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3.6 Choosing the right chip

Quartus has several chips that choose from when implementing a design. Using a large chip with more transistors than necessary is not only more power consuming but space consuming as well. A chip requiring a larger core voltage will dissipate more power. Choosing the right chip size will decrease power consumption and allow for a smaller design.

Figure 3.12: Pin placement on two FBGA board [Quartus, Subscription Edition]

Name Cyclone II

Logic Chip EP2C5AF256A7 elements 4,608 240

Pins 158 54

Core Voltage 1.2 V 1.8 V

Commercial Industrial 0C to 85C 0C to 85C -40C to 100C -40C to 100C

MAX II EPM240ZM68C6

Table 3.1: Difference between two FPGA chips

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The Cyclone II EP2C5AF256A7 chip is typically used and has a total of 4,608 logic elements, 158 pins and core voltage of 1.2 Volts. However, the MAX II

EPM240ZM68C6 is proposed since it has a total of 240 logic elements, 54 pins and a core voltage of 1.8 Volts. The two chips are summarized in Table 3.1 and Figure 3.12 graphically represents the size of the chips and the placement of the pins in the FineLine Ball-grid arrays (FBGA). The effects in power consumption that the 0.6 V difference between the two chips has is beyond the scope of this project.

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CHAPTER 4 THE CODE 4.1 Introduction

In order to model the algorithm from the Smart Wheelchair to a power conserving multiplexer, behavioral modeling was used. A pseudo code was then developed to This code was then graphically

properly understand how the algorithm functions.

represented, then turned into a binary format describing how the speed and turn signal would behave after the infrared sensors detected an obstacle. Lastly, the binary

representation was used to obtain the necessary equations to drive the multiplexer. Following this process, the algorithm for the handheld device is modeled after the Smart Wheelchair (SW) and developed as a more power efficient algorithm. The flow chart of how the SW algorithm was redesigned into a Mux is shown in Figure 4.1. In this chapter, each of these steps is discussed in further detail.

4.2 The Smart Wheelchair algorithm

The algorithm flow chart (Figure 2.2) in [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] was designed for the Smart Wheelchair. The algorithm includes input from the following: IR

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sensors, sonar sensors, and the joystick. The IR and sonar sensors are used for obstacle avoidance and the joystick outputs forward, reverse, left or right per the users request.

Figure 4.1: Flowchart from Smart Wheelchair (SW) algorithm to Mux

The Handheld device models the wheelchair as follows: Joystick => Not needed Wheelchair Controller => Speed and Direction Components from SHD Navigation Assistance Software => Verilog and A/D Converter IR sensor => IR sensor o Dropoff sensor => Obstacle directly below SHD 30

Bump and Sonar sensors => Removed from SHD Wheelchair Battery => SHD Battery

4.3 Pseudo code for the proposed algorithm

A pseudo code (Appendix B) was modeled after the SW algorithm.

This novel

approach is superior to the SW algorithm because of lower power consumption. Behaviors deduced from the pseudo code are as follows:

1. Handheld device defaults to try moving left first if an obstacle is detected 2. If left is not possible, try right 3. If neither left or right is possible, stop wheelchair 4. Handheld device r restricts the users joystick to move in direction of obstacles 5. Handheld device stops if a drop-off is detected by front IR 6. Bump switches signal rear obstacles and stops Handheld device

A graphical representation of how the handheld device functions according to this pseudo code is shown in Figure 4.2. The device defaults to moving forward unless it encounters an obstacle. At that time, it will first try moving left. As seen on Figure 4.2, if a left is not possible, it will send stop signal to the left joystick. Then it will try right. If right is not possible, it will restrict the users joystick in both directions and tell the wheelchair to stop. The user would then need to back up or override the system [S. Innet, 2008]. With the handheld device, the device will first inform the user to Stop and try 31

moving left as seen on situation C in Figure 4.2. As the user swings the device left, it will continue to test if an obstacle is in its path. As the user turns left, if there is space in between the two obstacles (as seen on Situation J), the device will inform the user to move Forward. With a Stop signal from the handheld device and a Left or Right signal, the user essentially does a U-turn thus avoiding the obstacle. The drop off sensor from the wheelchair is used a sensor to detect obstacles directly below the device.

4.4 Equations

In order to use the CMOS design to achieve higher reliability at lower voltages, a multiplexer is used [Reto Zimmermann and Wolfgang Fichtner, 1997]. Once all of the behaviors were described (as seen above), a binary representation of the algorithm is derived. As seen in Table 1 the algorithm was translated to a binary representation of how the wheelchair algorithm responds to inputs from the infrared sensors (complete binary representation in Appendix A).

