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NASA
TT F-15,675
-~
1.
,
R e p c r i No.
2. Covemm.nt A c c ~ s s i o n No.
3. R O C I ~ I O Catalog No. ~S
NASA
5.
Report
Don
IN THE USSR
?
A d h o t s.
July 1974
I
11 1. Contract or Gront NO.
I113.
NsW-2481 A
Translation
Addross
ii
Translation of "Osvoyeniye Kosmicheskogo Prostranstva v S S S e t 1 Nauka Press, Moscow, 1974, 224 pp. !
The c o l l e c t i c n c o n t a l n s TASS reports and a r t i c l e s by l e a d i n g s c i e n t i s t s p r i n t e d d u r i n g 1972, showing t h e achievements of tile S o v i e t Union i n t h e c o n q u e s t of o u t e r s p a c e . The c o l l e c t i o n r e f l e c t s t h c major phases of s p a c e r e s e a r c h . See t a b l e of' c o n t e n s s for s u b j e c t matter of t h e various a r t i c l e s .
16
Abrtroct
t
I
I
7 18.
Dirtribuf.on S*atoment
/-i^l,~s~l.
11-
Unclassified
Unclassified
NASA-HQ
ANNOTATION
Editor-in-Chief G. S. Narimanov, Dr. of Physical and Mathematical Sciences The collection contains TASS reports and articles by leading scientists printed in the Central Press during 1972, showing the achievements of the Soviet Union in the conquest of outer s2ace. The w i n phases of space research are reflected in the collection: successful flights of Luna-20 and Venera-8 space stations, launches of Kosmos, Meteor, blolniya spacecraft and two new Prognoz scientific stations. There is material on international coopera-
tion artificial earth satellite launchings in the Interkosmos series and the French small independent satellite (SIS), and also work on the preparation of the joint flight of the Soyuz and Apollo manned spacecraft.
ii
PREFACE
G. S . Narimanov, Dr. of Physical and Mathematical Sciences
--
this was the way in which TASS reported the launching Each
new launch and each new step to the stars convince us of the truth
of these words.
Only two satellites were launched into near-earth orbit in 1957. In 1972, our country celebrated the 15th anniversary of the
day on which the first artificial earth satellite was launched. By 1973, the number of satellites in the Kosmos series alone was
5 4 2 , apart from this there are also Polet, Zond, Electron, Molniya,
...
Let us simply state that much of
There is no need to give a chronicle here of all the events occurring over the past years.
which man could not even have dreamed has already taken place. In an amazingly short space of time satellites, spacecraft and automatic interFlanetary stations have provided unique scientific matertal and led to many outstanding discoveries. The amount of scientific and tqchnical problems to be solved by space technology increases yearly. Astronautics has entered intc man's everyday life, facilitates long-distance communications, and contributes to air navigation and navigation at sea. Satellite
iii
t e l e v i s i o n and i n f r a r e d images o f t h e e a r t h f o r d a i l y a n a l y s i s o f t h e planetary d i s t r i b u t i o n of cloud cover. Obviously, t h e n e x t f e w y z a r s w i l l be a p e r i o d f o r t h e i n t e n s i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f "economic" and manned o r b i t a l r e s e a r c h stations. The s p h e r e of i n t e r e s t of a s t r o n a u t i c s w i l l n o t o n l y b e
O f c o u r s e , t h e moon w i l l n o t be f o r g o t t e n .
n e a r - e a r t h space.
It
w i l l be e x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t t o s e t up on t h e moon a p e r m a n e n t l y
astronautics i s i n t e r e s t e d i n p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r
system.
On J u l y 2 2 : t h e a u t o m a t i c i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n Venera-8
o u t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h programs. N a t u r a l l y , t h e f u r t h e r c o n q u e s t of o u t e r s p a c e e n t a i l s t h e s o l u t i o n of a number of d i f f i c u l t t e c h n i c a l , m e d i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l problems. The f u r t h e r advance o f man i n t o s p a c e w i l l depend mainly T h i s y e a r two Prognoz s c i e n t i f i c s t a t i o n s
on how t h e y a r e s o l v e d ,
iv
have been launched t o s t u d y s o l a r a c t i v i t y and i t s e f f e c t on t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium and t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere. A r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s I n t e r k o s m o s - 6 , Interkosmos-7 and Interkosmos-8 were launched i n t h e Interkosmos program w i t h socialist countries. During t h e p a s t y e a r , c o o p e r a t i o n w i t h
t h e S o v i e t Union.
I n 1 9 7 2 a t r e a t y was concluded between t h e USSR and t h e USA on c o o p e r a t i o n i n r e s e a r c h and t h e u s e o f o u t e r s p a c e f o r f r i e n d l y purposes. I n t h e l i g h t of t h i s document, a number o f m e e t i n g s
o f s u b j e c t and s y s t e m a t i c c h o i c e of m a t e r i a l make t h e c o l l e c t i o n
u s e f u l n o t o n l y f o r s p e c i a l i s t s and s c i e n t i s t s , b u t f o r a l l t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d i n space r e s e a r c h .
1 The h e a d i n g s of newspaper m a t e r i a l a r e somewhat changed i n accordance w i t h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f book p u b l i c a t i o n s . P a r t of t h e t e x t of a r t i c l e s and some drawings have been o m i t t e d due t o t h e l i m i t e d volume o f t h e book: a number o f photographs a r e t a k e n from t h e TASS p i c t o r i a l review.
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ii iii
INTRODUCTION Conquest of Space: A New Phase Orbits o f Progress The Future of Orbital Stations The Starry Spring Space and Geology The Beginning of the Starry Way IAF Awards t o Soviet Space Researchers In the Name of A5tronautics Pioneers To Space Explorers The Tsiolkovskiy Gold Medal Discovery by Astronauts and Scientists
1 11 16
20
25
38
42 43 44 45 46
I SENTINELS OF SCIENCE Satellites Serve Mankind The Kosmos Program in Action Meeting Plasma Storms Magnetic Measurement in Space 500! The Satellite I s the Hero of the Day Astronomy in Invisible Rays X-Ray Astronomy Is Ten Years Old Prospects for Extra-Atmospheric Astronomic Research A TASS Report on the Prognoz Flight ASolarPatrol Two Prognoz Automatic Stations in Joint Flight
.................. ................ ................... ............... ......... ................ .............. .... ............ ....................... .......
vi
50
56 62 67 70 73 76 94
Page A Prognoz Relay Race Launches of Satellites in the Kosmos Series During 1972
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..
120 122
II SATELLITES IN THE NATIONAL ECONOMY Meteor Satellites Keep Watch The "Vertical" Searches for the Earth The Next Communication Session Space Meteorologists Earth from Space A TASS Report: The Moli-.iya-l and SIS in Space A TASS Report on the Moiniya-1 Launches of Satellites of the Meteor Series During 1972 Launches o f Satellites of the Molniya Series During 1972
I11 LUNAR RESEARCH A Glorious Victory in Space Four Months in Near-Moon Orbit The Face of the Moon Five Months in Flight The Moon in the Objective A Year in Near-Moon Orbit A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Automatic Station in Flight A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Station in Near-Moon Orbit A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Automatic Station Has Made a Soft Landing on the Moon A Landing in the Lunar Highlands The Path to the Lunar Highlands A TASS Report: A Spacecraft Returns Drilling in the Highland Region Automatic Control Units Storm the Moon Secrets of Lunar Soil Space Robots
................ ............... .................... ................... ................. ................. .. ... .............. .............. .............. ............ .............. ........... ................... ........................
151 155 156 159 160 162 164 164 165 167 170 174 176 180 185 189
vii
Page
A
Completed! Drilling in the Lunar Highlands A Mirror of Earth When the Drill Was Opened To Scientists. Designers. Engineers. Technicians. Workers and All the Teams and Organizations Who Helped to Create the Luna-20 Automatic Station Which Brought 'jack to Earth Lunar Soil Samples To the Central Cormittee of the Conmunist Party of the Soviet Union. the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. and the Council of Ministers of the bSSR The Importance of Flights to Far Worlds Discovering the Secrets of the Universe Future Lunar Automatic Control Units Lunar Highland Soil A Window into the Moon's Depth "Lunitel' Is Being Made on Earth Man's Space Hands
IV
. RESEARCH
A RESEARCH INTO VENUS A New Success of Soviet Astronautics A TASS Report: The Venera-8 on Route The Amazing World of Venus A TASS Report: Venera-8 on Venus! . The Earth and Venus . Dissimilar Sisters Towards Venus for the Sake of Earth A Secret Is Revealed The Birth of Mineralogy on Venus Venera-8 Was Born Here To Scientists, Designers. Engineers. Technicians. Workers and All Teams and Organizations Participating in the Construction. Launch. Flight Control and Landing of the Venera-8 Automatic Interplanetary Station viii
283
Page To the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. and the Council of Ministers of the USSR Venera-8: The Results of the Space Flight Riddles of the Planets
......... ...................
The Planet Tells Its Story Reconnaissance of the Magnetic Field From Orbits Around Mars Science of Life Conversions of a Signal The Earth Wheels of Martian Automatic Control Units The Mars-2 and Mars-3 in Flight Three Months in Orbit A Plasma Experiment in Mars Orbit Mars before and after a Storm A Radio TeZsscope in Orbit around Mars Mars. Far and Near A TASS Report: The Program Has Been Accomplished Soviet Automatic Control Units Investigate Mars The Face of the Red Planet
.... .............. ................... ............. ............... ........... ..................... ..... ...... ................. ............ ........
308 315 318 320 324 328 332 335 335 339 345 349 358 361 372
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION The llInterkosmosll Program in Action A TASS Report: The Interkosmos-6 in Flight A New Envoy of Friendship The Interkosmos-6 in Flight According to the "Inter osmos" Program The Interkosmos-6: The Flight Is Over. the Experiment Continues A TASS Report: Interkosmos-7 A Solar Watch in Orbit The Scientific Watch of the Satellite of Friendship
v.
..
................. ................
.. ..
.. ..
..
Page The Interkosmos-8 Investigates the Ionosphere Research in the "Interkosmostt Program An Envoy of Friendship The USSR and France: A Broadening of Space Cooperation "Polar Morning" Fruitful Cooperation The Soviet Union and France: Future Cooperation Lunar Soil for French Scientists A Agreement between the USSR and the USA on Cooperation n in the Research and Use of Outer Space for Friendly Purposes . Space . The Arena for Cooperation The Soyuz and Apollo Joint Flight Project A Meeting between Soviet and American Researchers . SOYUZ . Apollo A Joint Conference Tests on Models An Exchange of Lunar Soil A Search in Space Space Cartography A Agreement Is Signed n The Plans of Indian Scientists Lunar Soil Samples Are Handed Over Lunar Soil Is Being Examined For Scientific Work NewsItem An Agreement Is Ratified Credentials Are Deposited At an Intersputnik Session A Convention Signing Credentials Are Deposited The Future Paths of Astronautics REFERENCES
.......
407 409 412 414 418 419 420 421 421 424 429 433 434 440 440 441 441 447 447 448 449 449 450 450 451 451 453 453 454 455 464
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X
INTRODUCTION
Conquest of Space: A New Phase TASS "Pravda" , April 13, ? 972 . A Grand Rally Dedicated to Astronautics Day On April 12, a grand rally was held in the Kremlin dedicated to Astronautics Day. Among those at the rally to mark the 11th
/5*
anniversary of Yuri Gagarin's flight were workers, sLientists, designers, engineers dealing with astronautic problems, producers of space equipment, representatives of party, Soviet and MOSCOW'S public organizations, and troops of the Moscow garrison. Heads of
diplomatic representatives accredited in the USSR, ana Soviet and foreign journalists were present.
V. Andrapov, P. N. Demichev,
__
~~~~
~~
M. V. Keldysh's Speech
This year we celebrate Astronautics Day
OR
the eve of a
famous date, the 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR. Fifty years have passed since Lenin conceived the idea of creating the first multi-national state of workers and peasants in the world. During this pariod, the Soviet Union has made progress an agricultural, industrially-
backward country has been transformed into a powerful industrial power capable of changing man's most daring dreams into reality. This is clearly borne out by the great achievements of Soviet astronautics. In a speech given by the Secretary General of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet h i o n , Leocid Il'ich Brezhnev, a t a pre-election meeting of voters at the Baumpn electoral district
ill
/6
i n t e r e s t of t h e S o v i e t p e o p l e and mankind as a whole. I t has become a t r a d i t i o n on A p r i l 1 2 of each y e a r on A s t r o n a u t i c s Day, t o review our c o u n t r y ' s achievements i n s p a c e . Last y e a r was marked by t h e g r e a t s u c c e s s e s i n a l l t y p e s of s p a c e research. The u s e
0:
f o r n a t i o n a l economic r e q u i r e m e n t s .
and t e l e v i s i o n communications systems a r c b e i n g improved and t h i s l e a d s t o s y s t e m a t i c r e s e a r c h from s p a c c into meteorology and o t h e r s p h e r e s of knowledge l i n k e d w i t h t h e s t u d y and r a t i o n a l u s e of the n a t u r a l envirciment.
The g r e a t e s t achievement l a s t y e a r was t h e b u i l d i n g of t h e
Georgiy Timofeyevich D o b r o v o l ' s k i y , V l a d i s l a v Nikolayevich Volkov and V i k t o r Ivanovich P a t s a y e v , worked f o r 24 days. The S o v i e t
people and th+d world a s a whole was g r i e v e d t o h e a r of t h e unexpected death of t h e a s t r o n a u t s , a f t e r s u c c e s s f u l l y c a r r y i n g a u t t h e f l i g h t program,when r e t u r n i n g t o e a r t h i n t h e Soyuz-11 t r a n s p o r t s p a c e c r a f t , when one o f t h e components i n t h e p r e s s u r e r e g u l a t e d systerr. f a i l e d . Thrce h e r o i c S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t s d e d i c a t e d t h e i r
i n t h e development of a s t r o n a u t i c s .
It
was t h e n z t u r a l r e s u l t of s u c c e s s i v e and s y s r e m a t i c i m p l m e n t a t i o n
of o u r c o u n t r y ' s s p a c e program.
been conducted f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s c r e a t i n g such s t a t i o n s . Tmpoitant s p a c e e x p e r i n e n t s have
--
t h e y a r e stages r e q u i r e d f o r
V.
! . h a t a l o v , A. IS
of t h e s t a t i o n i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 Lc:bic m e t e r s ; it i s a b o u t 20
m e t e r s i n l e n g t h ; and t h e weight of t h e o r b i t a l complex i s more t h a n 2s t o n s . T h i s allowed c o m f o r t a b l e c o n d i t i o x f o r t h ? crew
cises.
This
compartment contain:
equipment f o r c o n t r o l l i n g t h e s t a t i o n , a J i f e
ment f o r o u r c o u n t r y and marks t h e beginning o f a new s t s g e i n t h e conquest of o u t e r space. F l i g h t s of S o v i e t s p a c e c r a f t t o t h e moon and p l a n e t s showed t h a t a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l u n i t s have u n l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s . They
/7
on the moon's surface by the Lunokhod-1 which allowed us to determine the general type of iock making up the surface of a typical lunar *'sea", and investiga.ce the nature of the extent of small craters and stones. In September of last year, a new artificial
- - a re-entry
tG
earth
rock samples from the mountainous region of the moon's surface. This solved the difficult scientific and technical problem of landing an automatic control unit on the moon's almost inaccessible continental region. The sample of lunar soil brought back to earth is now undergoing detailed research.
significantly from lunar samples studied earlier, both in outward appearance and in minerological composition.
The d e l i v e r y of scil from thc continental region is an impor-
tant step in the successive program of research into the moon's substance and opens up great possibilities for studying old sections o f the lunar surface where unique rocks rich In aluminum
ancient history, where primary rocks were changed during later evolution or disappeared.
I shall describe our success in studying planets of the solar
matic station into a specific Mars orbit and landing it on its surface where the atmosphere is extremely rarified are very complex problems, the solution of which depends on perfecting the on-board complex,and the efficient working of ground command and measurenent equipment. Theye problems were solved successfully, and both
Mars-2 and Mars-3 became artificial Mars satellites. The first soft landing in history was made on the surface of this planet. Mars-2 and Mars-3 satellites orbited Mars for five months transmitting a great volume of information on the physical features of the planet and outer space surrounding it. Our country achieved outstanding results in investigating Venus. Recently, the Venera-b automatic station was launched
It will continue research which will allow us to
toward Venus.
have a better understanding of this planet's complex nature. Last year new important steps were made to develop the international coopeiation of the Soviet Union in studying and conquering outer space for peaceful means. Interkosmos-5 and - 6 satellites, geophysical and meteorological rockets of the cooperation program of socialist countries, the
Oreol satellite and a small automatic satellite, equipment on board the Mars-3 Soviet interplanetary station in the cooperation program with France,
--
fully developing joint work in space. The Soviet Union allows foreign scientists to take part in investigating samples of lunar soil brought back to earth by Soviet automatic stations. Analysis of these samples is being done by laboratories in Hungary, Czechoslovakia, France and the USA, apart from Soviet laboratories. An agreement for creating an international system and organization of space communications "Intersputnik", signed in Moscow in November 1971, will be of great practical importance for space use. An agreement reached between the Academy of Sciences of the
USSR and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the
USA
/8
American scientists in studying outer space, the moon and planets, the natural medium, space meteorology and also space biology and medicine.
Ways are being found for reaching an agreement in
carrying out work in creating joint methods for the rendezvous docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft and stations.
Soviet
space researchers are very grateful to our Communist Party and the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union for its constant attention. They will work
even harder to achieve their aim for the benefit of our people and in the interest of the whole of mankind.
A
Speech by A. A. Leonov From an historical point of view, the time for carrying out
practical astronautics is short; nevertheless, space research has entered our lives and has become an important branch of human activity. The conquest of space is one of the most characteristic features of the scientific and technical revolution which is taking place. Only 108 minutes were required for Vostok manned by Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin on April 12, 1961 to orbit our b l u e planet. This not only showed a speed unheard of at this time, but was also man's first step into the boundless starry ocean. Allow me, cn behalf 'of space pilots, to congratulate all
On
those who built the complex spacecraft and gave them flight.
this Astronautics Day may I wish new success in fulfilling the wide
program of the conquest of space laid down by the 24th Congress of Communist Party of the Soviet Union. The great creative force o f domestic science, the economic power of this socialist country is reflected in our victory in
the peaceful conquest of space as in a mirror,and confirms the inexhaustible spiritual potential of the Soviet people. The Soviet outer space research program includes the use of manned and automatic facilities. The most important part in this program is creating manned long-term orbital stations for scientific and national economic use. The Soviet Salyut station was the first of such stations. Its crew consisting of Georgiy Timofeyevich Dobrovol'skiy, Vladislav Nikolayevich Volkov, and Viktor Ivanovich Patsayev, worked fruitfully for 24 days in space. All their knowledge, experience and
will were concentrated so that each hour of the flighL brought maximum benefits, and laid down a reliable basis for the future of Soviet astronautics. Orbital stations open up wide possibilities for mankind. the same time, we are aware of the difficulties of a prolonged stay in space and that the exploration and conquest of space At
--
this new unknown world - - is unthinkable without efforts, great knowledge, courage and will. People will never forget the names
of those astronaut heroes who gave their life to the great cause
of space conquest. Whatever trials and dangers await us, they cannot retain man's ardor to disccver the secret of the universe. Astronautics is entering a new phase of its development, which entails prolonged space flight, and long stays on board spacecraft. Space pilots are preparing for new space flights which require great theoretical knowledge, high moral and political and
9
/9
W can u n d e r s t a n d t h i s and a r e e
--
t h e g l o r i o u s 5 0 t h a n n i v e r s a r y of t h e S o v i e t Union.
W are e
proud of t h e f a c t t h a t V l a d i m i r I l ' i c h Lenin was i t s c r e a t o r and t h a t t h e f i r s t s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r y i n t h e world became t h e l a n d of astronautics. class. Our v i c t o r i e s owe r u c h t o t h e g l o r i o u s working
assemble s a t e l l i t e s , i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s and s p a c e c r a f t .
i t s production.
class!
May I g i v e m h e a r t f e l t t h a n k s t o t h e working y
of t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union and t h e S o v i e t Government f o r i t s h i g h a p p r a i s a l of o u r work and we a s s u r e them t h a t we a r e r e a d y t o c a r r y o u t m y t a s k of t h e Communist P a r t y and i t s L e n i n i s t C e n t r a l Committee. Those p r e s e n t a c c e p t w i t h g r e a t e n t h u s i a s m
-&
le l e t t e r of wel-
come t o t h e C e n t r a l Committee of t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e Presidium of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h z USSR and t h e Council o f M i n i s t e r s of t h e USSR.
10
Orbits of Pronress
B. N. Petrov
hero of Socialist Labor, academician and secretary of the Mechanics and Processes Department of the Administration of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. In "Trudtt, April 12, 1972.
A
The eleven years since the triumphal flight of Yuri Alekseyevich Gagarin were filled by strenuous and productive labor of Soviet space researchers. Requirements of the national economy,
science and technical progress determine our space program, which is calculated for many years ahead.
A large range
space flight.
tions, three groups of problems which researchers must confront. Firstly, the fundamental research of the earth, the universe, and heavenly bodies in the solar system. The second
--
is the use of
all those resources which help to open up outer space for the national economy. Finally, the third task is the comprehensive
improvement of rocket and space technology, without which further progress in this field is impossible. The development of the country's space program is, by no means, simple. One must correctly determine the proportions, the ratio This
proportion can change significantly over the years, and a certain tendency can be noticed here. It is that the amount of research
11
Another important problem when developing the space program is the optimum solution of the question: Which work in space should be done automatically and which should be done by man equipped with automatic equipment and computers. Guided by the instructions of our party's Central Committee, Soviet scientists have developed a wide program of long-term work in space research and its use for national economic requirements.
/10
This is a method for solving the radical fundamental problems of astronautics, and the basic problems of science and technology. When conducting research into the conquest of space, Soviet scientists devote much attexltic?nto the use of various complex automatic controlled units. We shall give a few examples showing
the successes achieved by aeronautics,thanks to the use of automatic vehicles and stations. Outstanding research into the atmosphere of Venus belongs to the field of scientific experiments. This work received the highest award, the Lenin Prize. Instruments of numerous automatic
vehicles are studying the moon and Mars, outer space and the Sun, and the earth itself. The delivery of lunar soil to earth by auto-
matic vehicles, a landing on Venus and Mars, and the unparalleled feat of Lunokhod-1 are achievements in space technology which startled the world. Fruitful work has been done for ten years in the Kosmos program. Even today one can feel the real effect from using these For example, in 1963 work was started or1 producing
vehicles.
satellite-synopticmeteorologists' systems was done i Kosmos Nos. 14, 25, n 122, 144, 156, 184. In 1969 the Meteor, a reliable operational Since then,
Meteors have carried out continuous observation above the planet. New satellites replace those which have outlived their time. Eleven such vehicles have been launched and are transmitting valuable weather information on the whole planet to the Hydrometeorological Center of the USSR. Soviet Meteor and American Essa weather satellites have detected the origin of such powerful hurricanes as Betsy, Esther, and typhoons Nancy, and Pamela. Inhabitants of coastal areas were
warned or their ipproach in good time,and this significantly reduced the amount of destruction and human casualties caused by them. Automatic reconnaissance vehicles are also very effective in far space when investigating other planets and probing the limitless space of the universe. American specialists also make great use of automatic vehicles
in near-ear:% space and when studying neighboring planets. American weather and communications satellites are now in orbit, and the USA has launched spacecraft to Venus and Mars. This year, the
first reconnaissance vehicle was launched From Cape Kennedy towards Jupiter
However, Soviet and American specialists have significantly different approaches to manned space research flights. After
13
,..*
Gagarin's Vostok was launched, and after Jchn Glenn's flight, both countrres were faced with the problem: How much further nust the
manned flights' program be developed,md what problems must man solve in space? Soviet scientists came to the conclusion that man must also work in near-earth orbits to give the greatest returns to science and the national economy. Therefore, Vostok, Voskhod and the
improved Soyuz spacecraft-laborztory were used. A number of independent scientific and applied problems were solved during their flights. Simultaneously, technical questions were studied for In our opinion, man can
work for the longest time and most fruitfully in space from such stations as these. The production of long-term orbital stations is the general trend in the Soviet program of manned flights. This technique must become the decisive means for developing near-earth space. This trend and strategy in manned space flights is being carried out in our country consistently and systematically. A result of this was the launch of the Salyut, the first longterm orbital station. On April 24 of last year, astronauts
i
V. A. Shatalov,
A.
S . Yeliseyev and
N. N, Rukavishnikov in Soyuz-10
carried out a series qf experiments in a joint flight with the Salyut station. A number of new docking devices were tested. On June 7, 1971, astronauts from the Soyuz-11 arrived on Salyut, The first manned long-term orbital satellite began to function. 14 Its heroic crew, G. T. Dobrovol'skiy, V. N. Volkov and
V. I . P a t s e y c v c a r r i e d o u t a f l i g h t which was u n p a r a l l e l e d i n
d u r a t i o n , and a l a r g e number of s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l e x p e r i ments was conducted. S o v i e t s p e c i a l i s t s a r e c o n t i n u i n g work i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n , Following t h e f i r s t e x p e r i m e n t a l l o n g - t e r m o r b i t a l l a b o r a t o r y i n n e a r - e a r t h o r b i t s , new ones a r e a p p e a r i n g . T h e i r crews w i l l be
a b l e t o s o l v e a wider r a n g e of s c i e n t i f i c acd n a t i o n a l economic problems. American s p e c i a l i s t s have chosen a c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t The aim of t h e i r program i s a
i s t e n t i m e s c h e a p e r t h a n a manned e x p e d i t i o n t o t h e moon.
What of space i n t h e f u t u r e ?
Six a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s
t t e atmosphere and a d j a c e n t s p a c e ,
t i f i c r e s u l t s have been o b t a i n e d .
A number o f i m p o r t a n t s c i e n T h i s work c a n be s i g i i i f i c a n t l y
France's p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
experiments
and
in
t h e Oreol
satel-
the
"SIS" by a S o v i e t r o c k e t and.
space meteorology a r e
development of c o o p e r a t i o n i n
o n l y t h e f i r s t j o i n t s t e p s of t h e two
c o u n t r i e s i n s p a c e r e s e a r c h and t h e u s e of i t ,
This is a good
In r e c e n t y e a r s , t h e complex u s e o f d i f f e r e n t equipment
a l r e a d y makes i t p o s s i b l e f o r s p a c e t o be one of t h e n o s t p r o mising a r e a s cf s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h and t h e e f f e c t i v e s o l u t i o n of n a t i o n a l economic problems. T h i s i s t h e main aim of t h e S o v i e t
i
The F u t u r e o f O r b i t a l S t a t i o n s
K . P. F e o k t i s t o v
P r o f e s s o r , h e r o of t h e S o v i e t Union, s p a c e p i l o t of t h e USSR, "Sovetskaya Rossiya", A p r i l 1 2 , 1 9 7 2 .
D e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d a s a
result of this research is still not complete, but one can say with certainty that this flight played an important part in the conquest of outer space and development of space technology. One of the main tasks of the Salyut was the comprehensive check of the station's serviceability, equipment, and systems for providing space flight in actual conditions. pletely accomplished.
So that these results become more clear,I will remind you of
The station
contains approximately 2 , 0 0 0 instruments, units and components (ir; is true that many of these are identical, but there are more than several hundreds of different instruments). There are approxi-
electric wires is hundreds of kilometers. The whole complex equipment worked continuously. This means that when producing the Salyut it was possible to find relatively simple and reliable solutions for all station systems and units. All this was done, astheysay,at the first attempt: indeed, the Salyut is the prototype of the orbital laboratory. The second problem is no less important. The prospects for
the further development and the construction o f orbital stations, to a great ertent, depend on how long a man can remain in weightlessness. In fact, if it happens that man cannot remain long in
17
weightlessness, one must look for new solutions for the prolonged functioning of an orbital station. be done in two ways. The first is creating artificial gravity in orbital stations. At present, we can only see the solution of this problem by the rotation of the spacecraft. But i f the whole station rotates, it It is possible that this can
observe the surface of the earth and carry out work in weightlessness conditions. Consequectiy, the station's main work compartOne
ments must be stationary, and the living nodule must rotate. can quickly see the technical difficulties which occur when developing orbital stations with artificial gravity.
It is clear
that they will cost much more and be heavier than stations without artificial gravity. The second method is to produce "visited" orbital stations which work automatically. The crew of a "visited" station only
to
estab-
/13
Information obtained during this prolonged flight showed that astronsuts contended with weightlePsness conditions completely satisfactorily. The Salyut carried out research in astrophysics, medicine and biology, and technology. A series of experiments was conducted for the national economy. Much of the research carried out gave new results. At the same time, an incidental result was obtained not envisaged by the program. Until then, astronauts had not been
Of
course, the complication is not in the fact that the overall weight
of the Salyut's equipment is reckoned in tons, but in tens of
kilograms.
the crew must deal is tco great. At the same time, experience showed that astronauts had no sense of time when carrying out research. course, considerably complicated the work. nave aderstoad this by no means Weightlessness, of It is good that we
activity in space through the experience of the Salyut flight. Of course, it does not follow that in the future one must ignore the multi-purpose role of orbital stations. The tra of thorough research of our planet and the world surrounding us by using manned spacecraft is only begiming. Also insufficient is still known on whether we can go over to using highly-specialized oT4ital stations. The wider the front of research, the greater
19
I am convinced that a reliable means of increasing the equipment efficiency of an orbital station is the further automation of the most frequently repeated operations and station control processes or' its equipment and scientific instruments. Then, the crew will be able to devote more time to the main task scientific research and observations. The Starry Spring
A. Yeliseyev
--
Delighted by
Yuri Gagarin's feat, and our scientific and technical achievements, at that time we understood this event more with our heart than mind.
OUI
Only later did we realize that the spring of 1961 was the here, the era of man's
turning point in the history of the earth: flights into outer space had begun.
One year ago we celebrated the 10th anniversary of that era. In the tradition of celebrations we remembered past launches of Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz, flights of automatic probes to the moon and distant planets, and numerous experiments "in the region" of
20
are amazed by how much has been done during the past ten years, but mainly by the speed at which astronautics has progressed. In fact, only a year has passed and how many events have taken place in space! Scarcely had the country celebrated Astro-
nautics Day when a new powerful launch vehicle put the first longterm manned scientific spaceship Salyut into orbit. My friends and i became acquainted with this unique orbital laboratory during the preparation period for the flight on the Soyuz-10. We understood its equipment well; nevertheless, the sight of the station in space made a deep impression upon us. Even the outward appear-
ance of Salyut amazed us by its size, the amount of antennas, and the abundance of instruments and equipment of every kind. Georgiy
Dobrovol'skiy, Vladislav Volkov and Viktor Patsayevspent more than three weeks in space on board this station carrying out a program
Lunokhod-1 carried out investigation of the moon's surface for more than ten months. The Luna-19 automatic station collected much
interesting information on our planet's natural satellite when in near-moon orbit. Finally, Luna-20 which recently returned,brought
back to earth samples of soil from the almost inaccessible mountainous region of the moon. great success: Last year "long-range" astronautics had
became n a t u r a l s a t e l l i t e s o f i t .
.
Even i n l a u n c h e s d u r i n g t h e p a s t y e a r , one can see t h a t t h e
development of s p a c e technology today goes i n two main d i r e c t i o n s . One of them i s t h e u s e o f manned s p a c e c r a f t and o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s , t h e i n c r e a s e of r e s e a r c h c a p a b i l i t i e s and use of unmanned a u t o m a t i c vehicles. advantages. Both t h e s e and o t h e r methods have t h e i r d o u b t l e s s The problem i s t o d e c i d e upon t h e c o r r e c t b a l a n c e i n
r e s e a r c h i n o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s o r manned f l i g h t s t o t h e p l a n e t s o f
Many com-
Ways o f s o l v i n g
t h o s e v e r y c o n d i t i o n s which a r e t o be s t u d i e d by t h e l a u n c h .
