Toc H Institute of Science & Technology Arakkunnam 682313 FORMAT FOR CLASS ROOM TEACHING (FCT) (Based on Blooms

s Taxonomy) Subject Title : Mechanical Engineering (6) Code : 106 Module : I

Branch : All Semester : I & II Name of Faculty : Shajan K. Thomas Objectives : After this discourse, the students will have the following cognitive inputs : 1. To explain the Carnot cycle. 2. To analyse the Carnot cycle & illustrate its limitations in real world engines. Key words introduced during the lecture : Carnot cycle, isentropic, isothermal Keypoints : Evaluating Thermodynamic heat & work :

As shown in the figure, all the above thermodynamic processes can be plotted & evaluated to find out the work & heat transfer Obj 1 :Carnot cycle The Carnot cycle is a particular thermodynamic cycle, modeled on the hypothetical Carnot heat engine, proposed by Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot in 1824. A heat engine acts by transferring energy from a warm region to a cool region of space and, in the process, converting some of that energy to mechanical work. The cycle may also be reversed. The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle possible for converting a given amount of thermal energy into work or, conversely, for using a given amount of work for refrigeration purposes. The Carnot cycle when acting as a heat engine consists of the following steps: Each step is also represented in the P-V & T s (temperature entropy) plots. 1. Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas at the "hot" temperature, TH (isothermal heat addition). During this step (A to B in T s plot, 1 to 2 in P - V plot) the expanding gas causes the piston to do work on the surroundings. The gas expansion is propelled by absorption of heat from the high temperature reservoir. This isothermal process is carried out by keeping the high temperature reservoir (source) in contact with the gas thus maintaining the temperature. 2. Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic) expansion of the gas. For this step (B to C & 2 to 3) we assume the piston and cylinder are thermally insulated, so that no heat is gained or lost. The gas continues to expand, doing work on the surroundings. The gas expansion causes it to cool to the "cold" temperature, TC. 3. Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the "cold" temperature, TC. (isothermal heat

rejection) (C to D & 3 to 4 on Figure 2) Now the surroundings does work on the gas, causing heat to flow out of the gas to the low temperature reservoir (sink). By now keeping the sink in contact with the gas, the lower temperature is maintained. 4. Isentropic compression of the gas. (D to A & 4 to 1) Once again we assume the piston and cylinder are thermally insulated. During this step, the surroundings do work on the gas, compressing it and causing the temperature to rise to TH. At this point the gas is in the same state as at the start of step 1.

TH

TC

Obj 2 :Carnot Cycle Analysis It is imperative to understand why Sadi Carnot would have chosen the Isothermal & Isentropic processes to make up the cycle. 1. Isothermal Process The heat engine should deliver maximum work. Hence when heat is supplied to the engine, if the temperature remains constant, applying the first law of thermodynamics, one can imply that the entire heat has been converted to work. Consider a heat transfer process which takes a system from state 1 to state 2. This can be carried out in many different paths, 2 of which are shown below. The graph on the left is a non-isothermal process (one isobaric & one isochoric) and the right graph is an isothermal process, obeying the law PV = Constant.

1 P V 2

V 2

To find out which process gives the maximum work, it is only required to find the area under both of these curves on the P-V plot.

On comparing the shaded areas under both curves, it can be seen that the combination of the isobaric & isochoric processes yields more area. Hence, one would be inclined to conclude that this combination is a better process in terms of work output between end states 1 & 2. But it is to be noted that the isobaric process (horizontal line in the left graph) can only be carried out with an increase in temperature, i.e., extra heat has to supplied. It is noticed that T1 & T2 are two isotherms (lines of constant temperature) with T2 being greater than T1. This extra heat has then to be rejected to bring it back to the initial temperature of T1.