By using the binary representation of the proposed algorithm, example of the equations necessary to drive the devices outputs are derived and listed below in Table 4.1 as Equation 1, 2, and 3 for the speed, right and left signals respectively. From Appendix A, the equation for the Speed can be visually obtained by noting that the device should signal forward only when there is no obstacle in front or below. Note that if Below turns to 1 (e.g. obstacle detected below device), then the speed and Left and Right signals are set to 0 regardless of whether there is any other obstacle detected or not. 32

Figure 4.2: General situations for device

Table 4.1: Example of a pseudo code binary representation

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Equation 1: Speed signal

Equation 2: TurnRight signal

Equation 3: TurnLeft signal An example of a Verilog code modeled after these equations are as follows: speed_Component <= ~temp_compF&~temp_compB; if(speed_Component == 0 && ~temp_compB) begin TurnRight <= (~temp_compR&(temp_compL || temp_compLC || temp_compLC&temp_compL)); TurnLeft <= (temp_compR&(~temp_compLC || temp_compRC || ~temp_compL)) || (~temp_compLC&~temp_compL) || (~temp_compL&temp_compRC)); end else begin TurnRight <= 0; TurnLeft <= 0; End The speed_Component is set to 0 if an obstacle is detected to the front (temp_compF) or below (temp_compB). Then if the speed has been set to 0 due to an in front of the device, then the Turn signals are calculated. NOTE: The gate circuitry for this type of design can be found in Appendix E.

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4.5 The equation using CMOS

In this section, the equations that make up the obstacle avoidance and obstacle free path generation are proposed in two different ways: a CMOS design using the equations and a CMOS design utilizing the multiplexer.

To design using CMOS, both P- and N-type of transistors are used to properly output a good 1 and a good 0 respectively. DeMorgans law is necessary to get the inverted equations (as seen on Equation 4, 5, and 6). The stick figure for the Speed circuit is shown in Figure 4.3 where the N-type transistors are at the bottom and the Ptype transistors are at the top along with its test case in Table 4.2. The stick figures for the TurnRight and TurnLeft signals are shown in Figure 4.4 and 4.5 along with two test cases (A & B) for each on Table 4.3 and 4.4 respectively.

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Equation 4: (DeMorgans)Speed

Equation 5: (DeMorgans)Turn Right

Equation 6: (DeMorgans)Turn Left

Figure 4.3: Speed CMOS stick figure F 1 2 3 4 Speed 0 On On Off Off 1 0 On Off On Off 0 1 Off On Off On 0 1 Off Off On On 0 Table 4.2: Four test cases for Speed CMOS circuits

36

37 Figure 4.4: TurnRight CMOS schematic

38 Figure 4.5 TurnLeft CMOS schematic

39

4.6 The equations using a multiplexer

As mentioned in Chapter 3, a multiplexer is more efficient and consumes less power than using combinatorial logic. By using the equations aforementioned and the bit representation in Appendix A, a multiplexer can be designed as shown in Figure 4.6, 4.7, and 4.8 for the TurnLeft, TurnRight and Speed signals. Since the speed is always 0 when there is an obstacle in front of or below of the device and the turn signals are only available when an obstacle is exclusively in front of the device, logic can de represented as follows as shown in Table 4.5. Front IR 0 0 1 1 Below IR Speed Turn Signals? 0 1 No 1 0 No 0 0 Yes 1 0 No Table 4.5: Speed MUX logic

Therefore, the multiplexer can be designed with the Front_IR and Below_IR as the select lines (Figure 4.8) and the output from Mux1 acting as input to Mux 2. Some of the Verilog code is shown below in Algorithm 3 (complete code in Appendix A). case({temp_compLC, temp_compL, temp_compRC, temp_compR}) 4'b0000: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; // MUX FOR LEFT4'b0001: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; // TURN SIGNAL endcase case({temp_compLC, temp_compL, temp_compRC, temp_compR}) 4'b0000: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; // MUX FOR RIGHT4'b0001: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; // TURN SIGNAL endcase case({temp_compF, temp_compB}) 2'b00: {TurnLeft, TurnRight, speed_Component} = 3'b001; // MUX FOR SPEED 2'b01: {TurnLeft, TurnRight, speed_Component} = 3'b000; // SIGNAL endcase Algorithm 3: Portion of Mux 1 and Mux 2 in Verilog 40

Figure 4.6 TurnLeft Mux

Figure 4.7: TurnRight Mux

Figure 4.8: Speed Mux

The analysis, compilation and simulation reports for both designs (combinatorial versus mux) are discussed in Chapter 6.