22
In retrospect, I can say that progrsms of these flights, in essence, are a chain of final "approximations" for solving the problem, such as the creation of the Soyuz-Salyut. The first "approximations" were made in the Kosmos series of satellites, which were automatically docked in orbit. Just as today, the
components of future manned spacecraft, control and temperature control system, communications and much more are developed in many automatic vehicles. When automatic stations go into orbit, we know that they are bringing us nearer to the fulfillment of our cherished aim - - manned flights to distant planets. The achievements of Soviet astronautics are well-known. Behind them is theparty work, the government, the joint effort of the whole nation, and various branches of the national economy. When one thinks of the strategy behind our triumphs, one must unwittingly come to the conclusion that the success is the close cooperation of science and practice with which our whole space program was carried out. Designers of space systems are always
/15
trying to use the latest results of scientific research in their projects. In their turn, problems which frequently confront us
aregiven concrete expressicn in scientific investigation, and by the same token, make the solution of practical problems possible. Most of all, developers in space technology have directly
23
participated in all types of tests, launch preparation and have even been into space in order to test in practice the principles of proposals they made. Many technical solutions were suggested
by engineers, technicians and workers of space institutes, testers, cosmodrome workers and, of course, space pilots. This fruitful
exchange of opinion and close cooperation have considerably reduced the time for solving the most complex problems. Behind us are eleven years of manned flight, and hundreds of unmanned vehicle launches. first Vostok From those imFetuous 108 minutes of the
term orbital staiions, automatic vehicles have landed on the moon, Venus and Mars, Molniya satellites have become an indispensable means of communication,and Meteor satellites carry out space reconnaissance of the weather. Space has become an arena for international cooperation. Interkosmos satellites have been launched and taken into orbit scientific equipment produced by the joint efforts of specialists of socialist countries. A whole series of joint experiments was conducted with French researchers. Unfortunately, the past few years have not only seen successes. There have been the premature deaths of such outstanding scientists as academicians S.
D.
Six
Ceorgiy Dobrovol'skiy, Vladislav Volkov, Viktor Patsayev died when carrying out space duties, as did Pave1 Belayev. But they left
24
behind them not only the grief of loss. their dreams, plans and duties.
They bequeathed to us
flights. Man will become an equal master not only on earth but in space. With each new step forward people will remember with grati-
tude the names of pioneers who opened up the spring of the space age to mankind. Their heroism, talent and devotion to the cause
inspires us to new conquests in the name o f our people, country and great Leninist party.
Sidorenko
Academician, Minister Df Geology of the USSR. "Nauka i zhizn'", No, 5, 1972. Probably, we have not fully realized that mankind has entered a new space age of h i s own development. All research work into neighboring planets and interplanetary space, now even more both directly and indirectly, will affect the deve,opment of various sciences and man's economic activity. That is why the 24th Con-
gress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, in its directives promised, during the new five-year period, to "carry out scientific
work i n space to develop long-range telephone and telegraph com-
/16
munication, television, meteorological forecasting and study of natural resources, geographic research and
t!,e
solution of other
national economic problems by using satellites, automatic and manned vehicles and t o continue fundamental scientific research
25
In this way,
space research is being put to direct practical use. For a long time, geology has traced the development of astronomy, and has used coslnogonic hypotheses. This was needed to
learning of their author, but also the unity between geology and astronautics, without which it is impossible to discover the universe. In this article we shall w t deal with the valueof geology or developing astronautics.
It is quite understandable that
without the corresponding level of development of science and technology (in both cases geology plays an important role), it would be impossible for man to go into space and carry out there systematic, ever-increasing research. Let us simply remember
t?xt
geological methods are being used more widely when researching into other bodies of the universe: geophysical and aerogeological observations from space; the drilling of lunar soil and the geological study of lunar rock; geomorphological, geophysical and geochemical research i n t o t h e lunar surface by using automatic vchicles, including the most perfected of these, the Lunokhod-1; and directly by man, compiling "geological" maps of the moon, etc.
26
The r o l e of g e o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s i n d i s c o v e r i n g t h e u n i v e r s e
w i l l i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e developmcnt of s p a c e r e s e a r c h .
Without
g e o l o g i c a l knowledge it i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r p r e t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e u n i v e r s e which w i l l be o b t a i n e d by s p a c e r e s e a r c h .
A t t h e same
time, s t u d y o f o u t e r s p a c e and t h e p l m e t s w i l l h e l p u s t o u n d e r s t a n d b e t t e r g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e deep i n s i d e t h e earth. Therefore, it is advisable t o discuss t h e possible l i n k s between a s t r o n a u t i c s work and t h e whole r a n g e o f r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t by g e o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e methods. From t h e moment when t h e f i r s t a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e was launched i n 1957, i t became c l e a r t h a t s p a c e f l i g h t would open up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e e a r t h whole, t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t as a planet as a
--
t h e primary s o u r c e of a l l o r i g i n a l
--
man's h a b i t -
a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s which i s
n e t h o d s a r e a c q u i r i n g mote importance f o r geology i t s e l f . G e o l o g i s t s have been t r a i n e d t o u s e new i n f o r m a t i o n on o u r p l a n e t o b t a i n e d by s p a c e r e s e a r c h by many y e a r s e x p e r i e n c e o f aerog e o l o g i c a l work. The g r e a t v a l u e P a e r i a l photographs i n geo-
l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i s w e l l known.
27
Aerogeological methods have quickly been recognized since they opened up new ways of developing geology. Aerial photographs gave the geologist a wide field for research, that is, the ability to see simultaneously a relatively large area and trace the shape, dimensions and directions in which individual geological bodies (groups of rock strata, blocks of magnetic rock, etc,) run and structural forms (folded structures, defects in the earth's crust), and also their relation to each other. limiting nature of aerial methods. A-, aerial photograph can cover an area of not more than
4 0 0 - 7 0 0 km.
these limits. Astronautics, in principal, opens new possibilities for studying the planet. Photographs taken from space show the greatest geographical and geological features of the earth. The scale of these photo-
graphs is practically unlimited,and an area of 30-50,000 square kilometers and above can be covered simultaneously by one photograph by using a single tec,hnique. Apart from this large cover, photographs from space have new information which c a n m i be obtained on the ground or by ground research. We are talking of the integration effect of individual
detail in the area's composition, and the separate sections of large structural elements, thanks to which the latter appear in the complete picture. It appears that the higher the observation
The s c i e n t i f i c
b a s e s of t h i s phenomenon have s t i l l n o t been e x p l a i n e d . I n t h i s way, r e s e a r c h from s p a c e c r a f t n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e s t h e p o t e n t i a l of aerogeology, b u t a l s o opens up new d i r e c t i o n s f o r studying t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t .
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, t h i s department
--
s p a c e geology.
First experiments
--
t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s from m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
a r t i f i c i a l e z r t h s a t e l l i t e s and i n d i v i d u a l p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n by s p a c e p i l o t s from Soyuz-3, Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-8,have prov i d e d g e o l o g i s t s w i t h much i n t e r e s t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and have shown t h e g r e a t p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g t h e g e o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e of
the earth's crust.
T e l e v i s i o n photographs and photographs o b t a i n e d from s p a c e c r a f t make it p o s s i b l e t o r e c o g n i z e and e x p l a i n s t r u c t u r a l elements which were n o t determined e a r l i e r , e v e n d u r i n g v e r y a c c u r a t e and qualified geological research. The f i r s t m a t e r i a l f o r s t u d y i n g
c o m p o s i t i o n , age and p o s i t i o n of l a r g e f o l d e d systems o f o l d p l a t forms and s h i e l d s , r e g i o n a l ( r e l a t i n g t o some i n d i v i d u a l a r e a ) and deep f a u l t s , ocean deeps and v o l c a n i c a r e a s .
29
of C e n t r a l Asia, mcuntainous a r e a s t o t h e s o u t h , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o towards t h e P e r s i a n G u l f . Nunierous ground o v s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e a r e a of t h e U s t y u r t Plateau could n o t d i s c e r n f r a c t u r e s i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , because t h i s r e g i o n i s covered by a d e n s e l a y e r of s e d i m e n t s : c l a y s and marls. limestones,
On t e l e v i s i o n p h o t o g r a p h s and p h o t o g r a p h s , t a k e n
from a n a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e , o n e c a n c l e a r l y see u n d e r t h i s c o v e r a series o f o l d g e o f r a c t u r e s i n t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t , formed b e f o r e t h e s e d e p o s i t s had been l a i d down. One c a n show many simi-
/18
v i d u a l z r e a s and of g e o l o g i c a l maps o f c o n t i n e n t s and oceans as a whole. There a r e g r e a t p o t e n t i a l s f o r t h o s e who compiie s p e c i a l t e c t o n i c , m e t a l l o g e n e t i c , volcanism maps and Research by space folded systems,
g e o l o g i c a l maps:
30
continents and oceans, the relief features of a bed and also study of the nature of present-day and old tectonic mwement should be given special attention. This information is required for understandtng the mechanism and formation processes of the earth's crust on a global scale and for elucidating uniformities in
the formation of individual geological structures, mainly of continental and oceanic origin. Cosmogeologial metbods will allow one to investigate areas which are almost inaccessible when studying by other methods, - - high lands, areas permanently covered by ice and the sea bed. Information obtained from space, combined with that obtained by ground geological methods, will give new interesting material for studying the distribution of ore areas, regions where there is o i l and gas and carbon-bearing basins of the earth,and show new areas which could be promising when searching for mineral deposits. Space geology will undoubtedly play a leadir,g part in developing laws for the formation and distribution of mineral deposits. This is only one of the important scientific and practical problems of modern geology. Even today, space research can help considerably to solve purely practical geological problems.
tion on the size of deposits of water beneath the ground in deserts, the long-term study of which, even with aviation, entails greai: difficulties and great expenditures o f time and resources, and tci
Sive engineering and geological evaluation of an area with respect
no o t h e i t y p e of r e s e a r c h would make i t p o s s i b l e t o embrace t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e between g e o l o g i c a l and p h y s i c a l and g e o g r a p h i c a l p r o c e s s e s on e a r t h and between exogenous and endogenous p r o c e s s e s (on t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and i n i t s d e p t h s ) . Study o f t h e r e l i e f and l o o s e c o v e r from s p a c e p r o v i d e s v a l u a b l e m a t e r i a l for u n d e r s t a n d i n g e r o s i o n , m d t h e f o r m a t i o n of a
whole v a r i e t y o f c o n t i n e n t a l c i e p o s i t s .
examine t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of a e o l i a n , a l l u v i a l , an& g l a c i a l d e p o s i t s and t h e i r c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e r e l i e f and, c o n s e q u e n t l y , w i t h t e c tonics, climate, etc. Space and a e r o g e o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h opens up new p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r Understanding t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e two b a s i c g e o l o g i c a l structures
- - c o n t i n e n t s and oceans.
r e g r e s s i o n s of t h e s e a . by c o v e r i n g t h e e a r t h
- - oceans
I t would
be a m i s t a k e t o c u r t a i l ground r e s e a r c h by assuming i t t c be
32
r e p l a c e d by s p a c e o b s e r v a t i o n s .
geology shows t h a t it c a n be s u c c e s s f u l l y developed and o n l y g i v e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s when combined w i t h ground geDlogica1 o b s e r v a t i o n s . Consequently, :pace r e s e a r c h i n t o geology must be combined and c l o s e l y c o o r d i n a t e d w i t h a e r o g e o l o g i c a l and ground work.
s a y i n g t h a t photography from s p a c e w i l l " r e v e a l mineral.^", f o r "oil and g a s c o i n c i d e w i t h b u l g t s of t h e e a r t h , and w a t e r - - w i t h conc a v e s t r u c t u r e s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t " , which from s p a c e w i l l "determine t h - c o n t e n t of u s e f u l elements i n m i n e r a l d e p o s i t s " ,
etc.
of m i n e r a l s i n them.
invaluable help t o geoyogists searching f o r mincials. Thzre i s s t i l l one a s p e c t showing t h e importance of l i n k i n g space r e s e a r c h w i t h g e o l o g i c a l problems.
33
there i s i s f r a g m e n t a r y and o f t e n h y p o t h e t i c a l .
For t h i s r e a s o n ,
g e o l n g i s t s are p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s p a c e s t u d y and r e s e a r c h
Global p r o c e s s e s o f t h e e a r t h developmelit,
c e p t s , d o n o t l o o k upon t h e e a r t h a s a p a r t o f t h e u n i v e r s e . C o n c l u s i o n s of cosmochemistry
- - a s c i e n c e which i s aimed a t
stcdying t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of o t h e r h t a v e n l y h o d i e s
i n s u f f i c i e n t l y ue! s: earth.
- - are s t i l l
t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s on
I n t h e s u r f a c e s e c t i o n s of t h e e a r t h ' s c r u s t ) a r e l i n k e d w i t h
s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s o l a r system.
NOW,
place i n t h e u n i v e r s e as a whole.
We,as g e o l o g i s t s , r e a l i z e even
i n forming t h e
o r i g i n of s u b s t a n c e on e a r t h , w e o n l y t h i n k o f o u r p l a n e t and do n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e m a t e r i a l o f t h e u n i v e r s e as a whole. I n t h e same way as when t h e P t o l e m a i c c o n c e p t of t h e e a r t h was comp l e t e l y changed t o t h e harmonious s t u d y by Copernicus on t h e u n i v e r s e , now, w e must u n d e r s t a n d t h a t g e o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s must n o t be l i m i t e d o n l y t o o u r p l a n e t , a n d p r o c e s s e s t a k i n g p l a c e on
/20 -
z,rrt:er
os
the i n e t a l i o g e n y of t h e e a r t h .
I t was suggested t h a t
g l o b a l d e p o s i t s of i r o n , ~ a n g a a c s e , copper and o t h e r metals a t v a r i o u s times o f t h e e a r t h ' s g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y were p o s s i b l y l i n k e d w i t h a mass o f s u b s t a n c e o f cosmic o r i g i n a t a time when t h e e a r t h c r o s s e d a m e t e o r i t e shower. Several scientists a r e of
t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e e a r t h , t o g e t h e r K t ; t h e Sun and o t h e r p l a n e t s , i:
revolving around t h e c e n t e r of t h e g a l a x y , r e p e a t e d l y c r o s s e d i r o n n e b u l a e o f t h e Milky Way and p a s s e d t h r o u g h them, a p p a r e n t l y , s e v e r a l m i l l i o n y e a r s ago. Large masses of powdered m e t e o r i c
ircr? cculd have settied on e a r t h i n t h e h e - L a m b r l a n p e r i o d . O t h e r , l a t e r p e r i o d s o f t h e e a r t h ' s g e o l o g i c a l development, may have been s u i t a b l e f o r t h e p r e c i p i t a t i o n of manganese. Some s c i e n t i s t s
s t i l l much which i s u n c l e a r i n t h e s u g g e s t i o n s , b u t t h e y a r e v e r y
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 0 . 5 mm.
m i c r o m e t e o r i t e s t r a v e l i n g w i t h a speed of more t h a n 10 km/sec. The f a c t t h a t t h e s e a r e m i c r o m e t e o r i t e s and n o t "metal s p l a s h e s " from l a r g e r m e t e o r i t e s i s proved by t h e narrow boundary between t h e damaged and undamaged p o r t i o n s of t h e s u r f a c e of specimens examined. I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t m a t e r i a l from s p a c e a l s o f e l l on
The f a c t th:lt metecric
t h e e a r t h i n p a s t g e o i o g i c a i epochs. matter
concentrations.
S p e c i a l work
--
i s a s c i e n c e which i s now b e i n g s u c c e s s -
on e a r t h and i n t h e u n i v e r s e i s i n space.
p a r t =f
single whole - - m a t t e r
space r e s e a r c h f o r g e o l o g i c a l p u r p o s e s .
t e c h n o l o g y , equipment and r e s e a r c h methods a r e improved and l a t e r when s p a c e systems have been c r e a t e d s p e c i a l l y f o r g e o l o g i c a l p p o s e s , s p a c e geology w i l l make c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s . ~ -
36
Manned long-term orbital stations will be very effective for geological study of the earth. They vi11 provide continuous cosmo-
geological information, We already know that when one section of the earth is repeatedly photographed (at different illuminance, humidity and with a different vegetation cover) there immediately appear new geological earth formation features.
statiana will he
8
Long-term orbital
large regions of the planet,and this will be especially important to understand the physical and geographical processes when studying the effect of man on the forces of nature. The number of geological and geophysical problems which can be solved will gradually increase if geophysical, infrared radio location and radio thermal equipment is used.in orbital space stations. Undoubtedly, in the future other means and methods of obtainicg information from space will be used for geology, as for example, multi-spectral scanning systems operating in invisible ranges of the electromagnetic wave spectrum (radar, thermal and others). Magnetic survey of the earth from cuter space will enable one to judge the overall nature o f the planet's magnetic field, show the great anomalies and study the variations of the magnetic field. Regional and global thermal anomalies can be established by using infrared photography. This material can provide information
for studying the earth's thermal fluxes. Radio location and radio thermal surveying will allow study to be made of the earth's surface,irrespective of weather conditions,and obtain additional geological information which is not given by photographs.
37
G e o l o g i s t s s t i l l r e l y on t e l e v i s i o n and i n d i v i d u a l photographs
from s p a c e o b t a i n e d i n p a s s i n g w i t h o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n .
Special
c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e f o r g e o l o g y , equipped f o r s t u d y i n g n a t u r a l
r e s o u r c e s and c a r r y i n g o u t g l o b a l s u r v e y s from s p a c e . Optimum photography l e v e l s must b e developed and m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d must be p r o c e s s e d , a method and t e c h n o l o g y f o r s p a c e photography o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e and c o n v e r s i o n of s p a c e p h o t o g r a p h s i n t o p h o t o g r a p h i c maps must be done, and one must s t u d y t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r u s i n g g e o p h y s i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n methods from s p a c e and d e f i n e t h e number o f problems which must be s o l v e d by u s i n g them. F i n a l l y , a method fdr p r o c e s s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n must b e
developed s o t h a t i t may b e u s e d f o r t h e geological study of the earth. earth. Each new phase i n t h e c o n q u e s t o f s p a c e and e a c h new l a u n c h of S o v i e t s p a c e c r a f t i s a n i m p o r t a n t s t e p i n d e v e l o p i n g s c i e n c e o f t h e e a r t h and i n c r e a s i n g t h e m i n e r a l and raw m a t e r i a l p o t e n t i a l o f t h e USSR.
we a r e j u s t l y proud o f t h e f a c t t h a t o u r c o u n t r y i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
38
the fact that a simple spherical shaped satellite would give data
of braking caused by the upper layers of the atmosphere in the
clearest form.
Scientists
122
,
believed that the first satellite should have a shape close to that
ol' naturaf h e a v e n l y bodies, since it would always remain the symbol
October 4 , 1957, when the first artificial earth satellite in the world was launched into space, went down in history. Science
had obtained a new means of exploring extraterrestrial space. The creation of the first manned spacecraft was another important achievement in Soviet astronautics. Yu. A . Gagarin's flight showed that man was no longer attached to his cradle and could live and work in space. 39
--
the earth,
The first phase in the development of Soviet space vehicles was achieved by the flight of Vostok. One feature of it was the individually for
solving important scientific and technical problems, each one of which was the next stage in the USSR's space program. Another
feature was that the launch boo.;ters and the space vehicles were at that time developed by one team led by S. P. Korolev. The second phase of Soviet astronautics began with the launch of the Kosmos-1 satellite according to a program laid down on March 16, 1962. This allowed for the significant increase in the
number of launches of space research vehicles (in 1962 -.lone, 15 were launched, that is, as many as in the previous Five-Year plan). Significant achievements by the Soviet Union during this phase were the first gro;rp flight c?f spacecraft, the flight of a female astronaut, the egress of a mzn into open space, a s o f t landing by an automatic station on the moon, the launch of an artificial lunar satellite, reaching Venus and the launch of heavy Proton and maneuvering Polyet satellites. During this phase, Soviet space technology began to serve the national economy directly, when the Molniya-1 communication; satellite and the Meteor meteorological satellites gave palpable economic benefits. The third phase in the development of Soviet astronautics began in 1969. Its main feature was automatic flights - - the
transition to vehicles, active information robots, obtaining scientific information in interplanetary space and on the surface of the moon, Mars and Venus.
40
vehicles were the Luna-16 and Lunokhod-1. They are not overshadowed by the complexitv of experiments carried out by VerAus-8 which discovered the secret of surface rocks of the planet and Mars-2 and Mars-3 which became artificial satellites of Mars and landed on the planet in extremely difficult conditions during a dust storm. The development of Soviet spacecra-*tis the result of the activity of numerous groups of Soviet scientists, engineers, technicians and workers collected into research and experimental and design teams.
S.
of practical astronautics. One must also mention the contribution of G. N . Babakin, a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, who directed the development of unique spacecraft for researching into the moon and planets of the solar system. Academician M. K. Yangel' also played a great part in the development of rocket and space technology. The design office directed for many years by
A.
M. I s a y c v , a doctor of technical sciences, developed the propulRocket and space technology is one of the most complex branches /23
men and materials for development, Thanks to the support of the party, government and people, the USSR has become a great space
41
Soviet designers and scientists, by perfecting space technology, are making new strides in the conquest of space and attempting to use space research for the benefit of mankind,
IAF Awards to Soviet Sr>ace Researchers TASS "Pravda", June 21, 1972. The Council of the International Aeronautical Federation (IAF) took place in Paris. The Federation's Council decided to award the IAF honorary diploma to scientists, engineers and workers at the Soviet Astronaut Training Center for their contribution to the program for study and research of outer space. The IAF's Yu. A . Gagarin gold medal was awarded to
V.
A.
title of Hero Df the : riet Union, - - for their work in the complex and wide program of space ,->searchby manned spacecraft, which had great practical importance for setting up orbital stations and conducting a series of valuable scientific and technical experimenis. During the conference, the Council of the IAF unanimously decided to award the international diploma to the well-known Soviet scientist and academictan, V. P. Glushko,for his contribution to the development of rocket technology and research into the physical arld technical problems of power engineering,
42
V. Belikov
"Izvestiya", August 30, 1972. The Federation of Aviation Sports of the USSR have instituted a diploma im. space pilot Yu. A. Gagarin and a medal im. academician
S. P. Korolev.
These two famous names are written on the first page of the chronicle of the space age.
Yu. A. Gagarin, the first man in
space, and the outstafiding scientist, the designer of rocket and :pace systems, S. P. Kcrolev played a great role in the research and corquest of the universe. "By recognizing thelr services in the development of astronautics, the Federation of Aviation Sports of the USr? decided t o institute two new awards,"
--
the Commission for Sporting and Technical Problems in Astronautics. The Yu. A. Gagarin diploma will be awarded to scientists, designers, engineers and also teams and individuals who contribute to the development of rocket, space and aviation technology, aviation sports, and who work for the dissemination of aviation arid space knowledge,or show high sporting achievements. The S, P. Korolev medal will be awarded to scientists, designers, engineers and s?ace pilots
gf
/ 24
43
who advocate and disseminate scientific and technical achievements in space research, According to this decision by the Federation of Aviation Sports of the USSR,the diploma and medal can be awardei to individuals of foreign countries for their success in +he development
of aviation and space technology, and those who hold world aviation
(ind space records, The award of diplomas and medals will take place annually and will cooincide with the International Aviation and Astronautics Day on April 12, the All-Union Celebration Air Fleet Day of the USSR. However, the award ceremony will take place at the beginning of Oct3ber, the 15th anniversary of the launch of the first Soviet artificial earth satellite. A picture o f this and also relief silhouettes of the Vostok rocket and The Soyuz spacecraft are on the reverse side o f the S . P. Korolev medal.
--
To Space Explorers
TASS
"Izvestiya", October 4 , 1972. With respect to a decision by the office of the Federation of Aviation Sports of the USSR, a large number o f scientists, designers, astronauts, public figures and journalists received the
S.
44
the Soviet
These awards were given for the cmtribution to the development of aviation and astronautics, and the dissemination of the achicvements of the Soviet Union in research and exploration of outer space and aviation technology. The Yu. A. Gagarin diplomas were awarded to groups of scientists, designers, engineers and workers of the USSR, who participated in the designing, constructing and launching ofmanned and unmanned ;pacecraft, including the first artificial earth satellite.
mician M. V. Keldysh for his outstanding contribution to the scientific analysis of problems for studying and conquering outer space. This award was instituted in 1954 and is conferred by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR for outstanding work in interplanetary services.
45
Liscoverv bv Astronauts and Scientists "Aviatsiya i kosmonavtika", No. 4 , 1972. The Committee for Inventions and Discoveries attached to the Council of Ministers or' the USSR has entered in the state register the discovery "The phenomenon of the vertical-beam structure of daytime radiation of the earth's upper atmosphere". The discovery
/25
uas made on the basis of analysis of results of visual observations from Soyuz-3, Soyuz-5, Soyuz-9 manned spacecraft. The authors of the discovery are space pilots of the USSR, twice atiard winners of the Hero of the Soviet Union, G. Beregovoy and A. Nikolayev, Heroes of the Soviet Union, V . Sevast'yanov and Ye. Khrunov, and the Leningrad scientist, K. Kondrat'yev, a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, A. Lazarev and M. Miroshnikov, doctors o f technical sciences, A . Buznikov, a candidate of technical sciences, and 0. Smoktiy, a cand-date of physical and mathematical sciences. During Soyuz flights the astronauts observed a global optical picture of the earth's atmosFhere and its cloud cover and surface. \then the spacecraft is in the earth's shadow a uniformly luminescent layer in the form of an ash-gray corona with a pink tint and of The slightly
diffuse upper boundary of this layer stands out sharply against the background of black space. When a star set beyond the earth's horizon Ye. Khrunov, during a flight of the Soyuz-5, was able to
It was 90-95 km.
Once, directly
46
b e f o r e s u n r i s e , s t r o n g l u m i n e r c e n c e , i n t h e form o f columrs g o i n g from t h e lower l i g h t s t r i p n e a r t h e h o r i z o n t o a n a l t i t u d e a p p r o x i m e t e l y twice t h a t of t h e n i g h t corona,was seen i n t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n between areas of t h e t w i l i g h t corona and t h e n i g h t corona. T h i s luminescence was o b s e r v e d c l o s e t o t h e e q u a t o r on t h e downward c i r c u i t of t h e o r b i t . V i s u a l l y , t h e b r i g h t n e s s of t h e c o l u m ~i s The c o l o r of t h e When
s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t of t h e n i g h t c o r o n a .
luminescent columns i s a y e l l o w i s h g r a y w i t h a p i n k t i n t .
of t h e e a r t h n e a r t h e South Pole.
O b s e r v a t i o n m a t e r i a l was usell by Leningrad s c i e n t i s t s ,
A. Buznikov,
0. Smoktiy, f o r c o m p i l i n g a s i n g l e p i c t u r e o f t h e development o f
by s c i e n t i s t s and a s t r o n a u t s showed a v e r t i c a l - b e a m s t r u c t u r e of
As the spacecraft
approaches the day side of the earth, the upper boundary of the uight layer thickens and disperses. Then, space d a m appears with its characteristic color gamma near the horizon. The luminescent
layer remains on the right and left side of the dawn, but sections
of the corona in its direct vicinity are diffused and take on the
form of thi3 luminescent filaments. The astronauts drew them in their flight log-books. Havi1.E carefully studied and analyzed visual observations, scientists came to the conclusion that there is a horizontal non-uniform day radiatior, of the earth's upper atmosphere. When researching into the atmosphere from earth by using rockets and artificial satellites until now most attention has been paid to the altitude distribution of its parameters. For example,
rocket probing made it possible to obtain the vertical dependence of the composition, temperature, pressure and optical characteristics of atmosphere to an altitude of approximately 500 km. Photography and spectrophotometry of space dawn determined the vertical profiles of brightness in an altitude range of 4 5 - 5 0 0 km.
conc2rning the energetics of the upper layer of the atmosphere and variations of its structural parameters. Studies
f this
phenomenon can be useful when determining t h e optical conditions for autonomous navigation and spacecraft orientation in nearearth paths. Visual obscrvations of space-time parameters o f
the horizontal non-uniformity,with siniultaneous experiments to study the spectra o f horizontal non-uniformity,must be continued. This will cnable us t o explain t h e reasons for vertical-beam struc ture and study its seasonal and latitadinal changes.
49
I . SENTINELS OF SCIENCE
G. Petrov, Academician
"Izvestiya", March 15, 1972. The basic feature of the Soviet space program is its sequence. Each new phase of research is a logical continuation and development of the previous one. The first launch of the Soviet artificial
/27
earth satellites was a "test of strength" in discovering a new world. The processing of observation material of the movement of
the first three satellites and measurement data gave interesting scientific results. The previously held concepts of near-earth
outer space were considerably cl~snged. At the same time, it was necessary to change from reconnaissance experiments to systematic, complex research and to in-depth analysis of various phenomena occurring in a natural "laboratory", which in fact near-earth space
is, on such unprecedented scales, and their connection with processes on the Sun. The question arase on the practical use of rocket and space technology achievements in the national economy, mainly for weather forecasting and communications. This task c x l d not be carried out immediately. There were complex technical problems to be solved, There was
also the need for specialized and complex experiments aimed at the
50
p r e p a r a t i o n and s o l u t i o n of t h e most c o m p l i c a t e d b i o l o g i c a l and t e c h n i c a l problems f o r man ..n s p a c e . t o t h e numerous Kosmos v e h i c l e s . Much s c i e n t i f i c informai:ion had been o b t a i n e d s i n c e Kosmos-1
A1 t h e s e t a s k s were a l l o t t e d 1
was launched.
a l s o changes of t h e s e v a l u e s .
T h e o r e t i c a l s u p p o s i t i o n s on t h e
dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e u p p e r atn.osphere, e s p e c i a l l y changes of d e n s i t y depending on s o l a r a c t i v i t y , were e x p e r i m e n t a l l y c o n f i r m e d . Comparison of r e s u l t s o b t a l n e d by t h e t h i r d a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e d u r i n g maximum s o l a r a c t i v i t y w i t h o b s e r v a t i o n o f d a t a on t h e movement of Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s , s h o w e d t h a t d u r i n g h a l f t h e s o l a r a c t i v i t y c y c l e t h e a v e r a g e d e n s i t y a t a n a l t i t u d e of 200 km was reduced by a f a c t o r o f 2 , and a t a n a l t i t u d e of 3 0 0 lan by n o t less t h a n a f a c t o r of 3 1 / 2 . Now, one c a n f o r e c a s t t h e c o n d i t i o n of t h e
Now, t h e r e i s no
0:
/28
a n a l y s i s of s a t e l -
l i t e b r a k i n g , t h e i n c r e a s e i n p a r t i c l e d e n s i t y i n r e g i o n s where
there a r e p n ? z r
ZZYG~-&S
&t a l t i t u d e s of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 300
km is
I t appeared t h a t
51
even weak geomagnetic disturbances have a global effect on temperature and density of the upper atmosphere. The relative effect of
At the present time, information obtained by satellites equipped with mass spectrometers allows us t o talk quite definitely on the composition of the upper atmosphere. Whereas the basic component of atmosphere is nitrogen up to an altitude o f 180-200 km, as the altitude increases there is a prevalence of atomic oxygen. Still higher, in years when there is minimum solar activity, from altitudes of 500-600 lan and years when there is maximum activity
--
from altitudes of 1,000-1,500 km, the atmosphere is a helium-hydrogen one. Before direct measurement was done, on the basis of which one could calculate the temperatures of electrons and ions in the atrrcsphere, there were very contradictory views on their values.
In
particular, it was thought that there was a temperature balance between electron and ion components of the ionosphere. this was not so. The first direct measurement of ion temperature carried out in Kosmcs showed thai-.at daytime it was considerably iower than the electron.