T2 T1 P 1 T2 2 V The isothermal process, on the other hand (right graph) is carried out at the same temperature, thus no extra heat has to be supplied or rejected making the process much more simpler. Attention is also to be paid to the slope of the graphs. The expression for the isothermal process is PVn = Constant, with n = 1. If an attempt is made to draw the curve with the same start point 1 but shifted to the right (to increase area under the curve), it would lead to a change in n and so the process becomes nonisothermal, which would call for an increase in temperature greater than T1. T1

PV n = C (n = )

PV n = C (n = 0)

1 T1
PV n = C (n<1)

P 2 2
PV = C
1

T1

V Thus the process which involves a definite quantity of heat transfer and produces maximum work output is the Isothermal process only. 2. Isentropic Process For the continuous working of any heat engine, as discussed above, it has to exchange heat with two thermal reservoirs at different temperatures in accordance with the Kelvin Planck statement. For exchanging heat between two reservoirs, any of the known processes may be employed isobaric, isochoric or adiabatic

(certainly not isothermal !!). It is always desirable to carryout any process in such a way that no energy is lost in any unusable form. That is to say, all processes should be carried out in an isentropic manner. This can also be looked at mathematically. Consider a system at a state 1 and temperature T1 taken to state 2 at temperature T2. There may be several alternative processes to carry out this change of state.

Shown above is the isentropic process carried out from 1 to 2. The process is represented in both P-V & T- s (temperature entropy) coordinates. In the T- s plot 1-2 forms a straight line, since entropy is constant. Also the area under the T- s curve gives the amount heat transfer Q, as represented by the expression Q = Tds . In the T s plot, it can be seen that Q = 0 for such an isentropic process, as area under the T- s plot is 0. P1 & P2 are the constant pressure lines (isobars). Now consider an alternative path to proceed from 1 to 2, keeping in mind, that there should not be any temperature change from T1 or T2.

Let this new path be 1 2(shifting the path to the right in an attempt to increase the area & consequently the work done). Both 1 & 2 are on the original isotherms T1 & T2 respectively. Observing the left graph in the P-V plot it is seen that 2 is at a lower pressure and increased volume than 2. Now transferring this new path to the T s plot, where P2 is lower than P2, the curve is obtained as shown in the right. Here too, 2 & 2 are at the same temperature (2 2 is on the same horizontal line). There is an increase in entropy for 1-2 and thus is not isentropic, with a definite amount of heat transfer (represented by the area under the curve). Thus it can be inferred that, to obtain the maximum work in a process between two fixed temperature states, the most efficient way, is to do it, isentropically. Limitations of realizing the Carnot Cycle in Real world engines : The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle and the engine working on the Carnot cycle should be most efficient. But the Carnot cycle is a theoretical model which cannot be achieved in practice due to the following limitations. The isentropic processes of compression and expansion can be carried out at constant entropy by either insulating the walls of the cylinder or by making the process as fast as possible, so that there is no time for heat transfer between the system and surroundings.

But the isothermal process, in which heat is transferred though a finite temperature difference, is practically impossible to achieve. Heat transfer can be assumed to approach reversibility, when temperature difference is very very small!! and also the process is carried out very slowly so that at any instant the difference between temperatures of the two bodies are infinitesimally small.

Hot 30 C

Cold 20 C

Hot 30.00..2 C

Cold 30.001 C

To proceed in this manner the heat exchange surfaces should be very large so that there is adequate heat exchange between the working fluid and the thermal reservoir. Now, in an engine with a piston reciprocating inside a cylinder, it is not possible to have the isentropic processes very fast and the isothermal processes very slow alternating one after the other. Due to these reasons, the isothermal process has been replaced by the constant volume processes for heating and cooling in a four stroke petrol engine Carnot Efficiency : For a heat engine working between the temperatures TH & TL, the Carnot efficiency is given TL by the expression Carnot = 1 . Here to have an efficiency of 100%, i.e., Carnot = 1, any of the following TH conditions should be met : 1. TL = 0 (Absolute 0 K) 2. TH = 3. Both All the conditions stated above cannot be achieved in practice for a continuously working engine & hence attaining 100% efficiency is impossible. Key diagrams :

PV n = C (n = )

PV n = C (n = 0)

1 T1
PV n = C (n<1)

P 2 2
PV 1 = C

T1

V Analogies : Carnot cycle is the most perfect cycle similar to the ideal gas. In practice, there are no ideal gases only real gases. Similarly the Carnot cycle is difficult to achieve in thermodynamic devices such as engines, turbines & refrigerators. Stimulating questions : In a heat engine, if different gases (H2, O2, N2, Air, He) were used, how would the performance change? New Ideas or concepts :Analysis of the Carnot cycle ACADEMIC YEAR 2010