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CHAPTER 5 THE SCHEMATIC 5.1 Introduction

In this chapter, how all the pieces of the lower power design come together is discussed along with a sketch of the device itself and the results of simulation testing using Quartus. A brief description of the unused sensors from the Smart Wheelchair is included in order to explain why those sensors were omitted from the schematic.

5.2 Unused Sensors from Smart Wheelchair

Bump sensors used by the Smart Wheelchair disable the wheelchair from moving in reverse. Reverse is not necessary with the SHD and it would also be dangerous therefore this is omitted from the design. Additionally, even though sonar sensors add obstacle avoidance sensitivity, none are used in the SHD. Lastly the Smart Wheelchair by [Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004] has the ability to use input from the user via the wheelchairs joystick. This function is no longer necessary since every movement by the user will only change the direction in which the sensors are detecting an obstacle. The option of allowing the user to choose a direction and having the device warn the user that there is obstacle present is solved differently than the smart wheelchair. 42 Since the

wheelchair is more difficult to move in a direction versus the handheld device, the user would only need to point the device in the desired direction. The front obstacle sensor would indicate an obstacle present accordingly.

5.3 Schematic

By combining all of the components necessary to drive this smart design as discussed above, the schematic in Figure 5.1 is proposed. As shown, the external components (with the exception of the IR) connect to the Verilog chip which outputs to the Handheld device motor controls. The IR must first go through the comparator which replaces the ADC (as discussed in Chapter 3). Figure 5.2 shows the schematic of all the components connected. The voltage requirement for the individual components are listed in Table 5.1 below.

Chip Description Voltage Requirement GP2D12 Infrared sensor 4.5 to +5.5 V [Sharp] LM339 Comparator 5 VDC [National Semiconductor] MAX II EPM240ZM68C6 FPGA 1.8 V [Altera, 2008] MM8511-12 Clock 3.0 to 3.6 V [Mobius Microsystems] Table 5.1: Chip voltage and temperature description

Temperature Ta = 25oC 0C to +70C 0C ~ 85C 0 to 70C

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Figure 5.1: General design of SHD

44

45 Figure 5.2: Design schematic

5.4 The Handheld Device

Figure 5.3: Smart Handheld device

Figure 5.3 is the Smart Handheld Device.

This device works similar to a

wheelchairs obstacle detection system since it directs the user through an obstacle free path by sending a signal to the controls. Instead of moving a wheelchair, the device vibrates the handle on the right, left or center to indicate the user to move right, left or stop respectively. The IR sensors are placed in a circular pattern in order to maximize the obstacle detection capability.

IR6 is similar to the drop off from the Smart Wheelchair but instead of measuring a drop off, it detects obstacles that are directly below the device and signals an immediate stop, similar to the original algorithm. The algorithm for the drop-off works identical to the SHD detecting an obstacle below it.

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5.5 Smart Handheld Device functionalities

If the SHD is moving forward and encounters an obstacle, the device will signal the user to sop, determine which direction has no obstacle and signals user to move in that direction. If no direction is possible, the device continues to signal to stop and does not trigger any directional signal. By performing a search of available directions, the SHD will move autonomously in an obstacle free direction (Figure 5.4 and Figure 5.5).

Obstacle

Figure 5.5: SHD path to avoid font obstacle Figure 5.4: SHD approaching obstacle

5.6 Simulations and results

Two different simulations using Altera, Quartus II Subscription Edition Software [Altera, Quartus II Subscription Edition Software] were performed: one with the equations, the other using the mux (results in Figure 5.6 and 5.7 respectively). Both had the same number of dedicated logic registers, logic elements, and total number of

47

registers. The one difference between the two is the total combinational functions were the MUX had 11 versus 12 from the combinatorial design.

Figure 5.6: Compilation report of MUX

Figure 5.7: Compilation result of combinatorial Both had identical outputs (Figure 5.8) and worked correctly. As shown in Figure 5.8, the device holds a stable 0 for direction and speed for the first ~50 ns of unstable input from the infrared sensors. Then it starts with the first good input it receives from

48

the IR and turns the direction and speed outputs. Full compilation and simulation reports for the multiplexer are found in Appendix D and PowerPlay Analyzer in Appendix F.