Until quite recently, there were heated arguments on the very
In fact
fact of the ionosphere's existence. Approximately ten years ago there was a much-discussed hypothesis on the presence of some hypothetic polar aurora which is constantly taking place in all
52
latitudes,and supports the night ionization of the atmosphere by supplementing the lack of solar ionization. Measurements done in several Kosmos showed quite convincingly that a particle flux, which is in fact observed in low and medium latitudes, is quite insufficient for this. Since the night ionosphere exists, this
means that the speeds at which the ionosphere appears and disap pears are not as great as was supposed. Acccrdingly, the intensity of solar radiation responsible for ionization is now reckoned as being approximately ten times less than before. Apart from this,
it was shown somewhat later that at night the ionosphere lifts, as it were, and ionization moves upwards. Quite recently there was no doubt o f the link between the earth's "constant" (main) magnetic field, determined by sources inside the terrestrial globe,and the "variable" magnetic field depending on the influence of external sources. The intercon-
nection between these fields was especially obvious after Kosmos research. Data was obtained for the first time on the global
distribution of magnitude and direction of the main geomagnetic field, and also information on the stnicture of the possible mechanisms of comparatively rapid changes of the earth's constant and variable field. Experiments condiicted in cirtei- space determined the degree of correspondence between the actual picture with theoretical models, based on observations on the earth's surface in the course of centuries. One important scientific result of this research is that,in fact,near the earth there are constant conditions which, as suggested, only appezr during magnetic storms.
53
Who i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n ?
Mainly, r e s e a r c h i n t o
I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s t r u c t u r e and dynamics of t h e e a r t h ' s upper atmosphere s i m p l i f y t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on t h e atmospheres o f o t h e r p l a n e t s , a n d c r e a t e a g e n e r a l t h e o r y o f p l a n e t a r y atmospheres. Autolr3tic docking o f a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s i n o r b i t and t h e c o n t r o l l a b l e f l i g h t i n t h e upper l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere r e q u i r e t h e knowledge o f t h e change o f a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n depending on t h e time o f t h e y e a r , l o c a l time, e t c . F e a t u r e s of t h e o u t e r i o n o -
s p h e r e , t h a t i s , t h a t r e g i o n which can o n l y be s t u d i e d by r o c k e t s and s a t e l l i t e s , a r e i m p o r t a n t f o r e a r t h r a d i o communications w i t h s p a c e v e h i c l e s , r a d i o communications bztween manned s p a c e c r a f t and f o r u s i n g a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s f o r r a d i o communication and t e l e v i s i o n systems. I n f o r m a t i o n on t h e magnetic f i e l d i s w i d e l y used when p r o s p e c t i n g f o r m i n e r a l s , p i l o t a g e and a v i a t i o n . However, magnetic
p l o t t i n g i s an extremely- iabor-consuming t a s k and r e q u i r e s m c h time. Maps, even when compiled w i t h a c c u r a t e and r e l i a b l e measiire-
reduced t h e dimensions o f o u r p l a n e t .
u s t o p r o c e s s a l a r g e amount o f e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a i n a r e l a t i v e i y
s h o r t time.
I t i s impcrtant
i n c r e a s e i n s o l a r a c t i v i t y t h e r e i s a ma.rked l i n k between " e a r t h " and " s o l a r " phenomena. The b e t t e r we can s t u d y t h i s l i n k , t h e situation
b e t t e r we s h a l l be a b l e t o f o r e c a s t t h e r a d i o l o g i c a l on t h e f l i g h t time o f a s t r o n a u t s .
I n f o r m a t i o n o f t h i s dependence
i s n e c e s s a r y i n many o t h e r s p h e r e s o f man's p r a c t i c a l a c t i v i t y .
I t must be s a i d t h a t e x p e r i e n c e g a i n e d d u r i n g g e o p h y s i c a l
e x p e r i m e n t s i! ;
Kosmos
s a t e l l i t e s h a s been v e r y v a l u a b l e f o r Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s
nave become a b a s i s on which t h e p r e s e n t m e t e o r o l o g i c d l system h a s been founded. Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s have a l s s become a unique p r o v i n g ground f o r space technslogy. For example, t h e Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s f i r s t t e s t e d These e x p e r i m e n t s opened new
a u t o m a t i c docking methods i n o r b i t .
h o r i z o n s f o r c r e a t i n g complex s p a c e s y s t e m s , and mainly f o r m u l t i purpose o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s . The USSR i s s u c c e s s f u l l y implementing t h e s p a c e r e s e a r c h progr?m, s u c c e s s i v e l y p a s s i n g from one i m p o r t a n t p h a s e t o t h e n e x t . Space r e s e a r c h w i l l be c o n t i n u e d w i t h t h e same sequence and thoroughness and w i t h d e t a i l e d p r e p a r a t i o n f o r each new s t e p , c h a r a c t e r i d t i c of Soviet science.
55
have been launched. Research carried out in satellites of this series is shown in the conversation with scientists published below. At our "round table" is the director of the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics o f the Moscow State University, academician S . N. Vernov, the director of the Institute of Physics of the Atmosphere of the Academy o f Sciences of the USSR, Academician A.M. Obukhov, and the director of the Institute of Cosmophysical Research and Aeronomy of the Yakut Branch o f the Siberian Department of the Academy of Sciences o f the USSR, Doctor of Physican and Mathematical Sciences Yu. G. Shafer. Yu. Zaytsev conducts the conversation.
S.
/30
"Flightsof the first artificial earth satellites and automatic interplanetary stations shcwed that we knew very little of the closest outer environment o f our planet. Before the satellites were launched many scientists did not even
assume
Even more unexpected was the discovery of solar wind continuous flow of plasma fr,m the Sun was called.
--
as the
It appearcd
56
that near-earth outer space is the arena of complex physical processes. The boundaries of the magnetosphere are changed by
solar wind, the "population" o f particles in radiation belts increases and decreases, the composition and density of the upper atmosphere changes, magnetic storms and polar auroras connected with them occur which interfere with radio communication. It is obvious that these processes must not be examined in isolation. They can only be studied properly in close interconnection, mainly with different developments of solar activity. In
this respect, Kosmos vehicles have given us unique opportunities. Observations on the level of ionizing radiation were carried out by the first Kosmos satellites. This was necessary for establishing flight safety conditions for astronauts. Prolonged measurements made it possible to determine the permissible radiaticn doses depending on the altitude of the orbit, and geomagnetic and solar activity. On the basis of this information,scientists concluded that radiation safety could be guaranteed for future flights of Vostock and Voskhod spacecraft. From the scientific point of view, this research is important to understand processes in the lower boundary of radiation belts, that is at altitudes o f 2 0 0 - 4 0 0 km,especially in high latitudes. It is at these altitudes that interaction between charged particles and the earth's atmosphere occurs and they penetrate the ionosphere. The study o f this interaction, determinatioa of the lifetime of particles in dense atmospheric layers, and the dependence of their
b e h a v i o r on geomagnetic d i s t a r o a n c e
i s necessary t o understand
i n o u t e r space.
T h i s a l s o o c c u r s Rear t h e e a r t h , on t h e Sun, i n
t h e h e a r t of t h e g a l a x y , and o b v i o u s l y , beyond i t .
But when t h e s e
--
g r e a t energy.
Due t o
have s u f f i c i e n t
i n f o r m a t i o n t o LJnswer t h e q u e s t i o n how p a r t i c l e s a c c e l e r a t e , how t h e y change t h e i r t r a j e c t o r y and what phenomena accompany t h i s . Furthermore, s c i e n t i s t s can now f o r e c a s t p r o c e s s e s o c c u r r i n g i n radiiition b e l t s . The q u e s t i o n now a r i s e s how t o u s e i d e a s and
/31
t h e o r i e s developed f o r r s d i a t i o n b e l t s t o o t h e r a r e a s o f s p a c e - t h e Sun and Galaxy." Academician A , M. Obukhov s p e a k s : "Geophysics h a s a l s o a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e Kosmos r e s e a r c h program. Mainly, I have i n mirLd t h e whole r e s e a r c h i n t o These
58
Naturally, launches o f Kosmos satellites weremade mainly For expericental purposes. One of the main tasks was to find new
methods and means of collecting quantitative information on the earth's atmosphere, that is, those characteristics which can be exprcssed in numbers. These include radiation temperature, the amount of cloud covering the surface of the earth,and the size of individual clouds.
It has been possible to approach the problem of cloud "rating'.
The fact is that we show cloud elements on television pictures in a somekihat individual manner. We nust give a quantitative charac-
teristic not of each individual cloud,but of the whole cloud system. Such a system plays a i important role in typifying weather. f Itms
established that different cloud system have a characteristic spatial distribution - - "a spectrum", thar is, properties which can be fixed by recording earth and atmospheric radiations from satellites. Soviet scientists were the first to carry out a global experiment for receiving thermal radio-frequency radiation of the earth and its atmosphere with the Kosmos-243 satellite. In particular,
The tempera-
ture distribution of the ocean throughout the wholr world was also obtained. Apart from this, by recording thermal radio-frequency radiation one can determine the moisture content in the atmosphere,
59
including water droplets in clouds, and detect the centers of intense precipitation hidden by large clouds. Experience accumulated in the course of geophysical experiments on Kosmos was used for the actual development and implementation of the Meteor meteorological system." Yu. G. Shafer, a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, contimes the convershtion: ffKosmossatellites play an important part in the scientific program for studying cosmic rays. participate in this research.
An artificial earth satellite has a specified time of active
existence. measurement.
Systemat-icobservations normally require continuous Therefore, satellites identical in construction and They are put into
near orbit in sequence at an interval of approximately six months. The next satellite is launched before the previous one has completed its calculated period in space. As a result, for a certain time they are at identical altitudes in the same latitudes. During this time their instruments are calibrated and the results of measurement are ",titched'* together. In this way, one can carry
out an exFeriment without breaks for a considei-able time, and organize, as it were, a cosmic weather patrol. The reason behind
this patrol is in expectation of a favorable concurrence of circumstances, when the natural laboratory itself will yield some interesting phenonsnon which would be difficult or impossible to simulate on earth and obtain artificially.
60
On what
/32
was confirmed when an actual event took place during a patrol search, and we observed it three times. Research conducted by Kosmos satellites determined the periodic changes of the nuclear composition of cosmic radiation. The results were unexpected. Analysis of
Y
great number o f
measurements showed that during years of minimum solar activity the average nuclear composition increased. Ayparently, this is
explained by the existence of interaction on the boundary of solar wind with the interstellar medium of the transient region, the density o f which changes depending on solar activity. The fact itself of the discovery of a transient region with a high concentration of radiation is remarkable. During a flight, shall we say, to Jupiter a spacecraft must cross it. Conse:uently,
the design of such a spacecraft must provide protection from the effect of strong ionizing radiation."
61
Doctor of P h y s i c a l and Mathematical S c i e n c e s , D i r e c t o r o f t h e L a b o r a t o r y o f P o l a r Auroras a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR. "Pravda" P r e s s Department. B y u l l e t e n ' d l y a r e s p u b l i k a n s k i k h g a z e t , No. 6,March 4,1972. Long b e f o r e t h e f i r s t r o c k e t s and s a t e l l i t e s were launched
i t was known t h a t p o l a r a u r o r a s a r e caused by c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e
r a d i o communications a r e of primary i m p o r t a n c e , e s p e c i a l l y f o r a r c t i c r e g i o n s , where, t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , t h e y depend on t h e e f f e c t s of p o l a r a u r o r a s and magnetic s t o r m s , che s t u d y 01 p r o c e s s e s l i n k e d x i t h t h e s e o c c u r r e n c e s h a s always a t t r a c t e d s c i e n t i s t s ' a t t e n t i o n . The r a n g e of work h a s been s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d w i t h t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e s p a c e age. The f a c t i s t h a t many e f f e c t s l i n k e d w i t h
i s remarkable t h a t t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e f i r s t g r e a t
complex experiment i n s p a c e , I mean t h e l a u n c h o f t h e t h i r d S o v i e t
62
B a s i c a l l y , we a r e i n t e r e s t e d
I n essence, t h i s o r b i t d i d n o t
/33
was p a i d t o a b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i o n o sphere. Another i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t o f t h e s e a r c h conducted by t h e s e s a t e l l i t e s was t h e s t u d y o f p h o t o e l e c t r o n s - - s u p e r t h e r m a l p a r t i c l e s w i t h energy of t e n s and hundreds o f e l e c t r o n s - v o l t s . They occupy t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n between e l e c t r o n s o f 'lcoldl' plasma (of t h e i o n o s p h e r e ) and h i g h - e n e r g y p a r t i c l e s , a n d a r e t h e d i r e c t r e s u l t of ionization
- - t h e detachment of an e l e c t r o n from
63
that its p a t h
tangent along the polar aurora's zone. This significantly increased the amount of time spent by the recording equipment in the auroral atnosphere [from Aurora, the goddess o f dawn, as all phenomena are called connected with polar auroras). Simultaneously,
Kosmos-259 and Kosmos-262 satellites were operating at lower latitudes and measuring the intensity of hard radiation. However, satellite measurement has a number of significant limitations. Owing to its great speed it crosses the area of space in which we ar-e interested in a very short time. Hence, the satellite passes the polar aurora arc with
a
mately 10 km) in one or two seconds. Apart from this, owing to the earth's daily rotation the projection
of
t h e sstellite's
p i t h is
offset to the west with each revolution, that is, subsequent measurement is not done in the same place as the previous one. is advisable to combire satellite measurement with simultaneous ground observations.
A
It
3ecember 1968. The satellite contained equipment for studying charged particles causing polar auroras, superthermal eliergy electrons, and also variations o f dens'ty of the upper atmosphere
64
during auroras.
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , a network o f ground g e o p h y s i c a l
s t a t i o n s filmed t h e p o l a r auroras i n t h e sky, recorded t h e i r brightn e s s and a l t i t u d e , d e t e r m i n e d several c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n v a d i n g a c t i v e p a r t i c l e s , a n d measured t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of t h e upper atmosphere. O b s e r v a t i o n s were made a t t h i r t y ground p o i n t s i n t h e
Sairiet Union.
The l a u n c h o f t h e Kosmos-261 s a t e l l i t e was t h e f i r s t j o i n t s p a c e experiment conducted i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e program f o r collaboration with s o c i a l i s t countries i n t h e f i e l d of research and u s e o f o u t e r s p a c e f o r p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s . Many g e o p h y s i c a l
W a r e g l a d t h a t t h e h e l p p r o v i d e d by c o l l e a g u e s from s o c i a l i s t e
c o u n t r i e s was o f u s e and, i n many c a s e s , even d e c i s i v e . Among t h e s e r e s u l t s t h e r e a r e e f f e c t s o b t a i n e d d u r i n g j o i n t r e s e a r c h of a powerful chromospheric f l a r e on t h e Sun d u r i n g December 2 8 , 1 9 6 8 . day m e r i d i a n (11 AM
I t happened when Europe was c l o s e t o t h e mid-
Greenwichtime).
I n t h i s way, ground
was i n t h e s o u t h e r n h e n i s p h e r e n e a r t h e a r e a where t h e s t a t i o n s
were p o s i t i o n e d .
As a r e s u l t , i t was p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e changes i n
t h e lower i o n o s p h e r e l i n k e d w i t h t h e h a r d X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f t h e f l a r e and i n t h e middle i o n o s p h e r e , caused by s o f t e r r a d i a t i o n . The new i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d i s i n t e r e s t i n g and shows t h e movement o f plasma i n t h e i o n o s p h e r e .
I t was knobn t h a t a f t e r
65
"failure".
A p p a r e n t l y , p r o c e s s e s which p r e s e r v e t h e n i g h t i o n o -
s p h e r e s t o p working a n e , i n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e r e i s no upward l i f t o f ionization. Research showed t h a t a t t h i s time s p e c i f i c v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e magnetic f i e l d occur,which show t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f an e l e c t r i c c u r r e n t and a d r i f t o f a n i o n i z e d component o f t h e atmosphere. There i s , as i t were, an " e v a p o r a t i o n " and " e f f l u x " o f t h e i o n o sphere. The Kosmos-348 s a t e l l i t e c o n t i n u e d t h e complex experiment begun by Kosmos-261.
I t was launched d u r i n g t h e summer and i t was
p o s s i b l e t o compare t h e g e o p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a t v a r i o u s s e a s o n s .
The satc??itc's cquipiiicnt had been iiiipkuved.
E s p e c i a l l y , i t had
i s v e r y c l o s e t o t h a t c a l c u l a t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y , b u t h a s some
s p e c i f i c f r a c t u r e which, o b v i o u s l y , i s l i n k e d w i t h i o n i z a t i o n i n t h a t energy raxige. I n c o n c l u s i o n , one must n o t f o r g e t t h e O r e o l s a t e l l i t e , launched i n t h e program f o r S o v i e t - F r e n c h c o o p e r a t i o n i n o u t e r space research. To a g r e a t e x t e n t , i t i s a c o n t i n u a t i o n o f e x p e r i The
Apart from
of a d d i t i o n a l p o s s i b i l i t i e s i n t h i s r e s p e c t .
i s a t an a l t i t u d e o f 2 , 5 0 0 km, t h a t i s , beyond t h e l i m i t s , so t o
s p e a k , o f t h e normal i o n o s p h e r e .
A t t h e s e a l t i t u d e s one c a n
Magnetic Measurement i n Space Sh. Sh. Dolginov Candidate of P h y s i c a l and hiathenlatical S c i e n c e s , D i r e c t o r o f t h e Department o f t h e I n s t i t u t e o f T e r r e s t r i a l Magnetism, t h e Ionosphere and Radio Wave P r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s , USSR. "Pravda" P r e s s Department. B y u l l e t c n ' d l y a gorodskikh g a z e t , No. 1 0 , March 2 4 , 1972. L i n e s o f f o r c e o f a magnetic f i e l d , s t r e t c h i n g f o r t e n s o f thousands o f k i l o m e t e r s i n t o o u t e r s p a c e , d e t e r m i n e t h e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f n e a r - e a r t h s p a c e , t h e c h a r a c t e r o f many p r o c e s s e s
67
which o c c u r i n h i g h a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , a n d p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e
i n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f c o r p u s c u l a r r a d i a t i o n on e a r t h .
I n f o r m a t i o n on magnetic d e c l i n a t i o n i s w i d e l y u s e d f o r d e t e c t i n g m i n e r a l s , p i l o t a g e and a v i a t i r n . When a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l -
T h i s w a s o n l y done o v e r t h e t e r r i t o r y
N e v e r t h e l e s s , a s a r e s u l t of t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , t h e
f i r s t e v a l u a t i o n s were o b t a i n e d on t h e d e g r e e o f convergence o f
geomagnetic f i e l d i n s p a c e technology - - f o r d e t e r m i n i n g s a t e l l i t e o r i e n t a t i o n i n absolute space. The Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s c a r r i e d o u t e x p e r i m e n t s i n t o t h e s t u d y of t h e magnetic f i e l d n e a r e s t t o t h e e a r t h . tasks. There were two b a s i c
The f i r s t - - r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s o f t h e main
--
s t u d y o f t h e v a r i a b l e e f f e c t s i n a mag-
68
surface.
magnetic f i e l d
s e c u l a r v a r i a t i o n s and we c o u l d d e t e r m i n e This i n f o r -
i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r an epoch o f a c t u a l e x p e r i m e n t s .
mation was used f o r compiling an i n t e r n a t i o n a l a n a l y t i c a l model o f t h e e a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d . I n 1 9 7 0 , t h e l a u n c h o f Kosmos-321 a l l o w e d us t o o b t a i n a d i s t r i b u t i o n of a magnetic f i e l d over 90% o f t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . Comparison o f measurements by t h i s s a t e l l i t e w i t h t h e two p r e v i o u s ones allowed u s t o d e t e r m i n e w i t h g r e a t a c c u r a c y t h e s e c u l a r changes
o f a magnetic f i e l d o v e r t h e whole s u r f a c e .
The Kosmos-321 s a t e l l i t e was equipped w i t h a quantum cesium magnetometer which c a r r i e d o u t measurement e v e r y 2 sec. This pro-
e q u a t o r i a l c u r r e n t j e t i n t h e p l a n e o f t h e magnetic e q u a t 2 r on t h e daytime s i d e was measured f o r t h e f i r s t time by s a t e l l i t e . The e q u a t o r i a l c u r r e n t j e t was f i r s t o b s e r v e d i n 1 9 2 2 . However, a f t e r SO y e a r s o f v a r i o u s compreheiisive r e s e a r c h t h i s phenomenon, t o some e x t e n t , i s s t i l l u n e x p l a i n e d . Satellites
r e s e a r c h , c o m b i n e d w i t h ground measurement,gives w e l l - d e f i n e d i n f o r mation f o r b u i l d i n g a model o f an e l e c t r o j e t , The Kosmos-321 f l i g h t gave us i n t e r e s t i n g and i m p o r t a n t i n f o r mation on t h e mechanism of magnetic s t o r m s i n p o l a r r e g i o n s . In
March 8 - 1 0 , 1 9 7 2 t h e e f f e c t s o f p o l a r e l e c t r o j e t s were
69
measured.
7 d m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e s p a c e v e h i c l e s were equipped w i t h
I t i s worthy o f n o t e t h a t a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s n o t o n l y
i n c r e a s e t h e range of d i r e c t r e s e a r c h , b u t a l s o showed t h a t t h e y
i n geophysics.
I t was p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e a h i g h d e g r e e of measurement w i t h
s a t e l l i t e s , a n d o b t a i n by them new i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e s i z e and d i r e c t i o n of t h e main magnetic f i e l d which a r e c r e a t e d by i n t e r n a l and c o n s t a n t l y a c t i v e e x t e r n a l f o r c e s , and a l s o new da:?
/36
SOO!
w i t h new impetus.
o f t h e r a t i o n a l approach t o s o l v i n g problems i n a s t r o n a u t i c s .
70
essence, a whole rangeof scientific tasks in the Eosmos program was carried out mainly by using several types of unitized satellites. Experience in building the first satellites for carryingout acsual scientific experiments showed that the use of past achievements can significantly reduce the time for developing them and cut their cost. Therefore, it was decided to "circulate" the best rational solutions.
A
developed mainly for satellites with different purposes. This included a radio telemetering system with storage, a radio command link;, a radio monitorink device for orbit parmeters, an on-board common time instrument, an altitude control system, power supply and temperature regulation. The overall utilization allowing satellites to be built on a producticn line basis, began with this auxiliary complex. Three basic bypes of unitized satellites were built. The first
was an unoriented satellite with chemical power supply for shortterm scientific experiments. An iinoriented sattliite with a solar power supply, and oriented towards the Sun, was to be used for longer research. Apart from this, a "space arrow" satellite was built for conducting scientific experiments requiring accurate orientjtion towards earth in low near-circular orbits, and first aerogyroscopic orientation systemin the worldwith aerodynamic stabilizers was used. The body of the unitized hemispherical bases.
It is
containir,g current sources, auxiliary equipment and scientific instrumenzs. The solar batteries are placed on the
body's surface and in the same place equipment and scientific
71
instrument sensors of all types depending on the experiment are attached outside on specially designed bars. Inside the pres-
surized body,containing instruments,there is a certain space for scientific equipment. The body o f the satellites is filled with a gas-heat carrier to ensure thermal conditions for on-board system, and the surface has specific coefficients of absoryrion and reflection of external thermal fluxe;. The lower hemisphere is a radiator and has louvers.
If it becomes cool insidL, the flaps of the louvers are rutated outside from the side with a cover which has a large absorption coefficient of solar radiation; if it becomes warm, on the other hand, they are rotated by the side with good heat emission. The scientific instruments are rantrolled by programming and timing device.; and by a radio command link d,+ng communication sessions. A high-information radiJ telemetering system with a memory is used for recording and transmitting scientific information to ground measurement points.
It can transmit information
/37
directly when conducting experiments, if the satellit? is in the action zone of ground receiving points, or recording the results of measurement on the memory when it is outside of this zone. Kosmos unitized satellites not only carried out experiments according t o a program announced by TASS on March 16, 1962, but also according to a program o f international cooperation for research and the use o f outer space for peaceful purposes. For
72
g e o p h y s i c a l r e s e a r c h , many c o u n t r i e s i n t h e world c a r r i e d o u t simultaneous o b s e r v a t i o n s w i t h ground a i d s . Leading i n s t i t u t e s o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR and o t h e r departments a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n s u g g e s t i n g and c a r r y i n g o u t experiments i n u n i t i z e d s a t e l l i t e s , as a r e r e s e a r c h o r g a n i z a t i o n s of c o u n t r i e s i n v o l v e d i n t h e Xnterkosmos program.
A l a r g e amount of u s e f u l s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been
o b t a i n e d by launching t h e Kosmos s a t e l l i t e s .
W a r e come
t h i s a l m o s t w e i g h t l e s s g a s which a b u t t e r f l y
e a s i l y c u t s w i t h i t s wing and heavy p l a t e s which a f f c r d p r o t e c t i o n from d e s t r u c t i v e t r t i l l e r y s h e l l s . The e a r t h ' s atmosphere n o t o n l y g i v e s l i f e , b u t as a r e l i a b l e s h i e l d p r o t e c t s i t , and i n s u l a t e s t h e e a r t h from t h e l e t h a l e f f e c t of o u t e r space. S h o r t - u v e e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c r a d i a t i o n from t h e Sun The atmosphere p r o t e c t s us
t o e a r t h c a n k i l l a l l l i f e on e a r t h ; . from t h i s .
I t h a s t h e same r e l i a b l e p r o t e c t i o n 2 s a t h r e e - f e e t
73
left
--
air pressure at a give11 altitude expresse? i, fractions of , The curve shows the altitude above s c a level at
an atmosphere.
which radiation arriving from space is attenuated by the upper atmospheric layers by a factor o f 10.
. 3
.
Fig. 1. The depth o f penetration ilito the earth's atmosphere of electromagnetic radiation of different ranges arriving from space.
Key:
Electron-positron annihilation line E = 0.5 MeV e f. Maximum "pion" gamma quanta E = 7 0 MV Pressure, a r o t:s G. h. Wavelength. cm i. Everest .i Earth's surface k. Quantum energy, eV r. Ultraviolet radiation 1. Radio wiildow" Infrared radiation in. S . Altitude, km X-rays 11. '). Gamma rays 1 ' . Range a f the spectrum \ljc light (1
If
'
.1
p 1
74
,
which have
an even d i f f e r e n c e t o a f a c t o r o f 1 0 .
t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r a d i a t i o n a l s o d i f f e r i n energy t o
factor of 1 C .
are a b s o r b e d i n t h e
Radiation i n a range
is absorbed
:. ( 1
cm) t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 8 0 0
by a t m o s p h c r i c n i t r o g e n , s h o r t e r t h a n 1,800
- - by oxygen and
-/38
Over t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s , h i g h - a l t i t u d e b a l l o o n s and r o c k e t s ,
a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s and s p a c e c r a f t have c a r r i e d numerous p h y s i c a l i n s t r u m e n t s i n t o t h e upper l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere and beyond i t , Almost s i m u l t a n e o u s l y , new d i r e c t i o n s o f a s t r o n o m i c submillimeter, infrared, u l t r a v i o l e t ,
A new g e n e r a t i o n o f a s t r o n o m i c i n s t r u
r e s e a r c h have a p p e a r e d :
Research into space objects in electromagnetic wave ranges previously inaccessible have led to a number of fundamental discoveries. Our concepts of the world which surround us are being
X-Ray Astronomy Is Ten Years Old Professor S. Mandel'shtam "Rauka i zhitn'", No. 9 , 1972.
An
Unexpected Discovery This year we celebrate one of the newest directions in astron-
omy - - X-ray astronomy. These ten years have been marked by outstanding astronomical discoveries. This was said recently by
I
V. L . Ginsberg, bearing in mind the number of equally important discoveries, the count for astronomy-physics for the ten yesrs was
5 : 2 (astronomy:
quasars, pulsars, "X-ray stars", relic radiation, the difference between electron and nuonic
rieutrinos, the violation o f the complementary principies of invarientsj [ I . ] . The discovery of X-ray "stars'! and thc space X-ray "background" /39 are the most important. Since scientists now have at- their disposal rockets and earth satellites able to carry measuring equipment beyond the limits of the earth's atmosphere, wide research has begun on studying heavenly bodies in wavelength ranges inaccessible to observations from the earth's surface,due to the absorbant effect of the earth's
76
atmosphere.
of t h e heavenly body i t s e l f
- - t h e s o l a r corona.
The t e m p e r a t u r e The e x c i t a -
of t h e corona i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y one m i l l i o n d e g r e e s .
f r e e e l e c t r o n s a t hi gl, t e m p e r a t u r e , f l y i n g n e a r atoms,
s e c , r e t u r n t o an
"unexcited" s t a t e , r a d i a t i n g t h e photon o f t h e s p e c i f i c f r e q u e n c y . The combination o f t h e s e photons g i v e s a b r i g h t - l i n e component o f t h e spectrum. When t h e s e f l i g h t s are f a r t h e r from t h e i o n s , t h e
field.
a cont
The d e n s i t y o f m a t t e r i n t h e corona
very s m a l l
- - at the
base o f t h e corona i t o ~ l y o n t a i n s about 1 0 a p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c c c e n t i m e t e r ( f o r comparison. t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere a t t h e base i s 100 b i l l i o n times g r e a t e r ) . Therefore, t h e Sun's
77
erg.cm-**sec-'.
(The full
the registration of X-ray solar radiation is completely feasible by using modern radiation receivers - - photon counters (see below) with a window area of approximately one square centimeter. Imediately after X-ray solar radiation was discovered, the question naturally arose; Are there still heavenly bodies emitting X-ray radiation and can they be observed? The answer was no. X-ray radiation from the nearest star, similar to our Sun, a Centaurus, which can have a hot corona and, consequently, emit X-rays, due to i t s great distance from the earth i s , a c c n r d i n ? tc theoretical calculation, orly 1O-l' erg-cm-2-sec-1 10 or 10-6 phot
x
using X-ray photon ,ounters on a geophysical rocket reaching an altituc. of approximately 2 2 5 6m. The attempt was unsuccessful;
Lunar X-ray radiation Kas detected late1 by Soviet scientists, including :he a i i t h ~ rcf t h e s e l i n e s , by u s i n g instruments on the
1. .ar S i i t e l i i t E - s LtnL-16 asci L x a - I? 1.
ii;
1565.
However, American scientists nade an extremely important discovery: X-ray radiatio.1 was observed leaving space, the source
o f xhich b a close to the center of our Galaxy. rs
In subsequent
experiments several groups of American scientists, a l s o using photon counters in rockets, confirmed the existerlce of this X-ray
78
source and established that it was in the constellation o f Scorpius, / 4 0 at approximately 20' from the center of the galaxy. At the same timc a second, somewhat weaker X-ray source,was discovered in the so-called Crab Nebula, and X-ray cosmic background. In this way, X-ray astronomy was born.
9
a Bifr'use
first X-ray source :;ith a flux of approximately lo-' erg-cm-2-sec-1 or phot-ern'"- sec-l, and afterwards other powerful X-ray sources,was a scientific sensation. covery had been made been discovered. X-Ray Stars and Galaxies
Thus, this year
As
--
quickly, giving much pleasure and disappointment to its excited parents - - physicists and astronomers.
I intentionally put
physicists first since, as in the case of radio astronomy, during the first period of its development,X-ray astronomy was more indeb-ied to physicists than astronomers. This i s cxplained since, obviously, physicists have a greater range of skills for successful.ly developing and te: ting new methods and equipment required duriag accunulating experimentq! facts than astronoqers (the reader has probably guessed that the author of the article is a physicist).
79
...
What do we know today'? At the present time, about a hundred discrete X-ray sources are known. The strongest of them, as before, is the source in
the Scorpius constellation Sco X-1. Later measurement for the X-ray radiation flux in the llclassicll range of the spectrum 1-10 A , more suitable for observations, was approximately
7 5 phot-cm-'-sec-',
0
source o f radiation flux is in the Crab Nebula Tau X-1 and is approximately 2.7 phot
x
cm-'*sec-l.
The majority of these observed sources are close to the plane o f odr Galaxy in the Milky Way and are concentrated in two groups with galactic longitudes o f 315-40' and 60-120' near the constellations of Scorpius-Sagittarius aad Cygnus-Cassiopeia. This corresponds to directions toward the two nearest spiral
arms of our Galaxy. The "mean" distance from us to the stars in the first arm is approximately 8 2 , 0 0 0 light years, and in the second is half that distance. Hence, one cail calculate that the
80
range (remember t h a t o n l y a 1 0 b i l l i o n t h f r a c t i o n o f complete s o l a r r a d i a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d f o r a f r a c t i o n o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n ) . P r o c e e d i n g from t h i s s t a t i s t i c a l l y - b a s e d s u p p o s i t i o n on t h e number o f p o s s i b l e " s t a n d a r d " X-ray s o u r c e s i n o u r Galaxy as b e i n g i n t h e o r d e r of 100, we o b t a i n a v a l u e i n t h e o r d e r o f 1
lo3'
o u r Galaxy
- - a t y p i c a l s p i r a l g a l a x y o f a v e r a g e dimensions.
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, a p p a r e n t l y , t h e r e a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y t e n
/41
--
w e s h a l l c a l l them
These a r e s o u r c e s , c o i n c i d i n g i n
M-87 i n t h e Virgo c o n s t e l -
l a t i o n , Centaurus-A and Cygnus-A, t h e b r i g h t e s t q u a s a r s 3C 2 7 3 , t h e two s o - c a l l e d S e y f e r t g a l a x i e s - - NGC 4 1 5 1 and NGC 1 2 7 5 , and a l s o t h r e e s o u r c e s i n t h e Galaxy n e a r us - - t h e s o - c a l l e d Large M a g e l l a n i c c l o u d and one s o u r c e - - i n t h e Small b l a g e l l a n i c c l o u d .
I t i s amazing t h a t X-ray r a d i a t i o n f l u x o f t h e M-87 r a d i o g a l a x y
( i t i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 m i l l i o n l i g h t y e a r s from u s ) j s a p p r o x i mately
d3 r g - s e c - l , e
which i s 1 0 , 0 0 0 t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e
Accordilg t o reaFonable,
01.e
can e x p e c t approxintate:.y
X-ray sj(iti,ces.
X-Ray T e l e s c o p e s
W must s t r e s s t h e f o l l o w i n g : e
i n s p i t e of t h e f r i g h t e n i n g
power o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n from s o u r c e s shown a t t h e end o f t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , r a d i a t i o n f l u x a r r i v i n g on e a r t h ( t h a t i s , t h e boundary o f e a r t h ' s atmosphere) i s e x t r e m e l y s m a l l owing t o t h e g r e a t d i s t a n c e s t o g a l a c t i c and e x t i a g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s . This c r e a t e s From
e x c e p t i o n a l e x p e r i m e n t a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r X-ray astronomy.
t h e s t r o n g e s t (act countirig t h e Sun] o f known s o u r c e s :if X-ray rzldiation, Sco X - 1 , o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y 75 p h o t . c ~ i i - z * s e c - ia r r i v e a t t h e l i m i t s o f t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere, and from a " s t a n c a r d " s o u r c e approximately 0 . 1 phot.cm-2*sec-1. For comparison, l e t u s show
r e c e i v e r s a s being
which a r e o n l y l o 4 t i m e s weaker t h a n t h e s t r o n g e s t s b u r c e .
s t a r s which a r e lo1'
t i m e s weaker
82
- - lom
for
--
lo6.
I t must b e added t h a t t h e s p e c t r a l
--
l o e 4 and f o r r a d i o astronomy
--
and t h e a n g u l a r angular
sec, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
I n t h i s way, X-ray astronomy w i t h i t s o b s e r v a t i o n potexktial
/42
+--<
e l e c t r i c f i e l d a p p l i e d between t h e p l a t e
; ,
"
a m p l i f i e d w i t h s p e c i a l a m p l i f i e r s and a r e computed i n t h e r o c k e t o r s a t e l l i t e .
transmitted by telemetry t o e a r t h .
The a r e a o f t h e i n p u t a p e r t u r e
meters.
A colli-
mator l i m i t s t h e c o u n t e r ' s f i e l d of a i s i o n , l o c a l i z i n g t h e X-ray s o u r c e s i n t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e ; f o r t h e most p a r t , t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n of t h e c o l l i m a t o r i s s e v e r a l s q u a r e d e g r e e s . Telescopes a r e normally i n s t a l l e d i n a v e r t i c a l r o c k e t , t h e a x i s o f t h e c o l l i m a t o r i s brought tDward t h e r e q u i r e d p o i n t o f t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e by a g y r o s y s t e m , o r slow s c a n n i n g o f s p e c i f i c areas of t h e celestial sphere is c a r r i e d out. I n 1968 t h e USSR launched a s p e c i a l a s t r o n o m i c Kosmos s a t e l l i t e , and i n 1970 t h e Uhuru s p e c i a l X-ray a s t r o n o m i c s a t e l l i t e was launched by t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . The s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e c o u n t e r telescope, t h a t i s , t h e mini-
tion
values.
However, t h e r e
i s a n o t h e r method
--
t o c o l l e c t X-ray r a d i a t i o n by s p e c i a l o p t i c s
- - 1 c 2 . However, i t must be n o t e d t h a t t h e u s e o f m
1.
/43
Let us now r e t u r n t o d i s c r e t e g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s .
In s p i t e of
i n p o s i t i o n w i t h remnapts o f
supernovae
- - t h e C r a b Nebula, Tycho
Brahe, C a s s i o p e i a - A , t h e V e i l Nebula i n Cygnus, Vela and Puppis. Sources o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f "old" remnants of. s u p e r n o v a e example, t h e Veil Nebula i n Cygnus, which exploded a p p r o x i m a t e l y
5 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s ago, a p p a r e n t l y , i s t h e f r o n t o f a shock wave w i t h a
- - a remnant o f a
which e x p l o d e d , a c c o r d i n g t o Chinese c h r o n i c l e s , i n
85
s i s t s of a r e l a t i v e l y extended e n v e l o p e w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f 1 - 2
a n g u l a r minutes
i-1
small n u c l e u s , h c w n e a r l i e r a s i h e s t a r
t h e 1 6 t h magnitude
g i v i n g r a d i o - , o p t i c a l and X-ray p u l s a r s w i t h a p e r i o d of 0 . 0 3 3 sec. X-ray r a d i a t i o n o f t h e Crab Nebula a n d , by t h e way, i t s r a d i a t i o n i n r a d i o - and o p t i c a l r a n g e s i s nc.t t h e r m a l [ a s , f o r example, t h e r a d i o - , o p t i c a l and X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n ) - - i t i s caused by t h e r a d i a t i o n o f f r e e e l e c t r o n s e m i t t e d b y a nucleuq w i t h s p e e d s c l o s e t o t h e speed o f l i g h t , i n a s t r o n g magnetic f i e l d ( t h e s o - c a l l e d synchrotron r a d i a t i o n ) . I n t h e remaining remnant o f s u p e r n o v a e were n o t o b s e r v e d . l i s t e d above p u l s a r s
o t h e r X-ray s t a r s r e c e n t l y .
Crab Nebula . - i t s p e r i o d i s 3.8266 s e c ; a p p a r e n t l y , i t c o i n c i d e s with NP0527 r a d i o p u l s a r . X-ray p u l s a r s Cyg X-I., Cen X-3 i n t h e If
c o n s t e l l a t i o n of H e r c u l e s a l s o have b o t h f a s t p e r i o d i c chagge;
t h e secc-td s t a r
s o u r c e s , as was s a i d e a r l i e r , t h e a c c u r a c y f o r
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e c o o r d i n a t e s o f X-ray s o u r c e s on t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e is small and, t h e r e f o r e , i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y such s o u r c e s w i t h known o p t i c a l o r r a d i o s t a r s o r , on t h e c o n t r a r y , c o n f i r m t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c X-ray s o u r c e does n o t c o i n c i d e w i t h any o p t i c a l o r radio source. Sco X - 1 and Cyg X - 2 ,
A t p r e s e n t , e x c e p t i o n s are s t r o n g s o u r c e s
t h e p o s i t i m o f which was d e t e r m i n e d by u s i n g
- - and, a p p a r e n t l y ,
i s a dual star.
/44
i s a v e r y compact plasma f o r m a t i o n w i t h a d i a m e t e r i n t h e o r d e r o f
lO.000 k and a d e n s i t y of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1016 p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c m
t i o n , c o u l d have o n l y e x i s t e d f o r a n o r d e r o f a second.
i s "pumped" i n
Sco X - 1 ,
f o r t h e p r e s e n t , remains u n c l e a r . Several
c a n d i d a t e i s a l s o t h e "blue" s t a r o f t h e 1 5 t h magnitude, p r o b a b l y
a7
a d u a l , w i t h r a p i d l y changing b r i g h t n e s s .
belongs t o t h e same class o f o j e c t s as Sco X - 1 o r i s a n o t h e r t y p e of star i s not ye; clear. Fron what h a s b r e n s a i d , i t f o l l o w s t h a t one of t h e main proo-
w i t h o p t i c a l and
e a r l i e r , once a g a i n t h e mechh;,isrn o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n , t o a considerable extent, is unclear. One i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n when t h e n a t u i e o f e x t r a g a l a c t i c X-ray s o u r c e s was b e i n g a n a l y z e d . su2ernovae The apFearance o f
i s a r e l a t i v e l y r a r e phenomenon; i n o u r Galaxy t h e s e
o u r Galaxy, f o r example, a t a d i s t a n c e o f 30-SU m i l l i o n l i g h t y e a r s , t h e number o f s u c h phenomena w i l l b e s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e enough to n o t i c e t h e Lppearance o f a supernova months. Young supernovae once e v e r y s e v e r a l
X-ray f l u x i n t h e o r d e r o f 104*-1043 e r g - s e c - l , g i v e a X-ray f l u x on t h e boi*ndary of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere of a p p r o x i m a t e l y e r g * c m - 2 * s e c - 1 , t h a t i s , s u f f i c i e n t t o be o b s e r v s d . e n t l y , such e x p l o s i o n s have been o b s e r v e d t w i c e : Appar-
t h e Cen X - 2 source,
f i r s t o b s e r v e d i n 1967, q u i c k l y r e a c h e d a b r i g h t n e s s comparable
88
with that of Sco X-1, and then quickly disappeared; in a similar way, the Cen X-4 source, first observed on July 6 and 9 1969, reached a brightness 2 . 5 times greater than that of Sco X-1 and then faded relatively slowly,and on September 2 4 was no longer visible. X-Ray Background and the Future of the Universe
As
experimentally studied in an extremely wide spectral interval from super-soft X-ray radiation,with a wavelength of SO gamma radiation with a wavelength of
--
A, to
hard
a ' .
89
l a r g a s must t r a v e l g r e a t e r d i s t a n c e s t h a n i n o t h e r d i r e c t i o n s .
S e v e r a l s u p p o s i t i o n s e x i s t on t h e nature o f t h e d i f f u s e background.
A t f i r s t g l a n c e , i t i s most n a t u r a l t o assume t h a t t h e
o f normal g a l a x i e s , s u c h as o u r Galaxy i n t h e u n i v e r s e , g i v e s a v a l u e
two o r d e r s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e o b s e r v e d . The estimate o f r a d i o
t h i s way, i f one does n o t assume t h e e x i s t e n c e o f e x t r e m e l y powerf u l m e t a g a l a c t i c s o u r c e s o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n s t i l l unknown, t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e d i f f u s e background i s fsrmed by r a d i a t i o n o f s p a c i a l l y u n s e p a r a t e d s o u r c e s i s n o t confirmed. There a r e other
through" t o us:
r a d i a t i o n w i t h a wavelength i n t h e o r d e r a f 50
must be p r a c t i c a l l y c o m p l e t e l y a b s o r b e d i n o u r Galaxy's i n t e r s t e l -
l a r gas.
However, t h e most i n t e r e s t i n g q u e s t i o n i s t h i s . There I s
90
Modern t h e o r e t i c a l cosmology s u g g e s t s
t h e s o - c a l l e d "open model" of t h e u n i v e r s e ,
, when
t h e u n i v e r s e w i l l b e g i n t o compress
i n about
1 0 b i l l i o n y e a r s ' time.
depends on t h e a v e r i g e d e n s i t y o f m a t t e r i n t h e u n i v e r s e .
If it
c r i t i c a l d e n s i t y c l o s e t o t h r e e p a r t i c l e s p e r c u b i c meter. However, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s shown a b o v e , f o r t h e d e n s i t y o f m a t t e r i n t h e u n i v e r s e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d i f f u s e X-ray background, a r e b a s e d on s u c h u n c e r t a i n e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e t o g i v e a s i m p l e c o n c l u s i o n on t h e model o f our universe. However, we s t i l l have s u f f i c i e n t time t o t e l l o u r
r e a d e r s what a w a i t s us
- - t h e f u r t h e r expansion of t h e u n i v e r s e o r
i t s "co 1l a p s et!
X-Ray O b s e r v a t o r i e s i n Space
A1 t h e r e s u l t s shown above were o b t a i n e d by equipment i n 1
r o c k e t s and e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s ( a e r o s t a t s were sometimes used f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o h a r d X-ray r a d i a t i o n ) , when t h e l e n g t h o f o b s e r v a t i o n o f each s o u r c e d i d n o t exceed t e n s o f seconds o r one o r two
91
minutes.
/46
most promising and i s t e c h n i c a l l y f e a s i b l e i n t h e n e a r f u t u r e . The f i r s t experiment i n o p e r a t i n g a s m a l l c o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e a t t h e P h y s i c s I n s t i t u t e i m . P. N. Lebedev of t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR,which worked f o r s e v e r a l months on t h e Lunokhod-1, made
it p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n f o r b u i l d i n g s u c h
Large
c o u n t e r and r e f l e c t i n g t e l e s c o p e s f o r glai,cing i n c i d e n c e , s e t up on t h e moon,can be d i r e c t e d a t t h e r e q u i r e d p o i n t of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e by commands from e a r t h , a n d h o l d t h e examined X-ray s o u r c e i n t h e i r f i e l d o f v i s i o n f o r many h o u r s and days by u s i n g s p e c i a l o p t i c a l s t e l l a r guides. i n memories and sessions. The i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d w i l l be r e c o r d e d
t r a n s m i t t e d back t o e a r t h d u r i n g communication
o f manned l o n g - t e r m o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s o f t h e S a l y u t t y p e i n t h e
92
i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e unknown, each s u b s e q u e n t o p e r a t i o n from t h e numerous o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e d i n a s t r o n o m i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n must be s e l e c t e d c a r e f u l l y , b a s e d on a n a l y s i s o f r e s u l t s o f p r e v i o u s measurement: sometimes, one must r e p e a t one o r s e v e r a l measurements,
--
t e c h n i c a l l y p o s s i b l e t o send i n t o s p a c e l a r g e c o u n t e r t e l e s c o p e s w i t h an a p e r a t u r e a r e a o f s e v e r a l s q u a r e m e t e r s , a n d r e f l e c t i n g t e l e scopes f o r glancing incidence w i t h a diameter o f approximately a meter,and a l e n g t h of 5 - 6 m e t e r s which can be c o n t r o l l e d by man. I t w i l l be p o s s i b l e t o o b s e r v e w i t h t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s , f o r example, o b j e c t s of t h e Sco X - 1 t y p e i n t h e n e a r e s t g a l a x i e s by i n c r e a s i n g
e t h e d i s t a n c e w p e n e t r a t e t h e u n i v e r s e by s e v e r a l t e n s of times.
An a s t r o n a u t o r i e n t i n g a s p a c e c r a f t w i l l d i r e c t t h e t e l e s c o p e a t t h e o b j e c t t o be examined o r a t t h e n e c e s s a r y p o i n t of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e , t h e n h o l d t h e o b j e c t i n t h e f i e l d of v i s i o n w i t h an autonomous guidance system w i t h an a c c u r a c y of s e v e r a l seconds by " o p t i c a l " s t a r s . By u s i n g s p e c i a l e l e c t r o n i c and o p t i c a l cameras, t h e a s t r o n a u t w i l l photograph s e c t i o n s of t h e c e l e s t i a l s p h e r e i n X-ray and v i s i b l e r a y s f o r d e t e r m i n i n g a c c u r a t e l y t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of X-ray sources, and l i n k i n g them w i t h " o p t i c a l " s o u r c e s and
93
Radiation
spectra can be studied by spectrometers, radiation time characteristics (pulsation, scintillation and explosion) by photometers, and radiation polarization by using polarimeters. Long-term manned
orbital stations containing many instruments controlled by man, combined with lunar observatories, will give X-ray astronomy regularity, production and precision of observations, which are peculiar to ground optical and radio astronomy.
ROW
V. G. Kurt
Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences "Priroda", No. 5, 1972. In the middle of the last century,the French phj-losopher and positivist,Auguste Comte,maintained that the chemical composition
/47
i
However,
ten years after Comte's lecture spectral analysis was created, whereby it was possible to determine the chemical compcsition of stars. Spectroscopy rapidly earned its place in astronomy, not
only for determining the chemical composition, but also researching into many physical properties of stars, planets, galaxies and other celestial objects. Nevertheless, Comte's followers would have said that all types of radiation would be inaccessible to us if they did not penetrate the atmosphere. Only a minute fraction of the almost limitless electromagnetic spectrum reaches the earth's surface.
94
The space age has meant a revolution in astronomy appearance of all-band astronomy.
--
the
required to perceive waves in X-ray,submillimeter and other ranges. Optical astronomy, going into space, meets new difficulties. This article is devoted to all these questions. What Interferes with Ground Observations? All theoretical building of astronomy
--
planets suggested by Ptolemy,to modern cosmology observations. As means of observations developed, the whole
--
is based ~n
ti.on reaches the earth's surface through two transmission windows: the optical, extending from 3,000 fi to 1-2 pm, and the radio window in a wavelength band from several millimeters to 10-30 m. Before the end o f the ~ O ' S , all observations were done in the optical band, and the radio window has only been used for the :ast
20 years.
i .
Where in the atmosphere is the absorbent "screen" which holds back the remaining electromagnetic radiation? Ultraviolet radiation (A = 3,000-1,800 $is absorbed by ozone at altitudes of
A).
The situation
is somewhat different in the infrared region where radiation is absorbed by nitrogen, water vapor and carbon dioxide molecules
95
vidual areas of the infrared region can be observed from "aircraft" {lo-20 km) or "aerostat" ( 2 0 - 4 0 km) altitudes. Great altitudes
are required for researching into submillimeter waves which lie between the far infrared and radio region of the spectrbm. Long-waves cosmic radio radiation is reflected by the ionosphere which extends for a great distance from the earth. One ~ u s t
take equipment to an altitude of 10,000 k and above to research m into kilometer waves. This situation is shown visually in Fig. 3 ,
nn
r-
phere is not the only main limitation fur ground telescopic obssrvations. A second limitation is caused by atmospheric turbulence which, as a rule, does not allow one tc obtain a resolution better than 0".5
- - --
- 1".
/48 -
Fig. 3. Radiation tion in the penetrating power and resolving trznsmission by the earth's atmosphere power of telescopes. For example, the in ultraviolet and X-ray regions of the extreme working stellar magnitude, at spectrum. The Y-axis the the altitude to which one can still fix objects of a cerwhich radiation of a given wave1 ,ligith tain brightness, is 23m, and the spatial penetrates; the curve shows atoms and moleresolution for the moon i s 1 km, for Mars cules absorbing radiation. ? e - - is the base of natural logarithms equal to 2.7182
...
96
--
150 km.
especially felt when large instruments with a mirror diameter greater than 2 - 3 m are being operated (Fig. 4 ) . Therefore,
astronomers are carefully looking for spots with the best astroclimate for testing the capabilities of large telescopes. In the next ten years approxi-
the dimension of a star image quite often Fig. 4. Dependence on the extreme fixed stellar magnitude mext on the telescope diameter (on the x-axis) and angular diameters of the disc image of the star (figures above the curves). All the curves are drawn for a constant focal telescope distance. Key: a * mext* is less than 0".5.
culties will completely disappear if one sends a telescope in a rocket or satellite beyond the limits of the atmosphere
done after studying those of earth instruments. Of course, the cost of a large orbital telescope is 10-100 times greater than that
of a similar
when planning future experiments. At the same time, there are no basic difficulties which prevent one, during the next 10-20 years, from putting into near-earth orbit or even setting up on the moon, a large optical telescope with a diameter of up to 3 m (Fig. 5 . )
97
.:-
fiQ
b.
-B-"
"
-.
1
. h . _ . .
*.---
v-
of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 mm.
Requirements f o r t h e mirror of a space teles c o p e need n o t d i f f e r from Fig. 5. An o p t i c a l diagram of a n o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e equipped w i t h a d e f r a c t i o n spectrograph. 1 Defraction g r a t i n g ; 2 - Spectrum o f s t a r ; 3 S p e c t r o m e t e r a p e r t u r e ; 4 - Main m i r r o r ; 5 - Secondary m i r r o r ; 6 - Orient a t i o n t e l e s c o p e s ; 7 - Rays from n a v i g a t i o n a l s t a r s ; 8 - Rays from researched star.
A/D3,
which
i s 0".006.
T h i s means t h a t one c o u l d s e e a f i v e Of
149
c o i n a t a d i s t a n c e o f 500 km t h r o u g h s u c h a t e l e s c o p e .
a m i r r o r w i t h a d i a m e t e r o f up t o 2 m w i t h a r e s o l v i n g power o f
O'l.2
i s s t i l l beyond o u r c a p a b i l i t i e s .
One m u s t remember t h a t t h e
m i r r o r o f a n o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e w i l l work i n w e i g h t l e s s n e s s , although
i t was b u i l t on t h e ground.
The t r u e d i s c h a r g e o f a m i r r o r and
3 Here, X i s t h e wavelength, D i s t h e m i r r o r d i a m e t e r . I f both these a r e measured i n c e n t i m e t e r s , t h e l i m i t o f t h e a n g u l a r r e s o l v i n g power w i l l be o b t a i a e d i n r a d i a n s . To c o n v e r t i t i n t o seconds o f a r c t h e number o b t a i n e d must be m u l t i p l i e d by 206,265.
98
methods for checking the mirror surface, which are continually being developed, will produce a resolving power of 0".1.
I am
intentionallv omitting to mention the temperature conditions of a mirror, since this is a purely technical question. In principle,
any required degree of stability is feasible. Apart from this, there is no doubt that the mirror of an orbital telescope must be made from sitall, a substance with a very small (practically zero) coefficient of thermal expansion. It is obvious thst the accuracy of the altitude control system and stabilization of such a telescope must correspond with its rosolving power or exceed it, that is, must equal 0".03-0".1. By itself such an accuracy cannot be accomplished, if guidance is done by an examined star-like object, there still remains the problem of temperature defLrmation and warping of the telescope components (Fig. 6 ) . However, one can assume that an accuracy of
0".1 will be achieved in the nzar future in automatic unmanned stations specially designed for astronomical observations.
. --
Fig. 6. The movement of a space observatory in near-ground orbit; the orientation of the telescope is kept constant towards the star being investigated.
99
--.,
_ _ . . I
PAGE:^; POOR; ai E
Let us examine t h e p e n e t r a t i n g power of a t h r e e - m e t e r s p a c e t e l e s c o p e , s t a r t i n g w i t h a b r i g h t n e s s background o f -Sm p e r s q u a r e degree. With f l u x from a s t a r e q u a l t o t h a t from t h e background
is
lo-'
t e n i n c i d e n t p h o t o n s , we o b t p l n 0.06 p u l s e s / s e c .
I t i s obvious
/50
be approximately 200 h o u r s .
2Sm.
Such a s t a r can be r e c o r d e d by e l e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y f o r a
lo%,
and p h o t o -
graphed w i t h an exposure i n t h e o r d e r of s e v e r a l h o u r s .
I f d u r i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e atmosphere t h e r e w m l d be
100
I t w i l l s t i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t w i t h such
s t a r s , s i n c e t h e i r s t e l l a r magnitude f r o n a d i s t a n c e o f 1 0 l i g h t
y e a r s i s +30m w i t h a n a n g u l a r r a n g e from t h e s t a r o f 0".3-1".5.
As f o r t h c r e s o l u t i o n o f p l a n e t d e t a i l s i n t h e s o l a r system, i t
bee o b t a i n e d f o r t h e s e heavenly b o d i e s by i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s equipped w i t h p h o t o t e l e v j s i o n equipment, however, i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s t a t i o n s have n o t been s e n t towards o t h e r p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r system,and a s p a c e t e l e s c o p e w i l l n o t compete f o r r e q o l v i n g i n d i v i d u a l d e t a i l s on t h e i r v i s i b l e s u r f a c e 4 S p e c t r a l and P h o t o m e t r i c Research There i s an i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e main t a s k o f f u t u r e e x t r a a t m o s p h e r i c t e l e s c o p e s w i l l be s p e c t r a l and p h o t o m e t r i c r e s e a r c h i n t h e u l t r a v i o l e t , i n f r a r e d and s u b m i l l i m e t e r r e g i o n s o f t h e spectrum. I n t h i s r e s e a r c h t l e r e s o l v i n g power of a t e l e s c o p e i s However, r e s e a r c h i n t o extremely
n o t so e s s e n t i a l i f i t is b e t t e r t h a n 1".
t h e s t r u c t u r e of weak g a l a x i e s , q u a s a r s , e t c . , i s i n t e r e s t i n g a t a r e s o l u t i o n o f 0".1.
4 For exampie, photographs were c.:ained o f b e t t e r t h a n 1 km.
o f Mars w i t h a r e s o l u t i o n
101
Photometers for all regions of the spectrum, photographic material for visible and ultraviolet regions and television equipment for all regions apart frcm the submillime+.er,willbc used for collecting information from such a telescope. The best method is
the use of photoelectric detectors for ultraviolet and visible regions, photoelectric multipliers and electronic and optical transducer tubes where an efficiency of 0 . 3 of a pulse on a photon has been achieved on a dark background of 1 pulse/sec. Therefore,
there must be joint efforts to improve detectors in the infrared and submillimeter ranges. Normally, these detectors require
(4O
cooling, sometimes even to a temperature of liquid helium and their sensitivity is much less than the maximum one.
K, )
But in
one ultraviolet region alone the number of objects observed by a three-meter telescope is practically inexhaustible. An American orbital astronomical observatory (OAO),equip~ec! with telescopes with a diameter of up to 4 0 cm,has obtained information for 10,000 stars in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Obviously, the launch into orbit of a two- or three-meter telescope will be preceded by launches of telescopes with a diameter of 1-1.5 m in type OAO vehicles equipped mainly with spectrometers and photometers for the near-ultraviolet region (1,0003,000
1).
Let us turn now to the X-ray wavelength band extending from
0.1 to 100
i, which
102
.I
100-0.1 k i l o e l e c t r o n v o l t s .
G a s - f i l l e d p r o p o r t i o n a l counters with
Lr
organic f i l m w i t \ a
t h i c k n e s s o f 1 0 - 1 i.lm ( n y l a r , formvar, p o l y p r o p y l e n e , p o l y c a r b o n a t e ,
R e s u l t s have a l r e a d y been
p u b l i s h e d , o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e l a u n c h o f a c o u n t e r w i t h a dimension of 1
x
I m , howc,er, t h e r e i s a predominance o f c o u n t e r s w i t h a n
a r e a o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1,000 c m 2
U n t i l now, t h e main r e s u l t s i n
t h e X-ray r e g i o n of t h e spectrum were o b t a i n e d by r o c k e t s a t a l t i t u d e s of 100-200 km, and t h e l e n g t h o f e a c h e x p e r i m e n t was 5 min. However, it a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n w i l l soon change. The f i r s t s a t e l l i t e equipped f o r X-ray r a d i a t i o n r e s e a r c h , t h e has a l r e a d y l e d t o i n t e r e s t i n g d i s c o v e r i e s . Uhuru (USA),
Up t o t h e p r e s e n t time,
more t h a n 50 d i s c r e t e X-ray s c u r c e s have been o b s e r v e d , of which only a b o u t 1 5 have been i d e n t i f i e d w i t h known o p t i c a l o b j e c t s . These a r e t h e remnants o f t h e e x p l o s i o n s of nova, d i f f u s e n e b u l a , remnants of supernova, t h e S e y f e r t galaxy. t h e 3C 273 q u a s a r , M a g e l l a n i c c l o u d s and
w i t h r a d i o s o u r c e s and i s r a d i a t i o n mechariisms:
s p e c i a l group of o b j e c t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t
t h e r m a l i r r a d i a t i o n of plasma, h e a t e d t o
103
by several independent iirechanisms, each of which dominates one or other region of the spectrum. This may be so: thermal radiation
O K
and a density
near to the critical (2-10-29 g/cm3); the decay of aO-mesons; the inverse Compton effect of relativistic electrons in quanta of relic submillimeter radiation which has remained from previous stages of development of the universs. At the present time, sources with a flux intensity (in the region of 2-8 i) 10'2-10'3 the X-ray range. quantum*cm-2-sec-1, be observed in can
taneously determine the flux from a source, its spectrum, the position o f the source in the sky and the angular dimension. spectral resolving power o f proportional counters is small: the 2-8 1 range is 15-20%, decreasing by five times for 50 the spectrum of sources is only determined approximately. The in
1, since
In con-
junction with a cellular collimator,counters can determine the position in the sky and the angular dimension of sources with an accuracy o f approximately one degree, however, a modulation collimator gives a determination acc~iracyof up to 20", it is true only
in the very brightest sources of the Scorpius XR-1 type with a flux of 20-1 phot*cm-Z*sec1 -
Their sensitivity to charged particles creating a background complicates observations by proportional counters.
By using
special methods, whereby one can select pulses according t o shape (rejecting pulses corresponding to particles, and allowing only
104
times,
is t h e u s e o f o b l i q u e i n c i d e n c e r e f l e c t i n g p a r a b o l i c m i r r o r s f o r
incidence angles g r e a t e r than 88-89 degrees. The u s e o f t h e s e
m i r r o r s , combj led w i t h small c o u n t e r s , w i l l g i v e g r e a t a d v a n t a g e s when observin,; weak s o u r c e s i n t h e s o f t X-ray r e g i o n , where X > 1 0 1, and t h e r e f l e c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t i s q u i t e l a r g e . The f i r s t e x p e r i I t c a n be
3 m2) and t h i s w i l l g i v e a s h a r p
i n c r e a s e i n t h e a n g u l a r r e s o l v i n g power c a n be o b t a i n e d by a counter
s e t up on t h e moon's s u r f a c e and o r i e n t e d t o t h e l o c a l
horizon.
Then one c a n c a l c u l a t e i t s a n g u l a r dimension and one o f i t s c o o r d i n a t e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r i s i n g and s e t t i n g time o f t h e o b s e r v e d o b j e c t s over t h e horizon. I n a c t u a l f a c t , t h e r e s o l v i n g power
r e a c h e s one a n g u l a r minute when t h e c o u n t e r i s moved 3 km f a r t h e r from t h e h o r i z o n , a n d t h e v e r t i c a l dimension by 1 m. The second p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e s u b s t a n t i a l improvement of t h e r e s o l v i n g power i n t h e i n f r a r e d r e g i o n o f t h e spectrum c o n s i s t s o f
195
meter o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
m o r more.
Today, t w o - m i r r o r o b l i q u e
The
more t h a n a t o n c o u l d be used
i n t h e harder region of the spectrum. Fig. 7. An imaginary diagram o f an X-ray o r b i t a l t e l e s c o p e . 1 Prop o r t i o n a l cou t e r w i t h a s u r f a c e of up t o 1 0 m , equipped w i t h a c e l l u l a r collimator; 2 - Solar batteries; 3 - Orientation teles c o p e s ; 4 - Antennas. Such a n i n s t r u m e n t
would d e t e c t A - r a d i a t i o n from
e x t r a g a l a c t i c sources.
A normal o p t i c a l t e l e -
f o r t h e s u r f a c e p r o c e s s i n g of a m i r r o r f o r
this region of the spectrum are often considerably lower than for the ultraviolet or optical bands.
/53
requirements considerably decreases the cost of the mirror itself, the monitoring systems fcr the quality of the mirror and, finally, orientation and stabilization systems. OF the other hand, one can increase the diameter of the mirror and this can prove very useful. Possibly, in this way astronomers will be able to produce a special infrared telescope with a mirror diameter of up to 10 m. Obviously,
the weight of such a telescope will exceed 10 tons, although the mirror will weigh little in comparison with those of scopes. Extraterrestrial Radio kstronomy Space antennas with measurements from several hundreds of meters to several thousands of kilometers are required radic, astronomical long-wave area. been published. in the earth tele-
Several designs of such systems have already Ground observations are made more difficult not In principle, the earth's dimensions
themsejves do not allow one t o increase the resolving power of radio telescopes indefinitely. The defraction limit, equal to X/D, limits the resolving power for X
= 3
of arc when spacing interferometer antennas at a distance equal to the earth's diameter.