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50 Figure 5.8: Waveform for SHD

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

By using behavioral modeling, the algorithm from the smart wheelchair (Richard Simpson, PhD, et al., 2004) can be translated to the Smart Handheld device so it can have similar functionalities. Replacing the microcontroller with a CMOS design, a comparator chip, and a clock can reduce power consumption. The infrared sensor delays can be handled using nonblocking assignments using Verilog. Utilizing Quartus produced by Altera, the Verilog code can be translated to a CMOS multiplexer ultimately minimizing switching which reduces power consumption. Simulations via Quartus prove the design will respond correctly to the delays and outputs from the infrared sensors. The fabricated final product also proves the design works correctly.

Future work includes implementing the design using discrete logic instead of an FPGA in order to minimize power consumption. More future work includes adding sonar sensors to improve the obstacle avoidance capability. Additionally, a taller user would need a less sensitive setting to detect an obstacle than a shorter one as seen on Figure 6.1. Therefore, future work may consider using three different measurements from the IR. Depending on how tall the user is a different setting would be used as displayed on Table

51

6.1. Therefore, choosing different IR sensors can also increase the usability of the device. Description Voltage Setting Distance measured Very Sensitive 1.4 V 1 ~18 cm Sensitive 1.0 V 2 ~30 cm Less sensitive 0.6 V 3 ~50 cm Table 6.1: Voltage outputs from IR GP2D12 In order to compensate for the extra infrared sensor analog outputs, more comparator chips can be used. The design for using three settings would require five comparators as seen on Figure 6.2 below. No additional logic is required since a

mechanical switch can be used to choose between the settings.

Figure 6.1: Distance measurement of one GP2D12 IR with 3 settings

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Figure 6.2: Future work with five comparators

Figure 6.3: Future work with potentiometer 53

Another approach to choosing the different settings and one that would add more sensitivity to the device is using a potentiometer. Once connected to the comparator chip, a simple turn of the potentiometer would increase or decrease the voltage which the comparator chip would compare to the output from the IR hence changing the sensitivity of the device (design shown in Figure 6.3). Choosing the correct pot to not exceed the power rating of the device and to maximize the life of the pot is necessary [Elliot Sound Products].

Additional future work may include considering that the IR used in this device (GP2D12) can detect obstacles a maximum of 80 cm. Using different IR sensors that can detect obstacles significantly farther should be explored. Adding a window comparator to the drop-off infrared sensor can detect a drop off directly in front of the user. The user can use a potentiometer to set the distance between the device and the floor. If the IR detects an obstacle above a threshold, then alert the user to stop. If the IR detects a dropoff (i.e. the IR output goes beyond a different threshold) then alert the user of a drop-off by pulsating the Speed output.

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APPENDIX A Binary Representation of Pseudo Code

Table A.1: Pseudo code translated into binary representation

55

APPENDIX B Smart Wheelchairs algorithm translated to pseudo code ///////////////////Sensors///////////////////// Right_Obstacle,Left_Obstacle, Front_Obstacle, Front_Right_Corner, Front_Left_Corner, IR_DropOff; ///////////////////JoyStick Input from User////// UserJoystick; ///////////////////Indexes/////////////////////// Tried_Right = 0; Tried_Left = 0; //////////////Signal Sent to JoyStick////////////// direction_Component; speed_Component; ///////////////// USER'S INPUT///////////////////////////////// UserJoyStick; //000 = forward, 001 = reverse, 010 = left, 011 = right, 100 = stop // For speed_Component and direction_Component// // Speed: 0 = stop, 1 = forward, // Direction: 00 = right, 01 = left, 10 = stop right, 11 = stop left //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// begin // Sensors read are: user_Joystick, and all Obstacle sensors read sensors if(userJoyStick == 00 && (Front_Obstacle || Right_obstacle || Left_Obstacle || Front_Right_Corner || Front_Left_Corner)) { if(Tried_left) { Tried_Left = false; if(Tried_Right == true) { speed_Component = 0; Tried_Right = false; } else { direction_Component = 0; // Turn Right speed_Component = 1; // Move forward Tried_Right = true; } } else { direction_Component = 01; // Turn left speed_Component = 1; // Move forward Tried_Left = true; } } 56

if (userJoyStick == 00 && Front_Right_Corner) { if (!Front_Left_Corner && !Left_Obstacle) { //left turn possible direction_Component = 01; // Turn left speed_Component = 1; } else if (Right_Obstacle) direction_Component = 10; // Stop right else speed_Component = 0; // Stop moving forward } if (userJoyStick == 00 && Front_Left_Corner) { if(!Front_Right_Corner && !Right_Obstacle) { // right turn possible direction_Component = 00; // Turn right speed_Component = 1; } else if (Left_Obstacle) direction_Component = 11; else speed_Component = 0; // Stop forward } // DROP OFF if (IR_DropOff) speed_Component = 0; // REVERSE is not necessary //if(userJoyStick == 01 && RearObject) // JoyStick_Reverse = false; // TURN RIGHT if(userJoyStick == 11 || direction_Component == 00 && (Right_Obstacle || Front_right_corner)) direction_Component = 10; // Stop right // TURN LEFT if (userJoyStick == 10 || direction_Component = 01 && (Left_Obstacle || Front_Left_Corner)) direction_Component = 11; // Stop left SendSingals