It now seems possible, by taking one of the interferometer
difficulties for producing such an instrument: there must be simultaneous accurate orientation of both antennas; signal recording must be synchronized with an accuracy of up to when the
antennas are at a distance of L - 300,000 km; the signal must be recorded 3r transmitted to earth on a very wide frequency band. Only in this way can one attain a resolving power of up to
2-
angular seconds.
Fig. 8. A diagram of a space radio interferometer; one antenna - on earth, the other - - in near-earth orbit. Possibly, the future of extra-atmospheric astronomy will entail the use of large instruments weighing many tons. Each tele-
scope of this type is a unique instrument with practically unlimited / 5 4 use (several years) according to the inexhaustible scientific program, Its great cost, including many years of preparatory work, means that the scientific observation program must be developed thoroughly. 108 Obviously, the use of such instruments can be an
arena f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l s c i e n t i f i c cooperation.
Bearing i n mind
t h a t t h e l i f e s p a n of a l a r g e unique t e l e s c o p e i s s e v e r a l y e a r s , and probably d e c a d e s , t h e r e a r e t h r e e methods f o r o p e r a t i n g such an o b s e r v a t o r y : f u l l y automated; nanned wit'.. a changeover crew;
h e a r t b e a t s and b r e a t h i n g , and any movement w i l l d i s t u r b t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f t h e t e l e s c o p e i f it i s r i g i d l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e manned vehicle. T h i s can e a s i l y be avoided by u s i n g X-ray, gamma-, i n f r a -
Region of t h e Spectrum
A - r a d i - X-ray a t ion
Infrared
Submil1ime t e r
App~~ximately 1 0 '
lo
10"
t h e t h e o r y of r e l a t i v i t y .
shows t h a t t h e a c t u a l development of equipment always o u t s t r i p s f o r e c a s t s , and t h e f u r t h e r we look i n t o t h e f u t u r e , t h e f a s t e r technology d e v e l o p s . Undoubtedly, d u r i n g t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s a s t r o p h y s i c s ha5 become t h e most i m p o r t a n t of t h e p h y s i c a l and mathematical s c i e n c e s . o n l y needs t o l i s t t h e b a s i c d i s c o v e r i e s made i n t h a t time: One the
/ss -'
universe; pulsars,which a r e f a s t spinning neutron s t a r s , t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r e c a s t 30 yeclrs ago; d i s c r e t e s o u r c e s o f X-ray r a d i a t i o n ; s o u r c e s of maser r a d i a t i o n o f hydroxyl and w a t e r v a p o r , t h e r e c o r d i n g o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 20 l i n e s o f i n t e r s t e l l a r m o l e c u l e s , and much more.
Almost a l l t h e s e d i s c o v e r i e s were made u n e x p e c t e d l y ,
It
t h e d i s c o v e r i e s made w i l l be t h i s one.
l e s s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h o s e made i n
1iO
"Pravda",
A p r i l 15, 1972.
a t 3 h o u r s 5 4 minutos
Moscow time
i n t h e S o v i e t Union,in accord-
ance w i t h t h e o u t z r - s p a c e r e s e a r c h program.
The s t a t i m i s d e s i g n e d f o r s t u d y i n g s o l a r a c t i v i t y , and i t s e f f e c t on t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium and t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere. The s t a t i o n weighs 845 kg.
I t was p u t i n t o h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t and
has t h e following parameters: maximum d i s t a n c e from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( i n t h e apogee)
--
---
200,000 km;
---
--
97 h o u r s ;
--
65 degrees,
The s t a t i o n was s e n t i n t o a p r e d i c t e d t r p j e c t o r y from t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e o r b i t o f an a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e . The Prognoz a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n c o n t a i n s s c i e n t i f i c equipment d e s i g n e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g c o r p u s c u l a r , gamma- and X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , s o l a r plasma f l u x e s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere, and a l s o f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y o f magnetic f i e l d s i n n e a r - e a r t h o u t e r space. Beaides s c i e n t i f i c e q u i p m e n t , t h e s t a t i o n i s equipped w i t h : r a d i o t r a n s m i t t e r working on a f r e q u e n c y o f 928.4 megahertz, a
a
111
r a d i o system f o r a c c u r a t e measurement of o r b i t a l elements, and a r a d i o t e l e m e t r y system f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g back t o e a r t h o p e r a t i o n a l d a t a o f i n s t r u m e n t s and s c i e n t i f i c equipment. According t o t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , a l l on-board systems and s c i e n t i f i c equipment a r e working n o r m a l l y .
A coordinating
computation c e n t e r i s p r o c e s s i n g t h e incoming i n f o r m a t i o n .
A Solar Patrol
(TASS) " I z v e s t i y a " , May 1 9 , 1 9 7 2 . The S o v i e t Prognoz O b s e r v a t o r y i n O r b i t The S o v i e t s p a c e r e s e a r c h prcgram i s wide and v a r i e d . The
/56
m a t i c s t a t i o n has heen c a r r y i n g o u t s c i e n t i f i c r e s e a r c h of t h e moon and near-moon o u t e r s p a c e f o r more t h a n e i g h t months. The l a u n c h o f t h e Prognoz s a t e l l i t e was an i m p o r t a n t phase i n r e s e a r c h of t h e Sun and i t s e f f e c t on t h e e a r t h . The l i n k s between t h e Sun and t h e e a r t h a r e e x t r e m e l y v a r i e d . Everyone knows t h a t s o l a r h e a t and l i g h t g i v e l i f e t o t h e e a r t h . However, a p a r t from r a d i a t i o n i n t h e o p t i c a l b a n d , t h e Sun e m i t s r a d i o waves, u l t r a v i o l e t and X-ray r a d i a t i o n and c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s . C o n s t a n t l y e m i t t e d s o l a r plasma f l u x e s - - s o l a r wind
--
move i n
11 2
a geomagnetic f i e l d
--
t h e magnetosphere.
This a r e a is f i l l e d w i t h
charged p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t energy, ar:d magpetic s t o r m s occ!ir here. P a r t i c l e s p e n e t r a t e t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere c a u s i n g p o l a r These p r o c e s s e s are due
S p a c e c r a f t f l i g h t s have shown t h a t when t h e r e i s a s o l a r f l a r e a g r e a t number o f c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s o f d i f f e r e n t energy a r e emitted i n t o surro-mding space. Sometimes, t h e i r energy i s s o
g r e a t t h a t they p e n e t r a t e t h e s k i n of a spacecraft f r e e l y , e f f e c t t h e s e r v i c e a b i l i t y of t h e equipment,and can be a danger f o r a s t r o nauts. S o l a r o b s e r v a t i o n s c a r r i e d o u t beyond t h e e a r t h ' s magnetos p h e r e t r a c k e d t h e p a r a m e t e r changes o f s o l a r wind, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o l a r X-ray and gamma r a d i a t i o n , r a d i o r a d i a t i o n and s o l a r cosmic r a y s . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h a t o f ground
o b s e r v a t o r i e s which c a r r y o u t c o n s t a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s n o t o n l y o f t h e Sun,but o f t h e e a r t h ' s magnetic f i e l d , cosmic r a y s , e t c . , w i l l be used f a r s t u d y i n g s o l a r a c t i v i t y and t h i s w i l l h e l p t o c r e a t e bases f o r a c c u r a t e space weather f o r e c a s t s . T h i s was t h e -eason
p l a c e d i n t o c a l c u l a t e d o r b i t i n two s t a g e s .
A t f i r s t , the station
the station additional speed and placed orbit. In accordance with the scientific
it
into calculated
flight
programs,
Prognoz station's orbit at a maximum altitude above the earth's surfacs was 200,000 km,and the minimum 9 5 0 km oriented with the apogee toward the Sun. Trajectory measurement showed that the initial parameters of the station's orbit were close to the calculated ones. This orbit is unusual since its parameters, especially the minimum altitude above the earth's surface, change significantly ,lue to solar and lunar fielr's o f gravity. These changes in alti-
/ 57
tude can reach 4 0 0 km and above during each revolution. The Prognoz automatic station (Fig. 9 ) is a cylindricallyshaped,pressurized container with both ends covered by spherical plates. There are platforms inside the container for attaching
equipment. These platforms hold scientific instruments and radio telemetry equipment, solar orientation systems units, and thermal conditions and energy supply units. filled with inert gas. The otltside surface o f the cylindrical section o f the container contains several sensors and scientific equipment units, solar orientation .cystem actuator devices, nitrogen bottles and four solar-battery panels. The pressurized container is
meter boos and a loop antenna for receiving radio radiation o f magnetospheric and interplanetary plasma. Scientific equipment
114
Control of the on-board systems, neasurement of movement parameters 2nd scientific and telemetric information from the station,is done by an on-board telemeter complex combined with ground equipment. During the whole flight time, scientific information and data on the operation of various on-baord systems are recorded on a special memory included in the radio telemeter complex. this information is transmitted back t o earth. The station's longitudinal axis must be directed towards the Sun for the scientific equipment and solar batteries to work normally.
A
Later,
position, and the station is gyroscopic2lly stabilized in space by twisting. The station is equipped with passive and active temperature control devices
to
the instrument container and the required temperature for the individual units of the satellite.
A
This energy supply system provides electricity for all the onboard station systems. Scientific instruments in the satellite are combined into individual groups,depending on the nature o f the phenomena investigated. The first group includes instruments for masuring solar
116
These instruments include an X-ray spectrometer with a proportiond counter for registering X-ray solar radiation in the energy ranee 1.5-30,000 electron volts, and a gamma ray scintillation spectrometer in the energy range 30-350,000 electron volts. The instru-
ixents with the satellite are continuously oriented towards the Sun, The second group of instruments is designed for measuring cosmic ray solar fluxes and high energy particles outside and inside of the earth's magnetosphere. This group contains: a
and heavy nuclei in several energy ranges; a Cherenkov counter for measuring electron fluxes in energy ranges 40-140,000 electron volts, and a scintillation spectrometer for measuring proton fluxes with an energy of 30-210,000 electron volts. The third group contains instruments for registering plasma characteristics of solar wind beyond the earth's magnetosphere, in the transition region between the shock wave front and the boundary of the magnetosphere, and also inside the magnetosphere. The fourth group of instruments includes radio radiation receivers in the 1.6-8 kilohertz and 100-700 kilohertz range, a magnetometer, instruments for determining the satellite's complete spatial orientation, and also equipment for measuring the penetrating radiation dose on the flight track. Information obtained from the Prognoz satellite for the period from April 14 this year, shows the relatively calm condition of an interplanetary medium,characteristic o f the beginning o f a 117
minimum o f s o l a r a c t i v i t y .
exceed t h e background v a l u e .
During A p r i l 20
1 9 7 2 , e f f e c t s were
o b s e r v e d l i n k e d w i t h a s o l a r f l a r e , a f t e r which c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e f l u x e s were g e n e r a t e d . While t h e s a t e l l i t e w a s i n o p e r a t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d on t h e s h a p e of t h e magnetosphere i n t h e h i g h l a t i t u d e r e g i o n , and a l s o on t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e t r a n s i t i o n r e g i o n between t h e boundary o f t h e magnetosphere and t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium. Data from s a t e l l i t e and ground o b s e r v a t i o n s were compared and analyzed. processed. I n f o r m a t i o n a r r i v i n g from Prognoz c o n t i n u e s t o be The r e s u l t s of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n
/59
the s c i e n t i f i c press.
"Pravda",
J u n e 30, 1 9 7 2 .
The Prognoz-2 a u t a m a t i c s t a t i o n was launched i n t h e S o v i e t Union on J u n e 2 9 , 1972 a t 6 h o u r s 4 7 m i n u t e s , Moscow time, t o widen t h e r e s e a r c h i n t o s o l a r a c t i v i t y p r o c e s s e s and t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium and e a r t h ' s magnetosphere, which were begun by t h e Prognoz s t a t i o n s .
118
The j o i n t s c i e n t i f i c experiment which w i l l be conducted d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t o f t h e two Prognoz a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , p u t i n t o n e a r - e a r t h h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t s , i s a component p a r t of t h e o u t e r s p a c e r e s e a r c h program b e i n g c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e USSR. Prognoz-2 s t a t i o n was p u t i n t o e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t w i t h t h e following parameters:
Tk-e
----
- - 200,000 km;
minimum d i s t a n c e from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e ( i n t h e p e r i g e e )
5 5 0 km;
- - o r b i t a l p e r i o d - - 97 h o u r s ;
-- orbital inclination - -
65 d e g r e e s .
ment i n t h e Prognoz-2 s t a t i o n i s d e s i g n e d f o r r e s e a r c h i n g i n t o c o r p u s c u l a r , gamma- and X-ray s o l a r r a d i a t i o n , s o l a r plasma f l u x e s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e e a r t h ' s magnetosphere, and a l s o f o r f u r t h e r s t u d y o f magnetic f i e l d s i n n e a r - e a r t h o u t e r s p a c e . The s t a t i o n i s a l s o equipped w i t h French equipment f o r cond u c t i n g e x p e r i m e n t s i n t o t h e s t u d y of s o l a r wind c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e o u t e r r e g i o n s o f t h e magnetosphere, gamma s o l a r r a d i a t i o n and s e a r c h f o r n e u t r o n s of s o l a r o r i g i n , i n accordance w i t h a S o v i e t French program of c o o p e r a t i o n i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n and r e s e a r c h of o u t e r space.
The Prognoz automatic station, launched on April 14, 1972, continues scientific research in accordance with the flight program and on June 29 had completed 20 revolutions around the earth. According to telemetering information, the on-board systems and scientific equipment of both stations are working normally. The long-range space communications center is controlling the joint fliglit of the two stations. Information arriving from the Prognoz
"Krasnaya Zvezda", July 1, 1972. The second automatic station Prognoz-2 (first launched on April 14) has begun a scientific watch in space. Now, two space observatories are simultaneously researching into solar activity and its effect on the interplanetary medium and terrestrial processes according to a single program. The new station is equipped
with additional instruments produced by French scientists. The scientific director of the experiment, I. A . Savenko, in a conversation with the TASS correspondent talked about the value of the Prognoz satellites in researching iiito the deep and manysided links between processes on the Sun and on earth. "Firstof all, I would like to draw attention to the unusually elongated orbits of both flying observatories. The automatic stations, as it were, are "advanced" to meet the Sun. This trajectory
120
js
established that the Sun, in a calm condition, constantly emits into surrounding space plasma fluxes called solar wind. This
mately 300 km/sec. Prognoz and Prognoz-2 are obtaining interesting information, the analysis of which will allow us to establish the effect of solar matter and corpuscular radiations on the radiation belts of the planet, and help us to understand the nature of magneticstorms, polar auroras and other geophysical phenomena. One very important task is done by these space stations during solar flares, when the influence of the Sun on oar planet is felt considerably.
It is known that during flare periods intenseplasma
fluxes flow from active solar regions and m v e at a speed of approximately 1,000 km/sec. This powerful space "hurricane" with its own magnetic field, bursts through the quietly flowing solar w h d .
can observe the Sun and record the wide range of its radiations: from X-ray and gamma rays to very long radio waves. Electromag-
netic radiations, traveling with the speed of light, are the first "heralds" of flares and other active processes taking place on the
121
s u r f a c e and i n s i d e t h e Sun.
Apart from t h i s , b o t h a u t o m a t i c s t a -
--
e l e c t r o n s , p r o t o n s and heavy n u c l e i o f
cosmic r a y s of solar and g a l a c t i c o r i g i n . French r e s e a r c h e r s a r e v e r y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s s p h e r e of space physics. They have produced two o r i g i n a l i n s t r u m e n t s which These a r e
i n t e n d e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g plasma and f l u x e s o f s o l a r n e u t r o n s beyond t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere. The c l o s e c o o p e r a t i o n of p h y s i c i s t s , and t h e j o i n t e f f o r t o f s c i e n t i s t s o f d i f f e r e n t c o u n t r i e s i n s t u d y i n g t h e Sun, s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n t h e p r e s e n t experiment w i t h t h e Prognoz-2, w i l l undoubtedly h e l p t o u s e e x p e r i e n c e , e f f o r t s and s c i e n t i f i c means f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f mankind.
"
122
- .t u
date
Name of vehicle
Notes
9 =March
10 25 11 25 12 31 13 SApril
14
15 11 16 14 17 21 18 S a My I9 6 20 17 21 25 22 9 J u n e 23 21 24 23 2 . 2:3 5 20 26
u
25
27
30
.;July
6
11 13 19
30 10
31 32
33 31
3.5
1
I
3 Y
I
J
115.2
I540
1U.i
46 !1 , 42 28 43 ZAugust
44 16 45 18 46 ~ ~ A u ~ u s . 47 :K)
123
*-'.~
y "t "'
..I_.-
"
..
--
f 4
_.
Notes
1 89.8 1
83,8
!G.U
343
363
507 537
1 71.3 1
295
511 330
19,095
1Eight
1 1
114,O
1495 13175
74
a. Kosmos
124
<I
11.
Meteor Satellites Keep Watch Professor I. Andronov "Pravda", May 25,1972. The Meteor meteorological space system has been in constant operation for five years. During this time much material has been obtaired for studying the uniformity of global meteorological formations, developing new methods for transmitting information on atmospheric conditions,and widening rhe aise of space vehicles used in this system in the interest of the national economy. For example, Meteor satellites have recorded thousands of cyclones and gi*ren the position of tens of thousands of atmospheric fronts. Meteorological satellites have been used for selecting the best routes for vessels in ocean waterways. As a result, it was possible, on an average, to reduce the steaming time by 5-7%,and this produced great economy Meteorological satellites show the ice conditions and ice cover in the Arctic ?.d Antarctic in polar day and night conditions. This has considerably increased the navigation period along the North Sea route. Cloud information, transmitted by satellite, is
163
important for civil air transport, especially flights along intercontinental routes.
125
c l o u d c o v e r and development o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r o c e s s e s .
Hence, bcfore
of t r o p i c a l c y c l o n e s , t h e i r o r i g i n s and
S i m i l a r i n f o r m a t i o n h a s been u s e f u l when v e s s e l s l e a v e
example, i n t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere, must be c l o s e l y s t u d i e d t o e n s u r e t h e s a f e t y and economy of t h e s e t r i p s . A n a l y s i s o f m a t e r i a l o b t a i n e d from t h e Meteor s a t e l l i t e s h a s e n a b l e d workers a t t h e Hydrometeorological C e n t e r o f t h e USSR t o e s t a b l i s h t h r e e p o i n t s where c y c l o n e s o c c u r i n t h e I n d i a n Ocean. They a r e a l l c l o s e t o J a v a . I n f o r m a t i o n from a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e s h a s g i v e n new c o n c e p t s o f t h e atmosphere and p r o ; l e r t i e s o f o u r p l a n e t . For
example, i t was found t h a t t h e atmosphere e x t e n d s n o t i n t h e o r d e r of a hundred k i l o m e t e r s , a s was b e l i e v e d e a r l i e r , b u t s e v e r a l thousands of k i l o m e t e r s from t h e e a r t h ' s s u r f a c e . The problem h a s a l s o been s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e d f o r p r o c e s s i n g hundreds of thousands o f photographs s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t r a n s m i t t e d from s e v e r a l s a t e l l i t e s , For t h i s , a ground r e c e p t i o n complex h a s
/64
126
The foundations have been laid for transferring to basically new numerical methods of weather forecasting. They are gradually bei1.g introduced and used in practice. The development of these
methods needs new requirements of information obtained from the meteorclogical satellite system. The direct transmission of satellite information, accurate maps for the distribution of temperature over the earth's surface,and information on temperature distribution over the whole layer o f the atmosphere are now very important. The Meteor satellite, launched on April :7, 1971, tcsted spectrometric equipment for determining the vertical temperature profile in the atmosphere. The Meteor satellite which went into orbit on December 29, 1971 is testing improved television equipment built by a Soviet scientist and engineers which transmits directly; ground stations, equipped with simple receiving equipment and a small antenna, receive the pictures. Five to ten
minutes after a satellite has flown over, a picture of the cloud cover and the underlying surface area of several millions of square kilometers is received at the station. Meteorologists must now have meteorological information from practically all areas of the earth. It must coincide with synoptic
periods - - to moments when meteorological measurement is being done simultaneously throughout the whole world.
It is als.3 impor-
tant thct this information is uniform and the scale of television pictures is identical. These requirements can be satisfied when the orbit parameters are stabilized by vernier engines in the satellite. By taking into account that satellite operating time is
127
calculated in years, the vernier engine installations must have a sufficient reserve of propulsive mass and xithstanll repeated cut-in. Soviet scientists have developed im-plesaa electrojet rockets
near furure these satellites will transmit complex mtedrological data on the whole world twice a day. In the future, the meteoro-
logical system will include space vehicles Fituated in three layers. The first layer will include long-term manned orbital stations. These will Frovide visual observations of the geosphere and highspeed meteorological phenomena, high tides, landslides, dust and sand storms, tsunami, hurricanes and earthquakes. The second layer
on medium-scale and small-scale processes in the atmosphr-e. Finally, the third layer consists of meteorological satellites orbitin; at altitudes of up to 36,000 km for continuous observation of dynamic processes in the earth's atmosphere. They will give pictur: of the overall atmospheric circulation.
a
128
By adding t h e i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c c v e h i c l e s on a l l t h r e e
l a y e r s , s c i e n t i s t s w i l l be a b l e t o f o r e c a s t a c c u r a t e l y t h e c o u r s e
of e v e n t s i n t h e atmosphere and t h i s w i l l h e l p us a t t a i n t h e
cherished goal
--
c o n t r o l of t h e weather.
/65
h e l p us s t u d y t h e e a r t h on a c o n t i n e n t a l scale and o v e r t h e p l a n e t
as a whole.
--
Complex study
is q u i t e understandable.
r e s e a r c h f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e time.
--
f o l d e d s y s t e m s , d e p r e s s i o n s , S ! geoT?
f r a c t u r e s i s measured i n hundreds and even thousands o f k i l o m e t e r s . Large g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s such a s t h e s e can o n l y be s e e n i n t h e i r e n t i r e t y from space a l t i t u d e s . I t appeared t h a t t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s features
--
small d e t a i l s o f t h e
l a n d s c a p e , f o r e s t s , a n d a l l u v i a l rocks d i d n o t h i d e t h e e a r t h ' s geological structure. By u s i n g t e l e v i s i o n i n f o r m a t i o n , s c i e n t i s t s a t t h e A l l - h i o n Aerogeological " r u s t b u i l t up a t e l e p h o t o m e t r i c aiagram o f a l a r g e t e r r i t o r y with an a r e a o f approximately s i x m i l l i o n s q u a r e k i l o meters. G e o l o g i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of i t r o t o n l y confirmed new 129
of increased seismicity. The m e t e o r o l o g i c a l system o f t h e f u t u r e w i l l open up new prospects f o r researching t h e e a r t h ' s natural resources. Informa-
a r r i v e systematically, operatively,and i n large quantities. T h e r e f o r e , i n m o p i n i o n , s p e c i a l i z e d o r g a n i z a t i o n s must be s e t y up i n d i f f e r e n t branchec of t h e n a t i o n a l economy t o s o l v e problems f o r t h e complex p r o c e s s i n g o f i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d from Meteor satellites. The d i r e c t i v e s o f t h e 2 4 t h Congress of t h e Communist P a r t y o f
t h e S o v i e t Union e n v i s a g e d t h e u s e o f s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y i n t h e
i n t e r e s t s o f t h e n a t i o n a l economy.
being used f o r t h i s purpose.
Three s a t e l l i t e s , launched i n t o n e a r -
e a r t h o r b i t i n 1 9 7 1 and 1972, a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p l y i n g
130
m e t e o r o l o g i s t s w i t h complex i n f o r m a t i o n .
I n t h r e e more Meteor
, January
30, 1972.
/66
Of c o u r s e !
and workshops where t h e famous Meteor s a t e l l i t e s a r e born. The "miracles" began i n t h e f i r s t l a b o r a t o r y . I n a room w i t h
t i g h t l y c u r t a i n e d windows I was l e d t o a small i n f r a r e d s e t . I n t r i c a t e l i n e s were f r a n t i c a l l y drawn on a s c r e e n w i t h a n a t t a c h e d oscillograph. "This i s t h e r e s u l t o f your e n t r a n c e , " one o f t h e e n g i n e e r s explained. "The i n s t r u m e n t s r e a c t e d t o a d d i t i o n a l h e a t which you
brought i n t o t h e room."
A few t u r n s o f a h a n d l e and t h e equipment " a d a p t s i t s e l f " t o
my p r e s e n c e .
line.
An e l e c t r o n i c beam a g a i n draws a n a l m o s t s t r a i g h t
...
I1
131
The o s c i l l o g r a p h s
When t h e c i g a r e t t e was e x t i n g u i s h e d , t h e l i n e s
on t h e s c r e e n d i d n o t calm down f o r some time, r e g i s t e r i n g t h e c o o l i n g a f t h e c i g a r e t t e I had thrown away. " I n f r a r e d i n s t r u m e n t s are very s e n s i t i v e . T h i s i s why w u s e e
them as s e n s o r s o r i e n t i n g a s a t e l l i t e r e l a t i v e t o t h e e a r t h .
O f c o u r s e , one can u s e o t h e r t y p e s o f s e n s o r s , f o r example,
o p t i c a l o r radar.
I n f r a r e d i n s t r u m e n t s were u s e d w i d e l y d u r i n g
tests i n t h e f i r s t s a t e l l i t e s . T h i s i s how t h e y work. "sense" o n l y two h o t b o d i e s : Infrared sensors i n a satellite t h e e a r t h and t h e Sun. The r a d i a t i o n But i n
o f p l a n e t s and d i s t a n t s t a r s i s n o t t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t .
t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e r e i s a c o m p l i c a t i o n i n t h a t t h e Sun a s a s o u r c e o f e n e r g y h a s no c o m p e t i t o r . I f one d o e s n o t t a k e p r e c a u t i o n s ,
This unusual
r e c e i v e r i s always b u i i t f o r ground waves i n t h e range from 7 - 4 0 S p e c i a l a u t o m a t i c equipment e n a b l e s i t t o f i n d t h e r e q u i r e d wave and aim towards t h e e a r t h . M v i s i t t o the laboratory coincided with the t e s t i n g of a y " v e r t i c a l " e a r t h s e a r c h system. The "eye" of t h e i n s t r u m e n t i s a
um.
I t is very
132
I t i s n o t so
reduced t h e amount o f u s e f u l i n s t r u m e n t s .
I was shown s e v e r a l unique
e l e c t r o m o t o r s w i t h huge r o t o r s .
s e n s o r s mounted w i t h i t a r e d i r e c t e d towards t h e Sun and t u r n t h e wings o f t h e s o l a r b a t t e r i e s towards i t . A f t e r t h e " V e r t i c a l " I am shown o t h e r a s s e m b l i e s o f t h e Meteor satellite. For example, s p a c e b e a r i n g s on which t h e wings o f t h e O r d i n a r y b e a r i n g s need l u b r i c a t i o n a n d , But i n s p a c e ? Lubri-
167
Designers
have s u c c e s s f u l l y d e a l t w i t h t h i s problem.
Many a s s e m b l i e s and
u n i t s o f t h e Meteor a r e o r i g i n a l t e c h n i c a l s o l u t i o n s . 133
Supersensitive meteorological instruments, d e l i c a t e t e l e v i s i o n equipment, computing and compact memories f i l l e d with miniature e l e c t r o n i c s ,
...
Research o r g a n i z a t i o n s have d e v o t e d
much e f f o r t f o r s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y t o become a m i r a c u l o u s r e a l i t y . The Meteor main assembly shop i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t e r e s t i n g . A f t e r numerous t e s t s a l l t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s u n i t s and a s s e m b l i e s a r r i v e here. These t e s t s a r e complex and a s c l o s e as p o s s i b l e Some components a r e "tempered"
t o a c t u a l space conditions.
in a
r a d i o a c t i v e r a d i a t i o n f u r n a c e , o t h e r s "become accustomed" t o h i g h vacuum i n a l o w - p r e s s u r e chamber, and o t h e r s a r e t e s t e d f o r o v e r loads. Only components which s u r v i v e t h i s "purgatory" are s u i t a b l e Now f o r t h e body o f t h e s a t e l l i t e , c o m p o s e d o f The assembly of s p a c e v e h i c l e s i s , i n d e e d , a
f o r assembjy.
t h e r e a r e s t i l l no e x p e r t s c a p a b l e o f c o r r e c t i n g any p o s s i b l e defect. The s a t e l l i t e ' s wings, i t s s o l a r panels, a r e f i x e d s e p a r a t e l y . They a r e a t t a c h e d j u s t b e f o r e t h e l a u n c h and look l i k e t h e comp r e s s e d b e l l o w s o f a huge a c c o r d i a n b e n e a t h t h e p r o t e c t i v e c o v e r of t h e l a u n c h v e h i c l e . The s o l a r wings o n l y open t o t h e i r f u l l
t h e new s a t e l l i t e .
The a c c e p t a n c e d e p a r t m e n t g i v e s i t s a p p r o v a l
134
B. Gerasimo
t h e time fo
information
center of which
I recog-
/69
n i z e on t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n s well-known f e a t u r e s o f t h e e a r t h ' s
c o n t i n e n t s , s e a s and oceans. Caspian. Here i s a n i g h t p h o t o g r a p h of t h e
I n f a c t , i t i s a t h e r m a l p o r t r a i t made i n i n f r a r e d r a y s .
A t n i g h t , w a t e r i s warme;. t h a n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g s h o r e s and, c o n s e -
q u e n t l y , produces a s t r o n g e r ( b r i g h t e r ) s i g n a l .
The c o a s t a l s t r i p
is darker.
A t daytime t h e r e i s a d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e .
Photographs, hundreds o f p h o t o g r a p h s .
time.
Almost a l l t h e N o r t h e r n Hemis2here i s a l r e a d y c o v e r e d i n
l i t e t r a n s m i t s i n f o r m a t i o , ? on t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and h e a t r e f l e c t e d and r a d i a t e d by t h e e a r t h . Of c o u r s e , i n f o r m a t i o n from s p a c e i s supplemented w i t h t h a t from t h e ground. The w o r l d ' s w e a t h e r s u r v i c e , hundreds o f meteoroi
...
i s t r a n s m i t t e d t o Moscow - - t h e c o u n t r y ' s h y d r o m e t e o r o l o g i c a l
c e n t e r which h a s l i n k s w i t h c a p i t a l s o f t h e whole world. many c o u n t r i e s a r e exchanging m e t e o r o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n . Today,
137
speed computers and several minutes later becomes a weather forecast for tomorrow and subsequent days.
Space Meteorologists
Everyone is interested in the weather; corn-growers preparing to work in the field, captains o f ships making trips of thousands of kilometers, and pilots whose aircraft cover various climatic zones in a single flight. weather will be. For a long time man has observed the weather, tried to fix laws for its formation and attempted to forecast it. meteorological stations on every coatinerlt. There are Each c.ay we wish to know what the
The atmosphere is
studied by radiosondes and metecrological high-altitude rockets; meteorologists use automatic stratospheric balloons, ships, and laboratories in aircraft. If one looks ai a picture of the planet
one can see the irregular sitings o f meteorological stations. Areas where weather is "born" - - large expanses of sea and ocean which occupy more than 70% of the earth's surface, are not covered by permanent meteorological observations. It is difficult to set tp and use meteorological stations in polar regions, mountainous l areas, deserts and in the taiga,
Here, m e t e o r o l o g i s t s a r e h e l p e d by automation.
Automatic give
New meteoro-
I t s c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e s u c h t h a t i n one r e v o l u t i o n o f t h e e a r t h it
examines more t h a n 8 % of i t s s u r f c t e , and i n a day o b s e r v e s t h e whole p l a n e t . I n f o r m a t i o n c o l l e c t e d by a m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e
time, t h e r e a r e more t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 o f t h e s e !
Let us s a y immediately,
t h a t t h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r ground o b s e r v a t i o n s h a s n o t d i m i n i s h e d w i t h t h e appearance o f m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s .
A t the present
time, t r a d i t i o n ; :
t e c h n i c a l means and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s
a r e supplementing each o t h e r *.nd form a s i n g l e m e t e o r o l o g i c a l service, For example, one remembers t h e complex j o i n t r e s e a r c h
c a r r i e d o u t by t h e crew o f t h e Soyuz-9 s p a c e c r a f t , t h e Meteor m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e and t h e r e s e a r c h s h i p Akademik S h i r s h o v i n June 1970. T h i s work was c a r r i e d o u t by d i f f e r e n t mcans and Such r e s e a r c h supplements e a c h
methods a t d i f f e r e n t a l t i t u d e s . o t h e r and
stages,
During t h e f i r s t s t a g e e l e c t r o t e c h n i c a l d e v i c e s which
s t a b i l i z e d a s a t e l l i t e and o r i e n t a t e d i t s body towards t h e c e n t e r o f t h e e a r t h were produced and t e s t e d i n Kosmos-14 and Kosmos-23 satellites. S i x y e a r s ago t h e Kosmos-122, t h e f i r s t S o v i e t m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e used f o r o b t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , was p u t i n t o o r b i t and began i t s work and was u s e d f o r w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g . This l a u n c h
was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e second s t a g e i n p r o d u c i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s , and t h e n a permanent m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e system. The f i r s t i m p o r t a n t problem was s o l v e d when t h i s m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e was u s e d e a r t h ' s night side.
- - ob*Laining i n f o r m a t i o n on c l o u d c o v e r on t h e
Many complex t e c h n i c a l problems were a l s o For example, two independent o r i e n t a t i o n one f o r c o n t i n u o u s o r i e n t a t i o n earth, the other for the The s a t e l l i t e
solved during t h e f l i g h t .
systems were u s e d i n t h e s a t e l l i t e :
of t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s e c t i o n towards
o r i e n t a t i o n o f s o l a r b a t t e r i e s towards t h e Sun.
s a t e l l i t e was b e i n g b u i l t were c o r r e c t , a s were t h e methods f o r meteorological observations. T h i s work allowed us t o move t o ',!le t h i r d s t a g e . Meteorologi-
c a l s a t e l l i t e s Kosmos-144 and Kosmos-156 were launched i n 1967, The launch of t h e second o f t h e s e was done so t h a t t h e i n i t i a l r e l a t i v e t o t h e p l a n e of t h e
5 p l a n e of i t s o r b i t was s h i f t e d by 9'
o r b i t of t h e f i r s t ,
140
With t h e
i n A p r i l 1967
on t h e t h e Meteor e x p e r i m e n t a l m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s y s t e m , i n c l u d i n g
two s i m u l t a n e o u s l y o p e r a t i n g s a t e l l i t e s and a ground complex of c o n t r o l , r e c e y t i o n , p r o c e s z i l i g and d i s t r i b u t i o n of i n f o r m a t i o n . I m p o r t a n t e x p e r i e n c e i n s a t e l l i t e meteorology was g a i n e d d u r i n g 1968 t h r o u g h t h e s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s by t h r e e s a t c l l i t e s i n t h e Kosmos s e r i e s
--
The c h o i c e o f
i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t by t h e time t h e Kosmos-206 was launched i t s p r e d e c e s s o r Kosmos-144 had been i n o r b i t more t h a n a y e a r , t h e r e f o r e comparison o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e o n - b o a r d equipment of t h e two S a t e l l i t e s was made and t h e e f f e c t of l o n g - t e r m s p a c e f l i g h t
171
on i t s s e r v i c e a b i l i t y was checked.
I t must be n o t e d t h a t when
141
three m e t e Q r o l o g i c a 1 s a t e l l i t e s
a r e working s i m u l t a n e o u s l y i t i s
t u r e s are measured, m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t i n t h e atmosphere i s c a l c u l a t e d , the temperature d i s t r i b u t i o n according t o a l t i t u d e i n t h e t r o p o s p h e r e and s t r a t o s p h e r e i s measured, t h e a l t i t u d e o f t h e upper cloud boundary i s determined and o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e made on t h e condition
Ul:
W ~ e m u r f a c e s and t h e i c e c o v e r boundary. s
u s i n g m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s i n t h e n a t i o n a l economy.
InformatiGn o b t a i n e d by s a t e l l i t e s
011
the
i c e cover i n t h e Arctic considerably i n c r e a s e s t h e n a v i g a t i o n p e r i o d through t h e North Sea r o u t e . that in 196i the eastern sector
0 :
142
when s h i p s l e a v e t h e S o v i e t Union f o r a r e a s o f t h e w o r l d ' s ocean where c y c l o n e s and typhoons o c c u r . The s a f e t y and economy o f
Ion-plasma e l e c t r o j e t t h i s same s a t e l l i t e .
e n g i n e s , u s i n g s o l a r e n e r g y , were t e s t e d
The need t o 2roduce such e n g i n e s , especia1l.l f o r meteorology, i s t h a t i n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t s i m u l t a n e o u s o b s e r v a t i o n s on a world s c a l e and o b t a i n uniform i n f o r m a t i o n and uniform t e l e v i s i o n p i c t u r e s o r b i t a l p a r a m e t e r s must be s t a b i l i z e d . vernier engines. T h i s can be done by u s i n g
Long-term m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l l i t e s have c r e a t e d
t h e s e r e q u i r e m t n t s o f s u c h e n g i n e s - - multiple c u t - i n and a s u f f i c i e n t r e s e r v e o f p r o p u l s i v e mass. requirements. Meteorology i s one o f t h e s p h e r e s o f man's a c t i v i t y where t h e r e i s a g r e a t need f o r c o o p e r a t i o n between c o u n t r i e s . The E l e c t r o j e t engines f u l f i l l these
143
/72
There i s a r e g u l a r exchange
s e n t from Moscok- t o a l l c o r n e r s o f t h e e a r t h .
o f t h e S o v i e t Union f o r t h e f i v e - y e a r development p l a n
of the
... o f
meteorological
forecasting
. . . ' l .
... by
u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s , a u t o m a t i c and manned v e h i c l e s
s o l v i n g t h e s e i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l economic problems.
E a r t h from Space "Sovetskaya Rossiya", A p r i l 1 9 , 1972. One i m p o r t a n t n a t i o n a l economic problem which i s b e i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y s o l v e d by a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s i s t h e l o n g - d i s t a n c e s t u d y o f o u r p l a n e t ' s n a t u r a l medium from s p a c e .
K. Ya. Kondrat'yev,
144
They
145
t i o n s t o be made t o o u r p r e v i o u s c o n c e p t s o f t h e e n e r g e t i c s o f t h e p l a n e t on which we l i v e . An a c t u a l p a r t o f t h e program of l o n g - d i s t a n c e p r o b i n g s from s p a c e i s t h e s t u d y o f t h e v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e e a r t h ' s surface. An i n t e r e s t i n g experiment was conducted d u r i n g t h e formaHere, photographs
/73 -
were t a k e n from s p a c e o f t h e s p e c t r z o f v a r i o u s n a t u r a l f o r m a t i o n s .
A synchronous complex o f o p t i c a l measurements t a k e n on e a r t h azC
i n two f l y i n g l a b o r a t o r i e s , a t d i f f e r e n t h e i g h t s , was c a r r i e d o u t .
L a t e r , r e s e a r c h was c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e Soyuz-9 f l i g h t . Analysis
e f f e c t i v e l y s o l v e d when u s i n g manned s p a c e c r a f t , t h e crews of which a r e s p e c i a l i s t . s t r a i n e d f o r czrryifig o u t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s c i e n t i f i c program. The need f o r c o n t i n u o u s and complex o b s e r v a -
146
f a u l t s i n t h e equipment and w i l l g u a r a n t e e i t s p r o l o n g e d and e f f e c t i v e use. The c h a n g e - c v e r crews o f o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s c a n t a k e back t o e a r t h e x p e r i m e n t a l m a t e r i a l s ( f o r example, p h o t o g r a p h i c f i l m ) f o r a n a l y z i n g t h e d a t a and, i f n e c e s s a r y , f o r s u b s e q u e n t c o r r e c r i n g o f t h e experiment program. I n t e r e s t i n u s i n g s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y methods f o r d i s c o v e r i n g our p l a n e t ' s s e c r e t s i s i n c r e a s i n g each year. Geology and geo-
morphology, hydrology and oceanology, geobotany and a g r o b i o l o g y , t h e s e a r e j u s t some of t h e s c i e n c e s which p r o f i t from t h e use of artificial satellites.
"
A TASS Report:
"Pravda",
I n +he S o v i e t Union on A p r i l 4 , 1 9 7 2 t h e Molniya-1 communic a t i o n s s a t e l l i t e and t h e S I S small French independent s a t e l l i t e were launched by one l a u n c h v e h i c l e . The Molniya-1 and S I S s a t e l -
l i t e s were p u t i n t o h i g h l y e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t w i t h an apogee o f
~
"Translatcr's note:
147
t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere. The s a t e l l i t e s ' o r b i t a l p e r i o d i s 11 h o u r s 45 m i n u t e s , t h e o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t l o n i s 65.6'. The Molniya-1 communications s a t e l l i t e i s d e s i g n e d f o r u s i n g t h e l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n i c and t e l e g r a p h i c r a d i o communications system, and a l s o f o r t r a c s n i t t i n g S o v i e t C e n t r a l T e l e v i s i o n p r o grams t o p o i n t s i n t h e O r b i t a network i n t h e extreme n o r t h , S i b e r i a , t h e Far East and C e n t r a l Asia. Apart from equipment f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g t e l e v i s i o n programs and p r o v i d i n g l o n g - r a n g e m u l t i - c h a n n e l r a d i o communications, t h e s a t e l l i t e h a s command and measurement equipment, and a l s o systems which
o r i e n t a t e i t , c o r r e c t i t s o r b i t and s u p p l y e n e r g y t o i t . According t o i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e equipment i n t h e s a t e l l i t e i s working normally. Communication s e s s i o n s v i a t h e blolniya-1 w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o a c e r t a i n program. The S i S French s a t e l l i t e i s d e s i g n e d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of d i f i e r e n t s o l a r b a t t e r i e s i n o u t e r space.
The SIS s a t e l l i t e was launched i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h a program
/74
148
"Pravda",
May 2 1 , 1972.
satellite into
a h i g h e l l i p t i c a l o r b i t on May 1 9 , l " 7 2 .
The Molniya-2 h a s m-
board r e t r a n s m i s s i o n equipment working i n t h e c e n t i m e t e r wave band. The Molniya-2 communication s a t e l l i t e i s d e s i g n e d f o r d e v e l oping t h e l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n i c and t e l e g r a p h i c r a d i o communicat i o n system i n t h e S o v i e t Union, t r a n s m i t t i n g S o v i e t C e n t r a l p r o grams t o p o i n t s i n t h e O r b i t a network,and f o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l cooperation. The s a t e l l i t e was s e n t i n t o an o r b i t w i t h an apogee o f
39,300 km i n t h e N o r t h e r n Hemisphere and a p e r i g e e o f 460 km i n
t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere. The s a t e l l i t e ' s o r b i t a l p e r i o d i s 11 h o u r s 45 m i n u t e s , t h e 55. o r b i t a l i n c l i n a t i o n i s 6.' Apart from equipment f o r t r a r s m i t t i n g t e l e v i s i o n programs and p r o v i d i n g l o n g - r a n g e m u l t i - c h a n n e l r a d i o communications, the: s a t e l l i t e has command and measurement equipment, and a l s o s y s t e m which o r i e n t a t e i t , c o r r e c t i t s o r b i t and s u p p l y energy t o i t . Communication s e s s i o n s v i a t h e biolniya-2 s a t e l l i t e w i l l be c a r r i e d o u t a c c o r d i n g t o a s p e c i f i c program.
149
TABLE 1:
Numerical order
Key throughout t a b l e :
a . ivlolniya
150
111.
LUNAR RESEARCH
There has been a new victory in space - - the flight program of the Luna-20 automatic station has been successfully completed. Launched on February 14 and reaching the vicinity of the moon, the station went into selenocentric urbit, after a series of maneuvers made a soft landing on the mountainous continental region of the
moon for the first time, took a sample of soil and heaaed back
/75
towards earth.
found the "Luna parcel' in difficult meteorological conditions. Hence, another bright page in the history of space conquest was written. The scope for investigating heavenly bodies has been
increased by using automatic control units. The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Presidium o f the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, and the Council of Ministers of the USSR warmly congratulated scientists and designers, engineers, technicians and workers, collectiver and organizations which tcJokpart in constructing the Luna-20 automatic station and brought lunar soil samples back to earth. "This is a
151
--
t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n s p i r e d work o f t h e
a r e i n d e b t e d t o t h e g r e a t s k i l l o f s p e c i a l i s t s o f ground c o n t r o l
s e r v i c e s who a c c u r a t e l y i,,aneuvered t h e s t a t i o n d u r i n g t h e whole f l i g h t , and e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g t h e s o f t l a n d i n g i n t h e mountainous r e g i o n , d i r e c t e d t h e d r i l l i n g work a t a g r e a t d i s t a n c e and g u i d e d t h e r o c k e t back t o e a r t h .
A l l t h i s showed t h e g r e a t p o t e n t i a l o f
ments o f S o v i e t s c i e n c e and technology and a r e c h r c n i c l e d i n t h e knowledge o f t h e u n i v e r s e and have a n o t e " f i r s t achieved". S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s i s c o n t r i b u t l n g much t o l u n a r discover;?. Automatic s t a t i o n s , which went i n t o s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t , p h o t o graphed t h e r e v e r s e s i d e o f t h e moon, made
il
s o f t l a n d i n g on i t s
152
--
a t Pirst from t h e "Sea" p l a i n , and l a t e r from t h e mountainous area. S o v i e t s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y , which h a s been w i d e l y a c c l a i m e d by t h e whole w o r l d , h a s become a p o w e r f u l ueapon i n t h e r e s e a r c h o f d i s t a n t r e g i o n s o f t h e s o l a r system and i t s heavenly b o d i e s , an5 i s an e x c e l l e n t i n s t r u m e n t f o r s t a d y i n g t h e e a r t h f o r n a t i o n a l economic needs i n t h e i n t e r e s t s o f mankind.
I t h a s made a g r e a t c o n t r i b u t i o n
towards t h e development of world s c i e n c e . Tasks accomplished by S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s a r e becoming more i m p o r t a n t and c r u c i a l . Their very n a t u r e c o n s t a n t l y r e q u i r e s t h e
j o i n t e f f o r t o f workers o f many b r a n c h e s and economic r e g i o n s and t h e complex, s y s t e m a t i c approach t o p l a n n i n g . . . I d e c i s i o n t a k i n g . S u c c e s s e s i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n g i v e a n example o f how one must combine t h e achievements o f s c i e i l t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l p r o g r e s s w i t h p r a c t i c e and c r e a t i v e d a r i n g when i n t r o d u c i n g methods of modern s c i e n t i f i c management. The d i r e c t i v e s o f t h e 2 4 t h Congress of t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union l a y e d down a wide program of s c i e n t i f i c work i n space. Among them a r e t h e development o f l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n i c
and t e l e g r a p h i c communication, t e l e v i s i o n , w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g and t h e s t u d y o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h and t h e s o l u t i o n o f o t h e r n a t i o n a l economic problems by u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s , and a u t o m a t i c and manned v e h i c l e s . Others a r e t h e coritiiiuation of The
f l i g h t of t h e Luna-20 once more shows t h e f a r - s i g h t e d and f i r m l y based b e l i e f o f o u r s p e c i a l i s t s i n d e v e l o p i n g a u t o m a t i c f a c i l i t i e s f o r s t u d y i n g a d j a c e n t and f a r s p a c e . S o v i e t p e o p l e were w e l l - s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e news o f t h i s wonderf u l achievement o f S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t i c s . They h e a r t i l y g r e e t e d those
a s c i e n t i f i c event
o f o u t s t a n d i n g importance",
- - these
--
how f a r t h e
154
The assault on sDace frontiers continues. Kosmcj automatic control units are heinn launched,
--
letter to the Central Committee o f the Communist Party o f the Soviet Union, the Presidium of the Supremen Soviet o f the USSR,and the Council of Ministers of the USSR assured them that they will respond to the party's and government's concern and attention with new successes. May this be s o !
Four Months in Near-Moon Orbit "Pravda", January 30, 1972. The long-range space communicatjon center, 29.
(TASS).
For
months the Luna-19 automatic station has conducted research in selenocentric orbit. tions around the moon. Researci; into the moon's gravitational field by s!*stematic, prolonged observations o f its orbital ev.>lutionis being conducted on the results o f radio technical measurement of the station's
-
planetary magnetic field near the moon is beirsj made from near the station.
155
u n p e r t u r b e d magnetic f i e l d .
A t t h e same time, t h e m a g n e t i c f i c l d
t e r i s t i c s o f cosmic r a d i a t i o n i n near-mooii s p a c e i s c o n t i n u i n g . SimultGneously, i d e n t i c a l measurement i; b e i n g done by equipment on board t h e Mars-2 and Mars-3 a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s which a r e more t h a n 200 m i l l i o n k i l o m e t e r s from t h e moon. Interesting, valuable
In particular,
noticeable increase of
density of t h e meteorite
T h $ r e h r c , t h e s t z t i o l : i s equirpec! w i t h t e l e v i s i o n cameras.
t'n6
G,tical-mechanical
One i e a t u r e o f them i s t h a t s c a n n i n g o f t h e
image a l o n g t h e l i n e o f f l i g h t i s done by t h e s t a t i o n ' s own o r b i t a l motion. On s e v e r a l o r b i t a l t e l e v i s i o n panoramas one can see t e r i i t o r y c l o s e t o t h e n e s r - e q u a t o r i a l c e n t r a l zone o f t h e n o r t h e r n h a l f of t h e moon's v i s i b l e d i s c . When examining these p i c t u r e s , one must
v e r y well:
seas, c o n t i n e n t s , c r a t e r s and f r a c - c u r e s .
Therefore,
t h e y c a n be used f o r s t u d y i n g t h e s h a p e o f t h e b a s i c g e o l o g i c a l formations, t h e degree of destyuction, t h e general nature of t h e r e l i e f , a n d f o r compiling information necessary f o r r e c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e moon's h i s t o r y .
An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e o f t h e panoramas i s a p i c t u r e o f
c r a t e r s o f a s i m i l a r age o f t h e s o - c a l l e d E r a t o s t h e n e s complex. T n i s i s t h e c r a t e r E r a t o s t h e n e s i t s e l f ( F i g . 1 2 a ) , which gave i t s name t;, t h e complex, and t h e c r a t e r s o f Godin and Agrippa ( F i g . 12b). Their general outstanding feature i s t h e d i s t i n c t p r o f i l e contours, and t h e i n t e r n a l s l o p e s
,j
/78
t h e Copernicus crater.
secondary craters.
one can also see the typical ancient Stadius crater with broken remnants o f a h-all projecting through the compact c o v e r c f :ea
rock.
Fi* -r e M o n t h s
in Flight
11, 1972
"Pravda"
, blarch
The
During t h i s t i l d e ,
tational f i e l d .
159
The Moon i n t h e O b i e c t i v e
TASS P i c t o r i a l Review
"Pravda"
, March
19, 1972.
Apart from s t u d y i n g
t h e moon's g r a v i t c t i o n a l f i e l d , magnetic measurement and measurement o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of cosmic r a d i e t i o n , t h e s t a t i o n i s c a r r y i n g o u t s e l e c t i v e panoramic lunar surface. t e l e v i s i o n photography o f t h e
i
On t h e fragment shown ( F i g . 13) of o r b i t a l p e r s p e c t i v e panoramas one can s e e e x t e n s i v e c o n t i n e n t a l s p a c e s i n t h e a r e a f r o s t h e 30th t o t h e hDth degree of s o u t h l a t i t u d e and from t h e 20th
T h i s a r e a , on t h e edge of
_ L _
/ 80
160
r*
spacecraft.
i n t e r p r e t on t h e photograph i n d i v i d u a l , s m a l l d e t a i l s o f t h e l u n a r surface r e l i e f .
T h i s r e g i o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e a n c i e n t
..
"Pravda", October 4 , 1972. The long-range space communication center, 3 . (TASS). The
Soviet Luna-19 automatic station, launched on September 2 8 , 1971, has been conducting scientific research in near-moon space f o r a year. During this period, the station completed more than 4 , 0 0 0
revolutions around the moon, more than 1,000 radio communication sessions were held with it, during the course of which control commands were given by on-board systems and scientific equipment,
a check of their condition was made and information was obtained
on scientific experiments conducted. During the whole flight of the artificial lunar satellite radio technical measurement of the parameters o f the trajectory of its motion were made to deteimine the orbital evolution. Measurement information is being used to determine the characteristics of the moon's gravitational field which are very important to improve scientific concepts of its evolution and structure. Experiments were conducted from the automatic station into the research of near-moon space by a radio have propagation method, and a study was made of the laws of reflection of radio waves by different portions of the moon's surface. Results obtained show that there i s plasma which has been formed as the result o f interaction of cosmic radiation with the moon's surface.
I
162
I
w i t h u n i d i r e c t i o n a l scanning.
t i c l e s n e a r t h e moon.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t was found t h a t t h e s p a t i a l
d e n s i t y of p a r t i c l e s , n o t b e l o n g i n g t o m e t e o r i t e showers, i s t h e same a s t h a t i n i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e . One i m p o i t a n t r e s u l t o f t h e f l i g h t was t h e s y s t e m a t i c i a f o r m a t i o n o f c o r p u s c u l a r beams o f s o l a r and g a l a c t i c cosmic r a d i a t i o n s . More t h a n t e n s i g n i f i c a n t f l u x i n c r e a s e s of p r o t o n s o f s o l a r cosmic r a y s w i t h e n e r g i e s o f g r e a t e r t h a n one T i l l i o n e l e c t r o n v o l t s were r e c o r d e d , and t h i s i s t h e r e s u l t of p o w e r f u l s o l a r f l a r e s . The
i n t e n s i t y of g a l a c t i c beams a t t h a t t i m e a l s o underwent s i g n i f i c a n t changes c a u s e d by d c t i v e p r o c e s s e s on t h e S i n . S i m i l a r measurement was made by t h e Lunokhod s e l f - p r o p e l l e d l a b o r a t o r y , t h e Venera-7, Venera-8, Mars-2 and Mars-3, t h e Prognbz and Prognoz-2 a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s i n s - a r i o u s a r e a s o f i n t e r p l a n e t a r y space. I n t h i s way, a c o n t i n u o u s check was k e p t o f t h e r a d i a t i o n The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d g i v e
s i t u a t i o n i n o u t e r s p a c e f o r two y e a r s .
more i n f o r m a t i o n of t h e e n e r g y s p e c t r a , c h a r g i n g components of cosmic r a y s , a n d t h e way i n which t h e y a r e p r o p a g a t e d i n t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y medium. During t h e whole f l i g h t t h e Luna-19 on-board systems and s c i e n t i f i c equipment worked n o r m a l l y , and t h e p r o j e c t e d program was carried out successfully. 163
A TASS Report:
measurement complex is maintaining stable radio communication with the station. The coordinating computation center is processing incoming iniprmation.
TASS Report:
ffPravdaff, February 19, 1972. The flight of the Luna-20 automatic station continues. During
164
held regularly with the station, during which the parameters of the movement trajectory were measured and a check was made of the station's on-board systems and units. A flight path correction wc.3 made on February 15 to bring the station into the specified area of :lear-moon space. The spacecraft was decelerzted on February 18 during the flight to the moon, as a result of which it went into circular selenocentric orbit with the following parameters:
- - altitude above the moon's surface - - 100 km; - - inclinatim to the lunar equatorial plane - - 6' 5; - - orbital period around the moon
board systems are working normally. The long-range space communication center is maintaining stable radio communication with the station. A coordinating computation center is processing the incoming information.
--
1 hour 58 minutes.
A TASS Report: The Luna-20 Automatic Station Has Made a. Soft Landing on the Moon "Pravda", February 23, 1972. The Soviet Luna-20 automa:ic station made a soft landing on
/a2
the moon for tne first time in the highland continental region. An important scientific and technical problem was solved for setting down equipment in a region with a complex terrain relief. The Luna-20 automatic station landed on the moon's surface on February 21, i972 at 22 hocrs 19 minutes Moscow time in a position 165
circular orbit on February 18, On February 19 the station's movement was corrected, as a result of which it went into elliptic orbit with a maximum altitude above the moon's surface of 100 km and a minimum altitude of 21 km. On February 21 at 2 2 hours 13 minutes the main retrofire motor was switched on to set the station down in the calculated position. The engine installation was switched off after 267 sec
and the station was in free fall before reaching an altitude of 760 m. The rest of the descent was made under control, during which the thrust of the main engine was changed by an automatic control system. At a height of 20 m from the moon's surface deceleration was done with a thruster. The position where the Luna-20 landed is in a part of the lunar continent near the north-east tip of the Mare Fecunditatis. According to telemetering measurement, the on-board systems are working normally. The Luna-20 has begun to carry out a work program on the moon's surface.
166
A Landing i n t h e A n a r Highlands
v
Y
A. b s z i i e v s k i y A C a n d i d a t e o f G e o l o g i c a l and M i n e r a l o g i c a l S c i e n c e s , a s c i e n t i f i c worker a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy o f S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR, " I z v e s t i y a " , February 2 2 , 1972.
The Luna-20 l a n d e d i n t h e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n between t h e b:are F e c u n d i t a t i s and t h e blare Crisium on February 2 1 a t 2 2 h o u r s 19 minutes. The l a n d i n g s i t e i s 130 km t o t h e n o r t h of t h a t where
t h e Luna-16 made a moon l a n d i n g , and i n September 1 9 7 0 s e n t back t o e a r t h a l u n a r s o i l sample from t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . When
difficult.
t i o n must a l l o w f o r t h e ruggedness of t h e t e r r a i n below t h e f l i g h t p a t h , aild t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e must be c a p a b l e of l a n d i n g on a rugged s u r f a c e . The f i r s t s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e moon was made s i x y e a r s ago, i n February 1 9 6 6 , by t h e Luna-9. S i n c e t h e n , much s t u d y h a s been made
of the e a r t h ' s n a t u r a l s a t e l l i t e . W now known t h a t t h e p l a i n s o f l u n a maria a r e e x t e n s i v e , e hardened f i e l d s o f b a s a l t l a v a , c o v e r e d w i t h a l a y e r o f s p l i n t e r e d r o c k , p a r t l y l o c a l , and p a r t l y c a r r i e d from e l s e w h e r e . Impact and
/83
e x p l o s i v e phenomena, l i n k e d w i t h m e t e o r i t i c bombardment o f t h e
167
I
I
y e a r s ago.
S c i e n t i s t s learned of t h i s as
a r e s u l t o f S o v i e t and American s p a c e f l i g h t s .
A t t h e p r e s e n t time, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y t h e h i g h l a n d
r e g i o n s d u r i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e moon.
J u d g i n g by many s i g n s , t h e
On e a r t h , t r a c e s o f e v e n t s , t a k i n g p1af.e i n s i m i l a r e a r l y
cesses.
A t t h e same time, i n f o r r , a t i o n on t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f
p l a n e t e v o l u t i o n , above a l l o f t h e ebli.:;,
i s needed by , ; c i e n t i s t s
Its surface is
c r a t e r with a diameter
of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 km.
The d e n s i t y of s m a l l c r a t e r s w i t h diameters
from s e v e r a l m e t e r s t o s e v e r a l hundreds o f m e t e r s i n t h e l a n d i n g s i t e
168
a r e a , j u d g i n g by a number o f s i g n s , i s r a t h e r l e s s t h a n on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e Marc F e c u n d i t a t i s .
c 3 e a r l y d e f i n e d s t r u c t u r a l chi - - a c t e r .
L.L
2;
t h i s a r e a o f t h e moons s u r f a c e , t a k e n from
form t h e n a t u r a l boundary between t h e s u r f a c e s o f t h e m a r i a and t h e highlands. Sometimes, one can see how a p a r t o f a c r a t e r , a t
t h e edge \ f t h e h i g h l a n d s , has been pushed i n t o t h e l u n a r c r u s t and c o v e r e d by l a v a f i l l i n g t h e d e p r e s s i o n of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . O f t e n i n t h e a r e a where t h e mare joins t h e h i g h l a n d s t h e r e a r e a r e a s covered by c h a r a c t e r i s t c i dome-like e l e v a t i o n s , p r e s u m a h l y a f volcanic origin. The i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y of d i s t r i b u t i o n o f l a r g e c r a t e r s i n t h e h i g h l a n d s must clean t h a t f r a g m e n t s of r o c k , e j e c t e d fron, a d e p t h of s e v e r a l hundreds of m e t e r s t o 1 - 3 km, form t h e s p l i n t e r e d surface layer. I n p a r t i c u l a r , l u n a r s o i l i n t h e Luna-20 l a n d i n g
is
more t h a n 1 km deep.
On t h e b a s i s of a n a l y z i n g photographs o f t h e moons s u r f a c e ,
s p e c i a l i s t s i n l u n d r g e o l o g y b e l i e v e :hat t h e d e p r e s s i o n in t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s i s one of t h e o l d e s t mare d e p r e s s i o n s on t h e moon. J u d g i n g by r e s u l t s o f a n a l y s i s of l u n a r s o i l samples c o l l e c t e d by Luna-16, t h i s d e p r e s s i o n was f i l l e d w i t h b a s a l t l a v a a p p r o x i m a t e l y
3 . 5 b i l l i o n year;
ago,
169
Mare Fecunditatis are geologically older than the lava filling the mare depression. Therefore, it must be expected that rocks which were formed in the very e a r l y s t a g e s of the rcooriss evoiution make up the geological structure in the area where the Luna-20 landed. The Luna-20 experiments continue, but it is already quite clear that this flight is a new stage in moon research.
184
In clearly
shows the efficiency of the method o f lunar and planetary research by automatic facilities chosen by Soviet scientists.
"Pravda", February 2 3 , 1972. Passing the sloping north-east tip of the depression o f the Marc Fecunditatis and flying over, during the final stage of descent, at an altitude o f more than 50 km above the surface of the lunar highlands, cut by ancient relief form:, the Luna-20 made a soft landing close to the small Apollonius C. criter. The
moon landing site is in the southern area of the elongated highland plateau which separates the pl2in of the blare Fecunditatis and the blare Crisium. The prolonged controled descent of an automatic station and the precision landing in the prescribed area o f the lunar highland? was achieved Cor the first time. The lan.:;-ng of an automatic sta; lop. on the lun-: highlands is ivportant for studying the lunar surface, and is new proof of
170
an2 opens up new possibilities for further comprehensive study of the moon.
made a soft landing for the first time on the surface o f the p-.anet and transmitted television pictures of a "lunar stone" back to earth. surface. It disclosed the secret on the formation o f the lunar
Ixi April 1966 the Luna-10 became the first artificial
satellite of the moon and began the detailed study of the features
o f its gravitational field.
obtained the first information on the mineralogical composition of extensive areas of the l m a r surface. The Luna-13 automatic station, equipped with the necessary instruments, studied directly the physical and mechanical properties of the lunar surface. Soviet autonatic stations of the Luna and Zond series repeatedly photographed different artzq n f the moon on different scales and transmitted back to earth a wealth of information on the structural features of the lunar surface.
a soft landing during lunar night 60 hours after sunset, when the
in lunar night with manned spucecraft. The Luna-17 station set down on the moon a mobile scientific laboratory - - the automatic Lunokhod-1. It actively researched the surface structure o f the Mare Imbrium for a considerable length of time. The Lunokhod-1 was also equipped with scientific The length of active work,
185
characteristic of modern automatic systems, :annot be accomplished during manned flights to the moon.