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APPENDIX C Verilog Code for the SHD /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// // Ernesto Cividanes // // Device.v // // February 24, 2010 // // DESCRIPTION: After waiting for stable inputs from infrared // // sensors, if a front obstacle is detected, signal user to stop. // // Then signal user the best direction to move. // //////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// module HandHeldDevice ( input wire clk, compR, compL, compF, compRC, compLC, compB, output reg speed_Component, TurnRight, TurnLeft ); reg [1:0] state; reg [1:0] count; reg temp_compR, temp_compL, temp_compF, temp_compRC, temp_compLC, temp_compB; parameter S0 = 2'b00, S1 =2'b01, S2 = 2'b10; // STATES parameter SEC40NS = 2'b11, SEC1 = 2'b10, SEC2 = 2'b01; // TIME BETWEEN STATES /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// always @(posedge clk) begin case(state) // WAIT FOR STABLE OUTPUT FROM INFRARED SENSORS S0: if(count < SEC40NS) begin state <= S0; count <= count + 1'b1; end else begin state <= S1; count <= 0; end // READ OUTPUTS FROM COMPARATORS S1: if (count < SEC1) begin state <= S1; count <= count + 1'b1; end else begin state <= S2; 58

count <= 0; end // SEND OUT OUTPUTS S2: if (count < SEC2) begin state <= S2; count <= count + 1'b1; end else begin state <= S1; count <= 0; end endcase /////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////// case(state) S0: begin speed_Component <= 0; // DO NOT MOVE AS DEVICE STARTS TurnRight <= 0; // DO NOT TURN AS DEVICE STARTS TurnLeft <= 0; // DO NOT TURN AS DEVICE STARTS end S1: begin // ASSIGN COMPARATOR OUTPUTS TO TEMPORARY REGISTERS temp_compR <= compR; temp_compL <= compL; temp_compF <= compF; temp_compRC <= compRC; temp_compLC <= compLC; temp_compB <= compB; end S2: begin // MUX FOR LEFT TURN SIGNAL case({temp_compLC, temp_compL, temp_compRC, temp_compR}) 4'b0000: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1;4'b0001: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; 4'b0010: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1;4'b0011: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; 4'b0100: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0;4'b0101: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; 4'b0110: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0;4'b0111: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; 4'b1000: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0;4'b1001: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; 4'b1010: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0;4'b1011: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; 4'b1100: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0;4'b1101: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0; 4'b1110: {TurnLeft} = 1'b0;4'b1111: {TurnLeft} = 1'b1; endcase // MUX FOR RIGHT TURN SIGNAL case({temp_compLC, temp_compL, temp_compRC, temp_compR}) 4'b0000: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b0001: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b0010: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b0011: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b0100: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b0101: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b0110: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b0111: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 59

4'b1000: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b1001: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b1010: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b1011: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; 4'b1100: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b1101: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b1110: {TurnRight} = 1'b1; 4'b1111: {TurnRight} = 1'b0; endcase // MUX FOR SPEED COMPONENT AND TURN SIGNAL case({temp_compF, temp_compB}) 2'b00: {TurnLeft, TurnRight, speed_Component} = 3'b001; 2'b01: {TurnLeft, TurnRight, speed_Component} = 3'b000; 2'b10: {speed_Component} = 1'b0; 2'b11: {TurnLeft, TurnRight, speed_Component} = 3'b000; endcase end default begin speed_Component = 1'b0; TurnRight = 1'b0; TurnLeft = 1'b0; end endcase end endmodule

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APPENDIX D Full Compilation and Simulation Reports FULL COMPILATION SUCCESSFUL WITH 3 WARNINGS

Figure D.1: Compilation results for SHD

Figure D.2: Compilation warnings for SHD

61

SIMULATOR WAS SUCCESSFUL

Figure D.3: Simulation successful window for SHD

62

APPENDIX E Gate circuitry for Turn and Speed signal

Figure E.1: Gate circuitry for Turn and Speed signal 63

APPENDIX F PowerPlay Analyzer Summary

Figure F.1: PowerPlay Analyzer Summary for Mux

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