A
years as a result of the rapid development of astronautics, has given mtcn new important scientific data. The use of sequence
photography of the far side of the moon, never seen from earth, showed differences
ir,
Up
until now, photographs were the basis o f several published maps of the far side of the moon. In 1970, the International Astronomical
Union gave 5 0 0 new names to recently discovered formations on the moon. Over the years, cxperimental data was obtained on the structure of the moon's surface on millimeter, centimeter, and meter scales. Similar information was obtained on the physical and physical and mechanical properties o f various parts o f the moon's surface. This info; ation destroyed the legend o f fine, flowing lunar dust. Both direct and indirect methods were used for
132
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e chemical composition o f t h e s o i l o f v a r i o u s regions o f t h e l u n a r q u r f a c e and b r i n g i n g s a a i y l e a back t o e a r t h , and i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d on t h e i r a b s o l u t e age. This research l e d
t o f u r t h e r development work i n l u n a r g e o c h e m i s t r y . Comprehensive s t u d y o f t h e f e a t u r e s o f t h e moon's g r a v i t a t i o n a l f i e l d , together with subsequent w2rk i n seismometry and mag-
a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e - i the
t h e Luna-19, c o n t r i b d t e d t o
r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e moon's g r a v i L . c i o n a 1 f i e l d . RecentLy, i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d made i t p o s s i b l e t o s o l v e fundamental problems o f t h e o r i g i n and e v o l u t i o n b o t h of t h e moor, and t h e s o l a r system a s a whole, on a c o m p l e t e l y new l e v e l .
i t i s now i n t e r e s t i n g t o s t u d y l u n a r h i g h l a n d s .
Hence,
s u r f a c e i s e x t r e m e l y rugged and l a n d i n g s p a c e c r a f t on them i s a d i f f i c u l t task. A f t e r a s p a c e f l i g h t of 7.5 d a y s , t h e Luna-20 l a n d e d a p p r o x i mately 120 km t o t h e n o r t h of t h e a r e a f r o s which t h e S o v i e t Luna-16 had brought s o i l samples t o e a r t h . The a n c i e n t s u r f a c e
o f t h e h i g h l a n d p l a t e a u i n t h e l a n d i n g a r e a o f Luna-20 rises a p p r o x i m a t e l y I. k above t h e mean l e v e l of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . m The s u r f a c e i s s l o p i n g and u n d u l a t i n g , p i t t e d w i t h numerous c r a t e r s up t o s e v e r a l nundreds o f meters i n d i a m e t e r . The d i f f i c u l t y o f
.
/86
and t h e h i g h l a n d s i n t h e l a n d i n g a r e a i s narrow and, d p p a r e n t l y , also tectonic. The l a n d i n g o f t h e Luna-20 c n t h e l u n a r h i g h l a n d s i s a new i m p o r t a n t s t e p f o r s c i e n c e and technol-ogy.
I t opens up wide p o s -
A TASS
Repor,:
A S p a c e c r a f t Returns
"Pravda"
Febrdary 2 4 , 1 9 7 2 .
174
in the
After landing, t h e
t o e a r t h p i c t u r e s of t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , and t h e p l a c e f o r c o l l e c t i n g
Then, t h e c o l l e c t i o n
The t r a j e c t o r y parameters were c l o s e t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d ones. During t h e f i n a l s t a g e of t h e f l i g h t from t h e moon t o e a r t h , t h e r e - e n t r y v e h l c l e was d e t a c h e d and on February 25, 1 9 7 2 w i l l e n t e r t h e dense a t m o s p h e r i c l a y e r s , w i l l be d e c e l e r a t e d a e r o d y n a m i c a l l y and c a r r y o u t a s o f t l a n d i n g m i n g a p a r a c h u t e system. During t h e f l i g h t towards e a r t h t r a j e c t o r y 2easurement w i l l be made d u r i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n s e s s i o n s w i t h t h e s p a c e c r a f t t o
175
Search f s c i l i t i e s
D r i l l i n g i n t h e Highland Region
D. Dryuchenko, Engineer
"Pravda",
February 2 4 , 1972.
a n a u t o m a t i c s o i l measuring d e v i c e , a p e n e t r o m e t e r and a r a d i a t i o n d e n s i t o m e t e r which were s e t up on t h e s u r f a c e by s p e c i a l f l e x i b l e rods beyond t h e area llamaged when t h e s t a t i o n l a n d e d . P . f t e r t h e Luna-13, t h e American Surveyor v e h i c l e s a l s o l a n d e d a u t o m a t i c d e v i c e s on t h e moon's surface t o d e t e r m i n e t h e soil's stahility.
As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s i t was found t h a t t h e moon's
/87
I t s b a s i c p h y s i c a l and
i n w h i c h p r o p e r t i e s o f t h i s material change z c c o r d i n g t o d e p t h , i t s
s t r a t i f i c a t i o n s t r e n g t h , and where t h e h a r d r o c k b e g i n s and what
form t h e y take.
176
t h e d e s t r u c t i v e e f f e c t o f inany f a c t o r s o v e r t h e c e n t u r i e s , p r i n c i p a l l y , cosmic r a d i a t i o n and m e t e o r i t i c boinbardment. T h e r e f o r e , t h e beCrock c a n answer many q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o r j g i n of t h e moon, t h e e a r t h and o t h e r p l a n e t s o f t h e s o l a r system.
an e a r t h t h i s would be s i m p l e .
a d i r e c t e d explosion.
Normally, b o r e h o l e s a r e sunk t o t h e
I t is d i f f i -
c u l t t o send a n e x c a v a t o r t h e r e , b u t a t t h e moment t h i s i s n o t
required.
I t i s t o o e a r l y t o u s e e x p l o s i o n s , s i n c e h o l e s mxt b e
A f t e r s t u d y i n g many methods,
s p e c i a l i s t s have concluded t h a t a t t h i s s t a g e o f development t h e most e f f e c t i v e anc' economic method, o f p e n e t r a t i n g t h e moon's surface is t o sink a hcle. There a r e many methods o f doing t h i s .
Which i s t h e b e s t f o r l u n a r c o n d i t i o n s ? One c a n a d o p t t h e normal d r i l l i n g method w i d e l y u s e d on e a r t h . But how does one d r i l l and e x t r a c t t h e r o c k from t h e h a l e ? c a n n o t be done w i t h w a t e r s i n c e i t w i l l f r e e z e o r e v a p o r a t e . This The
use o f g a s i s c o m p l i c a t e d and e x p e n s i v e .
thc cutting b i t ?
An e l e c t r i c - a r c o r plasma method e x i s t s .
e v e r , i t s u s e i n v o l v e s m m y problems, t h e fiain one b e i n g t h a t s u c h a d r i l l h Q l e i s unsuitable f o r further research - - its walls w i l l m e l t , t h e rock f o r m a t i o n Kill d i s i n t e g r a t e and, most i m p o r t a n t , i t
w i l l b e i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a rock sample.
177
Undoubtedly, ir, the future all these methods will be used on the moon. Now, at the beginning of the study, when much is still
unclear and the weight of equipment sent to the moon is reckoned in grams, one must choose the most cfficient, economic and general purpose method. This method of drilling is a modification of the Incidentally, it sat-isfies two diametrically
opposed problem, one of which is the need to take a monolithic core, the other to extract cohesionless soil.
made a soft landing in the area of Mare Fecunditatis in September 1970. As a result of this successfully conducted experiment, a soil sample was taken from a depth of 350 mm and returned to earth. The next step is to bring back to earth lunar bedrock samples for s t u d y . For this purpose, the Luna-20 containing drilling
problems concerning the various requirements of scientists for a future ,oil sannpling device. To satisfy these r'ema,..h, complex a drilling unit must work An all types of rock a. collect both 1d cohesionless soil and hard, b:.salttype rock. The sampling must be done so that the natura' Formatic? is destroyed s , little as pos-
was found:
t h e equipment must o p e r a t e on t h e p e r c u s s i o n - r o t a r y
- - t h e core.
U n t i l now, t h e problem
h e r m e t i c a l l y seal<*;.
L u b r i c a t i o n o f t h e working mechanisms was done d u r i n g d r i l l i n g by an " o i l y fog!', t h a t i s , a s u b s t a n c e e v a p o r a t i n g i n a vacuum. Apart from t h i s , some f r i c t i o n s u r f a c e s were c o v e r e d w i t h a s p e c i a l c o a t i n g which reduced f r i c t i o n i n a vacuum.
A l l t h i s allowed t h e
equipment t o o p e r a t e r e l i a b l y i n d i f f i c u l t l u n a r c o n d i t i o n s .
l h i s exper!.ment
v a l u e , t h e s e q u e s t i o n s can be of a n a p p l i e d n a t u r e .
o n l y be answered a f t e r g e o l o g i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n s have been made by u s i n g d r i l l h o l e s , f r o m which i n v e s t i g a t e d r o c k samples a r e e x t r a c t e d from d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e f i r s t d r i l l i n g equipment w i l l be a u t o m a t i c and capable of penetrating t o g r e a t depths. and d e s i g n e r s many problems. This w i l l give engineers
Automatic C o n t r o l U n i t s Storm t h e Moon Professor P. El'yasberg "Pravdz':, February 25, 1 9 7 2 . These y e s r s w i l l go down i n s c i e n t i f i c h i s t o r y a s t h e time of intensive lunar research. A s t r o n a u t s and a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s have
/89 -
a l r e a d y o b t a i n e d i n f o r m a t i o n which h a s s i g n i f i c a n t l y broadened o u r
180
former c o n c e p t s o f t h e moon.
S p e c i a l i n t e r e s t today i s b e i n g
L i t e r e s t i n g t c r e s e a r c h i n t o l u n a r r o c k samples f r o n d i f f e r e n t areas.
B d t how c a n we o b t a i n them?
;I
The f l i g h t o f t h e Luna-16
which a u t o m a t i c a l l y s o l v e d
To l a u n c h a
o f t h e s e two heavenly b o d i e s .
a t d i f h r e i l t moments o f time.
The
s t a r t p o i n t on e n r t h v a r i e s
To a v o i d mo1;ing t h e l a u n c h p o s i t i o n ,
in
t3
t h e p i a n e t s ) i n two s t a g e s .
In the f i r s t , the
i n t o a r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t , and t h e n The
launch time from e a r t h and t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s o r b i t s a r e chosen s o t h a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e earth-moon t r a j e c t o r y p a s s e s through a s2ecified point. The e a r t h ' s r o t a t i o n and t h e s a t e l l i t e ' s motion
i n o r b i t a r e used h e r e .
181
- - from t h e s u r f a c e o f which a s o i l
'To l a n d i n a c e r t a i n r e g i o n from e a r t h - - a t
dis-
must be c o r r e c t e d s e v e r a l times d u r i n g t h e f l i g h t t o a c h i e v e t h e
required accuracy. T h e r e f o r e , d i r e c t l y a f t e r t h e v e h i c l e goes i n t o They measure i t s
This information i s f e d i x t o
Here, computers d e t e r -
According t o
t h e e n g i n e is s w i t c h e d on and o f f . t o a new, c o r r e c t e d t r a j e c t o r y .
impossible i n a l l regions:
t7
l a n d on t h e f a r s i d e o f t h e moon.
L
T h e r e f o r e , when heading
ro;ket
i s tarned i n t o i t s a r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e
/9 0
a 'lyperbolic t r a j e c t o r y .
s e v e r a l maneuvers a r e r e q u i r e d s o t h a t t h e l u n a r s t a t i o n p a s s e s e x a c t l y above i t s t a r g e t a t t h e r e q u i r e d a l t i t u d e . r e t r o r o c k e t i s s w i t c h e d on. Landing an a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n on t h e moon's s u r f a c e i s an e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t and r e s p o n s i b l e o p e r a t i o n and means t h e s u c c e s s of tlie whole exyerimenc.
As i s known, t h e moon h a s no atmosphere.
After t h i s , the
T h e r e f o r e , p a r a c h u t e s cannot be used and d e c e l e r a t i o n is done by engines. t o zero, The i n i t i a l s p e e d , e x c e e l i n g 1 . 5 km/sec must. de reduced
n . d e w i t h an a l t i m e t e r , and a c c o r d i 2 g t o t h i s ?.nformation t h e
ments, t h e l u n a r s t a t i o n p r e p a r e s t o r e t u r n t o e a r t h . c r u c i a l o p e r a t i o n remains: on e a r t h .
One f i n a l
t h e r e t u r n f l i g h t and a s o f t l a n d i n g
c o n s i l c x s b l y from t h e earth-moon t r a j e c t o r y .
The problem h e r e i s t o a l i g n
switch
c e n t e r i s t o determine t h e a c t u a l f l i g h t p a t h according
t o measurement d a t a and t o s p e c i f y t h e l a n d i n g s i t e i n o r d e r t o
g i v e i n s t r u c t i o n s t o s e a r c h groups. I n t h i s way, t h e f l i g h t of a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , d e s i g n e d f o r b r i n g i n k 5ack l u n a r r o c k samples t o e a r t h , r e q u i r e s t h e s p a c e c r a f t
t o : a n y o u t a s e r i e s of complex maieuvers f a u l t l e s s l y .
T h i s can
I
I
o f development uf S o v i e t s p a c e t e c h n o l o g y .
r e s u l t o f t h e s e l f l e s s l a b o r of a l a r g e team of s p e c i a l i s t s i n
various f i e l d s .
S e c r e t s o f Lunar S o i l
V. Shvarev
A Candidate o f T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c e s , S e c t o r Manager a t t h e Space Research I n s t i t u t e o f t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s o f t h e USSR " S o t s i a l i s t i c h e s k i y a i n d u s t r i y a " , February 25, 1972.
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Research i n t o t h e moon
G r e a t i n t e r e s t i s b e i n g shown i n
s t u d y i n g t h e mechanical p r o p e r t i e s o f l u n a r r o c k and a l s o problems o f working w i t h i t w i t h machines and i n s t r u m e n t s . How s t r o n g i s l u n a r r o c k and s o i l ? These q u e s t i o n s must be
Is t h e
i n s t r u m e n t s come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h t h e s o i l :
W a l r e a d y know t h a t l u n a r s o i l i s s t r o n g enough f o r s p a c e e
c r a f t t o l a n d and f o r a Moon r e s e a r c h v e h i c l e t o c a r r y out
185
movement.
D e s p i t e t h e f e a r s of many s c i e n t i s t s and s p e c i a l i s t s ,
I n many c a s e s t h i s c a u s e s p u n c t u r i n g and
t o a d e p t h of 35 cm.
"stones" i n t h e p a t h o f t h e Lunokhod-1 d i s i n t i g r a t e d under i t s wheels. Therefore, it follows t h a t t h e l u n a r r e g o l i t h ( s o i l s u r f a c e l a y e r ) , c o n s i s t i n g of s m a l l p a r t i c l e s bound t o each o t h e r , i s v e r y porous and i s e a s i l y t r a n s f o r m e d t o f i n e d u s t even by s m a l l l o a d s , and t h i s d u s t c a n p e n e t r a t e a p e r t u r e s and gaps i n t e c h n i c a l i n s t r u ments. When t h e Lunokhod-1 was i n motion, s i d e by s i d e w i t h t h e
normal, c a l c u l a t e d c r o s s - c o u n t r y a b i l i t y t h e r e were c a s e s when i t s wheel s l i p p e d on r e l a t i v e l y g e n t l y s l o p i n g a r e a s . I t is obvious t h a t t h e l u n a r s o i l s t i l l h a s some s e c r e t s and surprises, Careful study of a l l i t s features w i l l allow s c i e n t i s t s
and d e s i g n e r s t o f i n d new, unexpected and i n a d m i s s i b l e e n g i n e e r i n g s o l u t i o n s f o r ground c o n d i t i o n s . Mainly, t h e d e s i g n e r must know t h e complex o f p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e s t r e n g t h and f r i c t i o n o f t h e s o i l . The f i r s t group of these
group is characterized by starting and friction coefficients when the soil comes into contact with different equipment, and its adhesiveness. We must remember that instruments on the moon operate in less gravity in a vacuum. Less gravitation means that the resistance force when starting up and also the frictional force when slipping, occurring during braking, is much more noticeable on the moon. These forces depend
on the weight of the moving body, which, on the moon, is approximately six times less than on earth.
As a resuit, with wheeled
and tracked chassis, contact with the surface is reduced and this means slipping and the braking distance must be increased.
/92 -.
whe? contacting surfaces are covered with fatty or oxide films. In fact, the interaction of bodies, in essence, takes place through a layer of "lubrication" which prevents agglutination and damage to the contact surface. In a vacuum this is much more complex. There is no normal
lubrication, and as a result, there is intense adhesion of different surfaces. The lunar soil samples brought back by Luna-16 were examined in order to study the above parameters. Simultaneously, experi-
ments were conducted on rock from earth which, according to scientists, had similar properties t o lunar samples.
187
.
On the ground there are standard instruments which, if one has several hundred grams of matter, can quickly and reliably determine the parameters which interest scientists. However, when conducting this research, one must house the equipment in conditions close to those on the moon. What is the
result of this? As soon as a ground instrument enters a high vacuum it stops operating. cams become jammed. In a vacuum all cogs, bearings and
evaporation of lubrication. One can adopt extreme measures: do not use lubrication and operate the instrument "dry". will only work for a few hours. An original testing facility was developed for examining lunar soil. One could create actual lunar temperature conditions on all samples tested. This was done by using liquid nitrogen Then it
friction coefficients on lunar soil varied little from the friction coefficient on earth andesitic-basalt sand or crushed basalt. This similarity is very important since it will be possible to develop lunar equipment on earth. The study of lunar soil in natural-scale ground conditions is continuing successfully. We have just witnessed the most recent success in the discovery of distant worlds. The Soviet
188
Space Robots
G. P e t r o v , Academician
"Pravda"
The S o v i e t Union h a s developed a u n i t i z e d a u t o m a t i c p l a t f o r m which c a n l a n d v a r i o u s t y p e s of equipment on t h e moon. T h i s u n i t i z e d p l a t f o r m was f i r s t used i n 1970, when t h e Luna-16 was s e n t t o t h e moon. The s t a t i o n had d r i l l i n g equipment
w i t h m a n i p u l a t o r s , c a p a b l e o f p l a c i n g a l u n a r s o i l sample i n t o t h e c o n t a i n e r o f t h e v e h i c l e which was a u t o m a t i c a l l y s e n t back t o e a r t h . This experiment was s u c c e s s f y l l y completed on September 2 4 , 1 9 7 0 . Two months l a t e r a new e x p e r i m e n t was conducted.
A platform,
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d i f f e r i n g from t h e f i r s t i n a number of d e t a i l s i n t h e t r a n p o r t a b l e equipment, s e t down on t h e moon t h e Lunokhod-1, a mobile a u t o m a t i c laboratory. T h i s mobile l a b o r a t o r y , weighing on e a r t h 7 0 0 kg, was v e r y mobile and s u c c e s s f u l l y climbed s l o p e s w i t h an i n c l i n a t i o n of more t h a n 30".
I t c o u l d o p e r a t e a c t i v e l y on t h e moon f o r many
Various
189
be experiments to study the origin of the solar system and its evolution. For example, bringing back to earth rock sanples from various points on the moon. Mainly; one must determine the age of rock and
the time it has been on the moon's surface. It is scientifically important to investigate the internal structure of the moon. This inclvdes prolonged study of the natu-
ral seismicity of the moon by using seismometers set up in different regions, and automatic, independent determination of coordinates (latitudes and longitudes) of a point on the moon's surface with a high degree of accuracy. One can study the motion of the moon's
axis of rotation in its body and determine anomalies of speed of the axial rotation for calculating the so-called Love numbers, characterizing the viscosity of the body o f the moon. Similar
I
experiments can be conducted by setting up a telescope with a special electronic unit near the equator. This instrument, designed
for observing the stars, will reach an automatic control unit on the moon. An important problem is the study of the moon's electrical conductivity at depthsof from 3-5 to 400-600 km.
To do this, one
must register in parallel the electrical and magnetic fields on the moon's surface,and at an altitude of 50-100 km above it, Research into the moon's internal electrical conductivity will allow us to determine the temperature and the approximate chemical composition to depths of several hundreds of kilometers.
190
c r a t e r s , m e a s u r i n g f-tom 1 0 c t o t e n s of m e t e r s o v e r a m P r e l i m i n a r y p r o c e s s i n g of d a t a , o b t a i n e d by
considerable area.
This
P e t e r m i n i n g t h e amount o f time which r o c k has been on t h e moon's s u r f a c e w i l l a l l o w us t o measure t h e a c t i v i t y o f cosmogonlr. i s o t o p e s d i r e c t l y m t h e moon's s u r f a c e . The s o l u t i o n of t h i s
problem has c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s , b u t i t i s worth t r y i n g t o o v e r come them. The comparison of even a few time c a l c u l a t i o n s w i t h
/94
s t u d y i n g c r a t e r s of d i f f e r e n t dimensions i n t h i s way, one can determine t h e change over time o f t h e t o t a l shower and n e t e o r i t e sFectrum i n t h o s e r e g i o n s of t h e s o l a r system v h e r e t h e moon i s , The s u c c e s s o f t h i s , t o a g r e a t e x t e n t , depends on knowledge of an impact w i t h g r e a t speed.
191
t h e e x p e r i m e n t program on t h e The
Pim
of
A TASS Report:
192
s p a c e f l i g h t , t h e s t a t i o n went i n t o s e l e n c c e i i t r i ; : o r b i t .
..'
corret-
metric equipment
\rdS
s w i t c 3 e d on.
P : = t u r e s of t l - ~ t moon's s u r f a c e ~
o b t a i n e d t y ichem a l l o w a s i t e t c be c h o s t n f o r s c i l sampling. The - h o l e s c i l s a n p l i n g o p e r a t i o n wa.- done b y commands from e a r t h . The s o i l c r , l l e s t i o n eqtiipment d r i l l e ; ana: s e l e c t e d l u n a r s o i l samples, znd a f t e r w a r d s t h e y were p l a c e d i n a c o n t a i n e r i n t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l z and s e a l e d . While \;he s t a t i o n was workiilg on t h e moon i t s c o o r d i n a t e s weye d t t e r m i n e d 2nd l a u n c h p r e p a r a t i o n s were made.
0;i Feb.:uary 33 a t 1 hour 58 minu';es MOSCOV t i m e , t h e s p a c c -
c r a ? t w i t h t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e l e f t t h e mcon u s i v g t h e l a n d i n g stage a s a platform. During t h e f l i g h t from t h e moon t o e a r t h , g r o u i l d command and measurement s t a t i o n s , d u r i n z r a d i o communication s e s s i o n s , r e c e i v e d t e l e m e t e r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n and cal r i e d o u t t r a j e c t o r y measurement. This i n f o r m a t i o n was p r o c e s s e d i n t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g computation c e n t e r t o check t h e on-board systems and t h e a c t v - l f l i g h t p a t h .
,..
On February 25, the Luna-20 approached the earth with an escape velocity. The re-entry vehicle was separated from the After this, ground radar tracked
/95
the flight of the re-entry vehicle until it landed on earth. Aerodynamic braking was begun when the re-entry vehicle entered the earth's dense atmospheric layers. During the final
stage, the parachute system was used, and at 22 hours 12 minutes Moscow time the re-entry vehicle landed accurately at the estimated area 4 0 km northwest o f the town of Dzezkazgan in the Kazakh SSR. The search team, in spite of the exceptionally unfavorable weather conditions: strong wind, snow storm and low cloud, brought
11
back the re-entry vehicle. All the phases of the complex space experiment - - the vehicle's
i
flight to the moor?. and selenocentric orbit, the soft landing on the surface, soil collection, the launch from the moon and the return to earth - - were carried out according to the program. Lunar soil samples brought back by the spacecraft from the highland region o f the moon will be sent to the Academy of Sc:'.ences
of the USSR for scientific research.
soil sample from a new area o f the moot will widen our knowledge of the nature and evolution of the moon. Results of the examination of the lunar soil samples will be pub1ished. The flight of the Soviet Luna-20 once more showed the great possibilities for investigating the moon and the planets by using
194
1
Fig. 19. A diagram of the Luna-20 automatic station's soil collection device. 1 - Re-entry vehicle; 2 - Initial position of rod and drilling machine; 3 Arm damper; 4 - Operational position of the rod and the boring machine; 5 - Re-entry vehicle ampule; 6 - S o i l ; i - Cap l o c k ; 8 - Ampule sealing cap; 9 - Ampule clamping spring; 10 - Body of drilling machine; 11 - Rotator; 12 Lead screw; 13 - Drill,
w stage of lunar
maria r e g i o n s .
--
so-
I t i s formed e a s i l y and b u i l d s a v e r t i c a l w a l l ,
I t s b a s i c compo-
/lo2
amount o f m e l t e d ( v i t r i f i e d ) p a r t i c l e s i s r e d u c e d , t h e d e n s i t y and s t r e n g t h a r e i n c r e a s e d , t h e e l e m e n t a l and i s o t o p i c c o m p o s i t i o n a r e s l i g h t l y changed, a s a r e some p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s . changes a r e caused by d i f f e r e n t cosmogonic f a c t o r s . The d e n s i t y o f t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r of t h i s r o c k i n i t s n a t u r a l s t r a t i f i c a t i o n , a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s m i t t e d by t h e Luna-13,
A l l these
i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 g/cm3.
increases.
But, o b v i o u s l y , w i t h
depth
this
.... .
s e v e r a l cosmogonic f a c t o r s
--
r i t e s , cosmic r a y s and s o l a r wind, a h i g h vacuum and s h a r p temperat u r e gradients. The l u n a r s u r f a c e also c o n t a i n s p i e c e s o f compact c r y s t a l r o c k , o b v i o u s l y , e j e c t e d from n e a r b y craters as t h e r e s u l t of volcanic eruptions o r t h e f a l l of l a r g e meteorites. T h e i r number
f o r example, t h e r e a r e b l o c k s o f s t o n e a s b i g obvious
t h a t t h i s i s u n d e s t r o y e d c r y s t a l bedrock.
Now t h i s i s
a l s o being studied.
I n c o m p o s i t i o n , s t r u c t u r e and p r o p e r t i e s t h i s
Samples
t o r o c k from t h e
Oceanus P r o c e l l a r u m and l e s s s i m i l a r t o r o c k s Zrom t h e Mare Serenitatis, But, t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s i s much c l o s e r t o t h e However, r o c k o f a l l maria have a s i m i l a r number
Mare S e r e n i t a t i s . of b a s i c elements.
204
,
I
..-. , . .".....
I
L.,
-..
As f o r t h e b a s i c m i n e r a l s making up l u n a r r o c k , t h e y a r e
p l a g i o c l a s e , p y r o c e n e , i l m e n i t e , a n o r t h i t e and o t h e r s .
The most
is o f a b a s a l t t y p e i n t h e w i d e s t s e n s e o f t h a t word,
S c i e n t i s t s have c a r e f u l l y s t u d i e d o t h e r p r o p e r t i e s of matter brought back from t h e moon, i n c l u d i n g i t s r e f l e c t i n g power, luminescence by c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s , X-ray and u l t r a v i o l e t r a d i a t i o n s . The magnetism o f l u n a r s o i l h a s a l s o been s t u d i e d . Results of
s u r f a c e , i t i s now approximat,sly 0 . 1 % o f what i s o b s e r v e d on e a r t h . The s t u d y o f l u n a r samples shows t h a t t h e moon's m a g n e t i c f i e l d 3.5 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 % o f t h e e a r t h ' s p r e s e n t f i e l d , t h a t i s , was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10,000 times s t r o n g e r . r e a s o n f o r t h i s remains u n c l e a r . Extremely i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d from r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e i s o t o p i c composition o f i n d i v i d u a l e l e m e n t s . The age o f The
l u n a r r o c k was d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r a t i o o f s e v e r a l i s o t o p e s of p o t a s s i u m and a r g o n , rubidium and s t r o n t i u m , uranium and l e a d , and f o r v a r i o u s r e g i o n s was s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t , The formafor
/ 103 -
t i o n of r o c k ( c r y s t a l 1 i z a t i o n ) i n t h e Oceanus P r o c e l l a r u m ,
rock d i s c o v e r e d on t h e moon i s 4 . 6 b i l l i o n y e a r s .
205
'-.
4 . 6 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago.
t i o n , underwent s e v e r a l p e r i o d s o f " l o c a l 1 ' f u s i o n , mainly i n t h e maria r e g i o n s . Fusions may have been caused by v o l c a n i c a c t i v i t y Although t h e age of t h e e a r t h , d e t e r m i n e d
o r large meteorites.
3.5 b i l l i o n y e a r s ago.
T h i s i s e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
In t h i s way, t h e s t u u y of l u n a r r o c k
It appeared t h a t an upFer l a y e r of m a t t e r s e v e r a l c e n t i m e t e r s
t h i c k h a s l a i n on t h e mooE's s u r f a c e f o r a t l e a s t no l e s s t h a n
1 0 m i l l i o n y e a r s , a r d a l a y e r 1 - 2 m t h i c k no l e s s t h a n 600 m i l l i o n
years.
extremely s l o w l y . tonic
s t a n t l y and q u i t e r a p i d l y changing.
How many m i l l i o n y e a r s
must p a s s b e f o r e s p a c e c r a f t l e f t on t h e moon a r e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o
lunar dust ! I n s p i t e o f t h e enormom achievements i n l u n a r r e s e a r c h , t h e main problems o f i t s o r i g i n and e v o l u t i o n a r e by no means s o l v e d . 206
similar
t.0
stony meteorites.
ApparentTv, t h e moon, l i k e t h e e a r t h , d-wring i t s i n i t i a l e x i s t t n c e , 1 e a t e d 1.2 due t o t h c heaL given o f f when n a t u r a l r a d j o a c t i v e e l e m e n t s decayed. Llmar m a t t e r was d i f f e r e n t i a t e d , and These c o o l e d and
low-melting f i a c t i o i i s r o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e . formec! t h e l u n a r c i w s t .
When t h e l a v a c o o l e d , which w s a r a p i d
I t is possible
207
".
I
L
I]
On t h e o t h e r hand, i t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s p r o c e s s i s l i n k e d
w i t h a n o t h e r phenomenon, t h e d i s c o v e r y on t h e moon of s o - c a l l e d mascons, t h a t i s , r e g i o n s w i t h i n c r e a s e d g r a v i t a t i o n , which f o r c e a r t i f i c i a l l u n a r s a t e l l i t e s t o change o r b i t . I n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d r e c e n t l y i s making s c i e n t i s t s form t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e moon was born i n s i d e t h e s o l a r system and, a p p a r e n t l y , developed i n t h e same way a s t h e p l a n e t s .
/lo4 -
But t h e s m a l l
I t is
s c i e n t i f i c a l l y and p r a c t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t e v e n t s which t o c k p l a c e on t h e moon long ago l e f t t h e i r t r a c e s on i t s s u r f a c e . e a r t h t h e r e a r e h a r d l y any t r a c e s l e f t o f d i s t a n t g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y , s i n c e i t s whole s u r f a c e was covered by a l a y e r of s e d i mentary rock. T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e i n t e r e s t a s shown by modern
i
On
By r e c o n -
...
V . Smirnov, a "Pravda" s p e c i a l c o r r e s p o n d e n t
"Pravda"
, February
2 8 , 1972.
s e v e r a l hundred
p a r t s of a m i l l i g r a m t o d e t e r m i n e , f o r example, Methods f o r
a n a l y z i n g s u c h a t i n y g r a i n w i l l a l l o w u s t o f i n d chemical
elements i n i t .
A.
chamber i s l i g h t e r .
From t h e r o c k
p l a c e d on t h e t r a y one c o u l d a l s o see t h a t i n t h e upper l a y e r of t h e d r i l l t h e r e were f i n e p a r t i c l e s , a n d i n t h e lower one, whi-h had d r i l l e d d e e p e r i n t o t h e l u n a r s u r f a c e , t h e y were l a r g e r . also individual r e l a t i v e l y large p a r t i c l e s . There a r e
I imagine t h a t some
o f them c o u l d b e a n o r t h o s i t e , one of t h e o l d e s t r o c k s i n t h e s o l a r system. The Luna-20 d r i l l e d f o r r o c k samples i n t h e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n n e a r t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s , where t h e Luna-16 l a n d e d . Therefore,
d i f f e r geologically.
S c i e n t i f i c a l l y , t h i s i s very important.
Research i n t o t h e s e samples w i l l g i v e tis an i d e a n o t o n l y o f a n a r e a , b u t of t h e whole g e o l o g i c a l p r o v i n c e . Automatic c o n t r o l u n i t s , b r i n g i n g back rock samples from v a r i o u s r e g i o n s on t h e moon, w i l l e n a b l e u s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o r i g i n o f t h e e a r t h and p l a n e t s , and t h e i r h i s t o r y . t h e o r i e s on t h e moon's o r i g i n .
T h e r e a r e now two
/lo6
to earth.
to it, the moon's orbit would unavoidably have become elongated. There is now a third theory: the earth and the moon were Research
into lunar soil brocght back from different regions of the moon, undoubtedly, will help explain these questions, and this will have not only a scientific, but important practical value.
"Pravda", March 2, 1972. To scientists, designers, engineers, technicians, workers and all the teams and organizations who helped to create the Luna-20 automatic station which brought back to earth lunar soil samples. Dear Comrades! Another vivid page has been written in the history of space conquest
On February 14, 1972 the Soviet Luna-20 was launched to the moon; it made a soft landing in the designated highland region of the moon between the Mare Fecunditatis and the Mare Crisium. The
Luna-20 drilled and took samples of lunar soil, after which it was launched from the moon to earth. The re-entry vehicle with
lunar soil samples was separated from it during the flight to earth. After aerodynamic braking, the vehicle landed in the specified area
212
The , a i d down f l i g h t program of t h e Luna-20 h a s been completely c a r r i e d ou' a c c u r a t e l y and 411 t h e s t a t i o n ' s systems and ground f a c i l i t i e s worked ,ably. T h i s i s a new achievement f o r S o v i e t and o u t e r s p a c e r e s e a r c h
s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y i n resul'
--
the
?f t h e i n s p i r e d Kork of t h e working c l a s s , s c i e n t i s t s ,
and o r g a n i z a t i o n s and a l l t h o s e who h e l p e d b u i l d t h e Luna-20 and achieve t h i s f l i g h t . May t h e c r e a t i v e s p i r i t . o f t h e S o v i e t p e o p l e p r o s p e r ! Long l i v e t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union which h a s i n s p i r e d and o r g a n i z e d o u r v i c t o r i e s f o r o u r c o u n t r y ' s good and f o r t h e triumph o f communism! The C e n t r a l Committee of t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union. The P r e s i d i u m of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e USSR.
Luna-20 r e p o r t t o t h e C e n t r a l Committee o f t h e Communist P a r t y o f t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e P r e s i d i u m of t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e YSSR and t h e Council of Ministers of t h e USSR,that t h e complex s c i e n i i f i c and t e c h n i c a l problem o f l a n d i n g an a u t o m a t i c v e h i c l e on t h e almost i n a c c e s s i b l e h i g h l a n d r e g i o n o f t h e moon, t h e d r i l l i n g f o r l u n a r
v e h i c l e s i n r e s e a r c h i n g o u t e r space and o b t a i n i n g s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r mation from t h e moon's s u r f a c e and p l a n e t s of t h e s o l a r system. W a s s u r e t h e C e n t r a l Committee o f t h e Communist P a r t y of e t h e S o v i e t Union, t h e P r e s i d i u m o f t h e Supreme S o v i e t of t h e USSR, t h e S o v i e t government and t h e e n t i r e S o v i e t n a t i o n t h a t we s h a l l devote a l l o u r e f f o r t s and s k i l l t o f u l f i l l t h e p a r t y ' s and government's t a s k of b c i l d i n g new t y p e s o f S o v i e t s p a c e equipment t o r e s e a r c h and develop o u t e r space f o r t h e b e n e f i t of o u r p e o p l e and t h e whole of mankind.
214
The Importance of Flights t o Far Worlds Scientific work in space and the continued research into the moon and planets of the solar system is one of the main tasks which the 24th Party Congress entrusted to Soviet science during the present Five-Year Plan. will play an important role. The recent successful flight of the Soviet Luna-20 once more showed the great possibilities for using automatic vehicles and wrote a vivid page in the annals of world astronautics. By systematically investigating the moon, Soviet scientists and designers used space vehicles for solving various problems: scientific research from near-moon orbit, the flight around the moon, taking photographs of its surface and bringing them back to earth, research of the moon in the landing area, and finally, bringing back lunar soil to earth. Scientists of the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR tell of the way in which Luna and Zond flights have enriched science, and the new information which these Automatic space stations and equipment /lo8 -
space flights have provided on the enigmatic, extraterrestrial world. The Moon from the Outside Professor B. Rodionov
...
We know that the surface of planets are not exact spherzs. Let us take the earth. towards the polar axis.
It is slightly flattened and compres-ed
215
r o t a t i o n , and i s l i n k e d w i t h t h e v i s c o s i t y o f p l a n e t a r y m a t t e r ,
i t s s t r u c t u r a l l a y e r s , t h e s t r u c t u r e o f i t s n u c l e u s and a l s o i t s
gravitational field. T h i s i s why d e t e r m i n i n g p l a n e t a r y e l l i p s o i d s
- - t h e science
on p l a n e t a r y e l l i p s o i d s a l l o w s u s , by comparison,
i s becoming more i m p o r t a n t .
Lunpr a u t o m a t i c c o n t r o l u n i t s have t a k e n photographs n o t o n l y
o f t h e c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e l u n a r d i s c , b u t o f i t s whole v i s i b l e
edge o r , as astronomers s a y , t h e limb which i s c l e a r l y s e e n on t.he background o f o u t e r s p a c e . What has t h i s meant t o s c i e n t i s t s ? Before a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s , we o n l y had a concept of t h e moon's shape from o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e hemisphere v i s i b l e from e a r t h . N a t u r a l l y , t h i s was n o t complete, s i n c e a c o n s i d e r a b l e p a r t of t h e moon c o u l d n o t be observed.
216
Scientists have different theories about the moon's shape. Some believe that it is almost a triaxial ellipsoid, the main axis
of which is pointed towards earth.
In this case,
planet matter would be distributed asymmetriczlly, and as a result, a mechanical system would have been developed which, in a freak state, would try to occupy a specific position towards the center
orientation must be ioolied for not in its global geometric asymmetry, but in its irregular distribution of masses of matter. Probably, these masses cause anomalies in the gravitational field. The analysis of photographed limbs showed previously unknown formations. For example, an extensive depression was observed, arbitrarily called the South-Western Sea, in the southern part
the surrounding low-lying area. Theories on the existence of such differences of altitude
discovery belongs to our lunar automatic control units. One must have a network of points on the moon's surface, the position of which is known in the selenographic coordinate system, for compiling accurate maps, studying the gravitational field, navigating space vehicles and for other scientific and practical tasks.
A network of this type was compiled from observations from
earth on the moon's visible side. the far side of the moon.
was set up over the hemisphere not visible by using photographs transmitted by Soviet Luna-3, Zond-3 and Zond-6 space vehicles. Photographic experiments from automatic space vehicles provide extensive material for studying the moon. Inside Professor K. Florenskiy "Krasnaya Zvezda", March 3, 1972. Successes in space research have shown that the moon has a complex geological structure: finely-crushed lunar soil, regolith,
... and
is a mixture, the basis of which is local crystal rock. At the same time, there is a certain amount o f matter which i s presumably connected with meteorites hitting the moon's surface. As a result of determining the absolute age (crystallization time) of lunar rock, it was found that present-day maria are extremely old. According t o information obtained by the Luna-16,
218
of r e g i o n s which must a l s o d i f f e r i n i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e .
The The
l u n a r h i g h l a n d r e g i o n s a r e o l d e r t h a n t h e l u n a r maria p l a i n s .
maria were formed by massive e f f u s i o s s o f b a s a l t l a v a which i s t h e low-melting p a r t o f lunar matter and p r o b a b l y , c o u l d have been formed as t h e r e s u l t o f z o n a l f u s i o n . On e a r t h t h e r e i s a s o l i d b a s a l t e n v e l o p e on whose s u r f a c e l i g h t g r a n i t e c o n t i n e n t s , a s i t were, " f l o a t " . Many s c i e n t i s t s
t a n t i n modern geology.
As y e t , t h e r e i s no d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of
1110 -
rock forming t h e l u n a r y h i g h l a n d s .
Some s c i e n t i s t s b e l i e v e t h e y
219
i.
structure
I t is highly
Unlike t h e e a r t h , t h e r e a r e
by t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f w a t e r .
T h i s i s cjne of maay l u n a r p a r a d o x e s .
There i s no doubt t h a t t h e main c h a p t e r i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e moon w i l l r e s u l t from s e a r c h i n t o s t u d y i n g samples from t h e l u n a r h i g h l a n d s brought back by t h e S o v i e t Luna-20.
T h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n s t a r t e d i n t h e c o o r d i n a t i n g computation
c e n t e r when i t was ].earned t h a t t h e r e - e n t r y v e h i c l e had s u c c e s s f u l l y landed and t h e t e n s i o n was o v e r . Leading s D e L i a l i s t s and
p r o d u c e r s of t h e Luna-20 drew up a r m c h a i r s and were s i t t i n g around a s m a l l , low t a b l e . table talk". This c o n - e r s a t i o n had t h e a i r o f a "round
220
..
,"
i f t h e y can be c a l l e d s u c h , t o q u e s t i o n s which I asked a r e shown here. The f i r s t q u e s t i o n a f t e r i m p o r t a n t work h a s been completed, a s always, i s t r a d i t i o n a l :
Q:
A:
ment showed t h a t t h e v e h i c l e was a c c u r a t e l y s e n t i n t o t h e a r e a o f n e a r - l u n a r s p a c e where t h e e n g i n e s were c u t - i n and d e c e l e r a t i o n was done t o s e n d it i n t o s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t . The f o r e c a s t o f t h e calculations,
The l a n d i n g on a s m a l l p l a t e a u - s h a p e d a r e a among t h e l u n a r h i l l s , and t h e r e t u r n t o t h e c a l c u l a t e d a r e a of t h e S o v i e t Union was accomplished a c c u r a t e l y , a l t h o u g h no c o r r e c t i o n was p l a n n e d on the return flight. The c o o r d i n a t e s o f t h e l a n d i n g s i t e , c a l c u l a t e d
Ye have no It
/111 -
were a n x i o u s ?
221
A:
A moon l a n d i n g
Although, d u r i n g t h e
i s done a u x o m a t i c a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o r a d i o a l t i m e t e r
i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e o v e r a l l s t a t i o n o p e r a t i o n system i s d e t e r m i n e d earlier.
A l o t depends on t h e work o f t h e c o n t r o l group which
makes t h e program of commands from e a r t h more a c c u r a t e . During t h e r e t u r n t o e a r t h , t h e s t a g e which i s c o m p l e t e l y automatic l a s t s longer. anxieties. T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e a r e p r o b a b l y more
i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e on-board a u t o m a t i c e q u i p ment.
Q:
p r e s e n t one?
A:
T h i s i s t h e 20th Luna v e h i c l e .
A l l o f them, b e g i n n i n g
from t h e f i r s t which was launched on J a n u a r y 2 , 1959, have c a r r i e d o u t t h e i r t a s k s , many o f which were done f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e i n man's h i s t o r y .
A s a t e l l i t e from e a r t h took a pennant and made a
s o f t l a n d i n g on t h e moon.
l a n d i n g s i t e and a s a t e l l i t e was s e n t i n t o s e l e n o c e n t r i c o r b i t .
222
"
," _-.
time, and rock samples from the lunar maria and highlands were sent back to earth by automatic means. Technical successes are linked with scientific ones and depend on each other. We owe thein to many teams and many people. Technical solutions and scientific research have progressed for the general good of mankind and the discovery of the universe. Each stage of lunar discovery, in some way, resulted froin another one. For example, the Lunokhod was built as the result
of the Luna-9 and the Luna-13 which made soft landings and carried out direct research into lunar soil. During the Luna-20 flight, experience was used which was obtained when launching its predecessor. For example, the Luna-19
is still researching the moon's gravitational field. As opposed to that on earth, it is non-uniform, and must be carefully studied when making moon landings, especially in highland regions. Over different regions of the moon there are "gravitational depressions", sharp changes in the gravitational field and these must be known and taken into account when making a soft landing. Of course, the main "base" of success of the Luna-20 and the Luna-16 was bringing back soil to earth.
Q:
A:
How do the Luna-20 and Luna-16 differ? Their basic construction is the same. In essence, these
are "systems".
taking into account that it must make a moon landing in the highland region, we decreased the landing speed so that the landing of the 223
Luna-20 was the scftest of all. Much new equipment give the vehicle increased reliability.
saw the surrounding area, chose a drilling site,and followed the operation for placing the samples and sealing them in the re-entry vehicle. Apart from this, steroscopic phctography of the area and
obtaining panoramz- with the earth's image gave us additional information on the landing region.
Q:
station units. Although they carry out different scientific tasks, where possible we try to use identical construction units. If one takes into account that for different problems not one st.ation is built by several "twins" for tests, this method is extremely economical. New generaticn automatic lunar stations use a unitized flight and landing stage. For example, this was used when the Luna-16
landed 3n the moon's surface and the Luna-17 set dcwn the Lunokhod-1, and now the Luna-20 which brought back rock samples from the lunar hilihlands.
It is said that it is difficult to gaia a victory, but more
224
No d o u b t , t h e y w i l l s u c c e s s f u l l y e x p l o i t t h e i r success i n uncovering
n a t u r e ' s secrets.
F u t u r e Lunar Automatic C o n t r o l U n i t s
V. Denisov, a C a n d i d a t e o f T e c h n i c a l S c i e n c e s and V. Alimov, Engineer
"Sotsialisticheskaya industriya",
March 2 2 , 1972.
A p p r o x i n a t e l y 60 v e h i c l e s have a l r e a d y been launched t o t h e moon and are on t h e moon; of t h e s e , 85% Yere a u t o m a t i c and o n l y
a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e were manned.
P s a r e s u l t of t h e s e f l i g h t s , o u r knowledge o f t h e
moon h a s been e n r i c h e d w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n which c o u l d n o t have been o b t a i n e d i n a c e n t u r y by d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n s from e a r t h . s a y t h a t l u n a r s p a c e r e s e a r c h i s one o f man's c a n t achievements . Sending a p a y l o a d t o t h e moon i s s t i l l a l a b o r i o u s p r o c e s s , however, t h e r e a r e a number o f r e s e a r c h e s which i t was b e t t e r t o conduct d i r e c t l y on i t s s u r f a c e t h a n c r e a t i n g a whole system o f a r t i f i c i a l earth satellites. For example, m e t e o r o l o g i c a l s a t e l They c o l l e c t
iilOSt
One c a n
recent s i g n i f i -
225
which a r e t a k i n g p l a c e i n i t .
This information i s a g r e a t h e l p
/113 -
But t h e t e l e v i s i o n b r o a d c a s t i n g r a d i u s o f t h e
Ostaniko tower, one of t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e w o r l d , i s no more t h a n 130 km. A r t i f i c i a l s a t e l l i t e s arid groand s t a t i o n s 02 t h e O r b i t a t y p e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e t h e "geography" of t e l e v i s i o n . I t w i l l also
be p o s s i b l e t o p l a c e r a d i o t e l e v i s i o n equipment on t h e moon i t s e l f .
J . t h i s c a s e , programs t r a n s m i t t 9 d from t h e p l a n e t w i l l br r e c e i v e d
by l u n a r equipment, and t h e n a f t e r a m p l i f i c a t i o n , t r a n s m i t t e d back.
226
In the near future, the third "profession" o f the lunar automatic control unit will be as follows. The earth's atmosphere hinders astronomers, astrophysicists and radio physicists who are studying surrounding space. The atmosphere, at first glance, is
transparent, but in actual fact is an unsurmountable barrier for the majority of radiations coming from space. Only a luminous
flux and a small spectrum of radio waves with a length of several millimeters to 30 m pass freely through it. The remaining regions o f the spectrum, including a vast range
rays, generated deep in the universe, "develop" when meeting the atmosphere and are converted into fluxes of secondary cosmic particles. Scientists, by indirect science alone, built up a
primordial picture. The air also prevents the penetration of some solar corona radia+.ion. These and other regions of the electromagnetic spectrum ,lot reaching earth carry valuable information on many questions o f the universe linked with the appearance of stars and stellar systems and with the nature of our and other galaxies. On the moon it is possiblc to research different radiations in their whole rich spectrum. Consequently, in the future, the moon will be a suitable base for astronomical instruments and even for setting up an automatic observatory. We shall. be able
The resolving power of radio telescopes is very important when one studies distant corners of the universe, containing numerous stars and their clusters, pulsars, quasars and "neutron stars".
It is characterized by the ratio of the radiation wave-
the higher is its "vigilance" and the farther it can "see". The size of radio telescopes can only be increased to a certain amount. Incidentally, this is almost impossible for Therefore, astronomers and astrophysicists Research
into heavenly bodies is often done simultaneously by two radio telescopes at a considerable distance from each other. signals synchronously recorded from the depth of the universe.
OD.
Radio
recordings cre compared and analyzed. Practice and calculation have shown that the greater the distance between the radio telescopes, the more vigilant is the "duet". itself. Radio telescopes on the moon can be coupled with those on sarth, and the distance between them is now in the order of
400,000
/114 -
km.
significantly increases, and it will determine more accurately the structure of small heavenly bodies which are far from the solar systern.
228
r e c e i v e s weak r a d i o s i g n a l s from f a r s p a c e .
i n t h e chaos o f
d e v e l o p s , t h e number o f t a s k s w i l l i n c r e a s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
Lunar Highland S o i l
A. Vinogradov, Academician
"Pravda",
May 4 , 1 9 7 2
Whereas t h e Luna-16 r e s e a r c h e d t h e mare r e g i o n of t h e moon (the northeast p a r t of t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s ) , t h e Luna-20 brought Scientists
b e l i e v e d t h e y would f i n d h e r e s u r f a c e r o c k w i t h o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s -
tics.
d i r e c t l y n o r t h of t h a t o f Luna-16.
a t a p o i n t w i t h c o o r d i n a t e s 3'32"
n o r t h l a t i t u d e and 56'33"
east
young c r a t e r s i n t h e d i r e c t v i c i n i t y o f t h e l a n d i n g s i t e .
o l d e s t h i g h l a n d r e g i o n s of t h e moon formed, p r o b a b l y , b e f o r e t h e Mare F e c u n d i t a t i s . The sample brought back by Luna-16 i s a h i a t a l d a r k , almost b l a c k powder. b a s a l t type. I t s component p a r t i c l e s belong mbinly t o r o c k of t h e The m a j o r i t y of p a r t i c l e s bore obvious t r a c e s o f
/115 -
l i c appearance.
230
As a whole, soil brought back by the Luna-20 is incoherent hiatal material, but of a light gray color and much lighter than the sample from the Mare Fecunditatis.
brought back by Luna-16, there are considerably fewer fused particles, which in the sample from the Mare Fecunditatis had a strong "mirror effect". As with the Mare Fecunditatis, the soil
than 1 mm, than in the sample brought back bv Luna-16. The lighter color of the soil was confirmed by albedo research (the reflection coefficient of light). The value of albedo was
greater than in samples brought back by the Luna-16 and by the Apollo-11 and Apolio-12. For a fine fraction of regolith in ultraviolet it was 0.145, in the visible region - - 0.22, and in the near infrared - - 0.260. The maximum reflection is for a wave0.370 (in the case of Luna-16 in the
Microscopic study showed a sharp difference in the soil from samples taken from the Mare Fecunditatis. Here, there were many
fragments of crystalline rock and minerals with well-preserved edges and chip surfaces; there were practically hardly any slag breccia and spheroids,characteristic of soil brought back by Luna-16. The overall mass of particles is anorthosite rock, 231
consisting, to a considerable degree, of feldspar (plagioclase), Among them were full crystalline, belonging to anorthosites, and particles of rock of the same composition, but o f effusive
appearance, that is, outwardly similar to volcanic rock on earth. Among these were individual grains of plagioclase which are seen in all granulometric types of soil. Apparently, the largest of these is crushed coarse-crystalline anorthosite. It is interesting
that in anorthosite rock one constantly meets various sizes of metallic iron inclusion.
rock consisting o f plagioclase and olivine. As opposed to soil brought back by Luna-16, basalt t>*perock was normally represented by numerous particles of mare basalt, similar to that from the Mare Fecunditatis and other lunar maria. There was a certain
and the sample from the highland region, brought back by Luna-20, consists mainly of anorthosite. In maria soil there was approxi-
pyroxene,and only approximately 1% o f ilmenite, while in the maria sample from the Luna-16 o f this titanium-bearing mineral there was
1 0 % and in soil from the Mare Serenitatis (Apollo-11) more than 25%.
Finely atomized metallic iron, concentrated in the surface layers, was observed in particles of lunar soil. There is an even 232
/116 -
greater amount of it in the surface layer of soil particles brought back by Luna-20. This metallic irondoes not oxidize in air. It
was experimentally shown that iron, having the same properties, is sublimated in a vacuum from basalts heated to a high temperature.
also metallic iron in particles o f soil with a very small nickel content or completely without it. this iron is still to be solved. The soil was subjected to detailed physical and chemical research. It significantly differs in chemical context from maria The question on the nature of
soil brought back by Luna-16 and by the ~lpollo vehicles. What is the first information we have on the content of the main components of the matter brcught back by Luna-20? This is shown in the table.
~~ ~
Components
Crystalline rock Basalt - - Anorthosite Luna-16 type with olivine - Luna-20 42.95 13.88 20.17 10.80 6.05 5.50 0.23 0.16 42.4 20.2 6.4 18.6 12.0 0.38 0.40 0.52
Silicon oxide Aluminum oxide Iron oxide Calcium oxide Magnesium oxide Titanium oxide Sodium oxide Potassium oxide
44.40
22.90
'
8.78 3.36
0.34
0.10
233
The first thing one notices is the high content o f aluminum oxide and especially calcium oxide in crystalline rock, and in soil (regolith) of the Luna-20 plagioclase (anorthite).
--
content of these oxides had previously not been obtained from the moon. The content o f iron oxide is considerably less in highland
regolith. There is only a small amount of titanium oxide in it, part of a percent, in comparison with mare soil. There are more
alkalis in soil from the Luna-20, although the difference is small. There is a characteristically high content of nickel and platinoids in hiatal highland and mare soils. meteorite matter striking the material. This is a sign of
that micxumeteorites fell onto the moon's surface uniformly - both on its visible and the highland side which we cannot see. The small amount of chromium is rather surprising. NOW, the content of more than 7 0 chemical elements in the soil brought back by Luna-20 can be determined by the massspectral method. This gives a rough idea of processes causing
the formation o f anorthosite in highland regions. From examples shown above, one can see that there is a considerable difference
: varies h
/117 -
234
mare regolith is still not solved. As for highlmd soil, its origin is a mystery. The boundaries of the extent of different soils on the moon are quite clearly defined. For example, this can be seen by the
boundary between the Mare Fecunditatis and its northern margin, where the Luna-20 took the sample. Strictly speaking, we know little of the origin of anorthosites. The discovery of this rock in the highland region of the moon revived old geological ideas of a primary anorthositic crust of the earth and, consequently, of the moon. It is known that anorthosites are seen on earth, especially
in old Archaean and Proterozoic formations with an absolute geological age of up to 3 - 3 . 5 billion years. All anorthosites, including lunar ones, contain small amounts of so-called mafic elements - iron, vanadium, manganese and titanium. As we saw, the high content of these elements is characteristic of mare lunar basalts, a large amount of aluminum and calcium has also been seen in anorthosites. In the example of the extent o f anorthosites in highland regions, the importance is seen for investigating the moon and planets to understand terrestrial processes, mainly durin,.the early life period of our planet. The discovery of the method .n which anorthosites were formed on the moon would make it easier to understand geological processes on earth.
It can be said that the
formation of anorthosites, apparently, takes place during the crystallization differentiation process of basic gabbro-basalt magma. Anorthosite is differentiated during the extremely rapid
235
t e r i s t i c o f t h e moon.
I t i s t r u e t h a t one r e q u i r e s a c e r t a i n amount
of w a t e r i n magma f o r t h i s .
However, t h e r e a r e s i g n s t h a t l u n a r
The f l i g h t o f t h e Luna-20 b r o u g h t
I
"Nedelya",
No. 2 0 , May 1 5 - 2 1 , 1 9 7 0 .
M. Lazarev, a c o r r e s 2 o n d e n t o f "Nedelya",
c o n t a c t e d t h e head
The f a l l of s u c h a l a r g e m e t e o r i t e i s a
r e l a t i v e l y r a r e occurrence.
p a s s b e f o r e t h e new c r a t e r b e g i n s t o age.
i n t o t h e moon's s u r f a c e o n l y d e a l t w i t h e x i s t i n g c r a t e r s ,
s t u d y o f a new f o r m a t i o n w i l l h e l p uncover t h e h i s t o r y o f o l d
craters.
S i m u l t a n e o u s l y , s e v e r a l complex q u e s t i o n s must be s o l v e d . In
from s p a c e i n q u e s t i o n e i t h e r f e l l s l o w l y o r t h e r e a r e
t h e b l a s t wave had been r e c o r d e d t h e new c r a t e r must be 2 0 - 2 5 m deep. This i s a n o t h e r window i n t o t h e moon. When t h e c r a t e r i s
I t found t h a t t h e moon's
upper l a y e r i s r e g o l i t h and i s from 2 - 5 m t h i c k ; below t h i s i s bedded rock. These new f a c t s were s u b s e q u e n t l y confirmed by
nature of earth wave propagation caused by the explosion. This, possibly, will be scientifically very important. The fact that this powerfui explosion was registered by instruments on the moon is very valuable."
"Lunite" Is Being Made on Earth B. Gerasimov (Our special correspondent) "Sotsialisticheskaya industriya", October 13, 1972.
sculptor had worked with specks of dust and given each one
b
i e
cucumbers", flowing with all colors of the rainbow, and foning a remarkable, unearthly decorative pattern.
was another sample under the microscope which had been brought back from the moon.
231)
talking smiled. "By the way, even an experienced jeweler would have difficulty in spotting the imitation." Yes, this time there was a sample of "our" earth soil under the microscope. useless. ditions.
Do not rush to find it in the earth, this will be
The "lunite" is obtained artificially in laboratory conIts similarity to natural ones in a chemical composition
and physical and mechanical properties is amazing. But why do we on earth need this "lunite". when &e have real lunar soil at our disposal? This is not an easy questicn to answer
/119
h>t; was it "born" together with the earth or at a great distance from it - - at one of the crossroads of the solar system? Hundreds of "oddities" on the moon are disturbing space researchers more and more. Synthes-tzing lunar soil in o u r laboratory, is only one of the scientific problems studied at the Space Research Institute. But
2 39
few i n which s c i e n t i s t s a r e i n t e r e s t e d n o t i n t h e f i n a l b u t i n t h e
initial result.
Judge f o r y o u r s e l f . In order t o obtain "lunite" i n t h e
l a b o r a t o r y , one must u n d e r s t a n d and s i m u l a t e p r o c e s s e s which t o o k p l a c e i n its " b i r t h " i n natural, lunar conditions.
Here t h e
c r i t e r i o n i s t h e f i n a l product.
I t i s s i m i l a r t o matter b r o u g h t
i t s p l a i n r e g i o n s a r e n o t o n l y c o v e r e d by a l a y e r o f r e g o l i t h
--
t h i s i s a l s o s e e n , a c t h e Lcna-20 showed, i n t h e h i g h l a n d region. Indeed, when s o i l samples began a r r i v i n g from t h e mGon many
p r e v i o u s h y p o t h e s e s were d e s t r o y 5 d .
For example, t h a t o f
Thomas Gold on ";.unar d u s t " which ;aould s w a l l o h up anyone iiho dared t o l a n d on t h e moon's s u r f a c e . What i n f a c t d o e s i t s s u r f a c e look l i k e ? Co-Jered by r e g o l i t h ,
calm
--
h u r r i c a n e s and winds.
found c o n t a i n i n g s p l i n t e r s o f f a l l e n n e t e o r i t e s .
240
various glassy and vitreous particles - - globules, "little cucumbers" and prisms with which we are familiar. These particles are the reason why, to man, the light side o f the moon did not appear s3herical but flat (the r'cat'slfeye effect). The moon's secrets are being revealed gradually. But one of
the main mysteries still unsolved is the origin o f regolith. American researchers believe that regolith is formed by the impact of micrometeorites. These space newcomers crash into the moon's
accompanied by microexplc,sions and these, in their turn, cause evaporation of the micrometeL:-ite and partial evaporation of the soil itself. And so a new explosion crater appears on the moon's surface, around which molten particles were cooling a moment ago." According to Soviet geochemists headed by Academician A. P. Vinogradov, not only space micrometeorites help to form regolith. One must also take into account so-called endogenous processes, mainly lunar volcanism. Who is right? The only judge in this argument can be an experiment making it pcssible to check various points o f view. The equipment used is justifiably called lunar. Impressive low-pressure chambers with all types of mechanisms, instruments and sensors. Here, man-made lunar processes take place, sometimes
taking place in a millionth part of a second, bgt reaching a temperature o f several thousand degrees, or as slowly as festive salutes illuminating the face of the moon.
241
The equipment can simulate much which happens on the moon's surface. orites. Scientists use a laser beam for the effect of micrometeThe length o f this can be varied widely - - to
a
millionth
part o f a second. The beam strikes the basalt target in a vacuum causing "primordial" evaporation and spattering of material. One
already has the space particle's autograph - - through a microscope one can see the "lunar" crater which has just been formed.
It contains grains
There
electrical current
passes through the crucible and the temperature in it rises to 1,200-1,800". Since this takes place in a vacuum, the basalt yields much earlier than in normal conditions. melted and is beginning to boil. given. Gaseous helium is pumped through an aperture in the bottom
o f the "little boat".
I t s role is purely mechanical:
It has already
the jet of
miniature copy of an actual erupting volcano. But what was waiting on the moon for a column of lava erupting from its depths? This has also been studied by researchers. In
242
t h e upper p a r t of t h e chamber, t h e f o u n t a i n o f f i r e s t r i k e s t h e c o l d , g l a s s p l a t e , s i m u l a t i a g s p a c e c o l d predominant on t h e moon's s u r f ace. "Out of t h e f r y i n g pan i n t o t h e f i r e " i: t h e b e s t way t o d e s c r i b e t h e s e l u n a r metamorphoses. With s u c h r a p i d c o o l i n g a
- - globules
....
T h i s new matter i s d a r k g r a y i n c o l o r , l o o s e
I t i s almost a 1 0 0 % t w i n of t h e n a t u r a l
and e a s i l y a d h e r e n t .
r e g o l i t h from l u n a r mare r e g i o n s . M i n t e r e s t i n g s t a y i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y e n d s and M. D. Nusinov y s a y s , "AS you see, e x p e r i m e n t s a r e b r i n g i n g t o l i f e t h e o r i e s f o r t h e f o r m a t i o n of l u n a r ' s o i l ' s u g g e s t e d by o u r s c i e n t i s t s . " Undoubtedly, f u t u r e r e s e a r c h w i l l s o l v e many problems of t h e moon's o r i g i n , t h a t of t h e e a r t h and, p e r h a p s , o f t h e whole s o l a r system. For example, why n o t (knowing, o f c o u r s e , t h e i n i t i a l
s y n t h e s i z e d matter.
n a t u r a l r e g o l i t h , i s a g r e a t h e l p f o r t h o s e producing l u n a r e q u i p ment.
As i s known, t h i s equipment i s developed on e a r t h .
243
"Pravda", February 29, 1972. When planning space research the question often arises: adtomatic control unit or astronaut? The answer to this depends on the stage of research, on one hand, and the object of research, on the other. Undoubtedly, automatic control units first explored Near-lunar space was studied when the first
/ 121 ,
artificial earth satellites were launched - - first in the USSR and afterwards in the USA. They obtained information on the dangers Man could only accomplish space
flights later, and the first man in space was Yuri Gagarin, a citizen of the USSR. Information on the structure and physical conditions on the moon, obtained from ground observatory observations, were supplemented by more detailed research using space rockets and automatic stations. the moon. Luna-3 and Zond-3 first photographed the far side o f The American Ranger vehicles showed parts of the moon The Soviet Luna-9 first made
A ~ S surface
with amazing detail, and supplied important information on the strength o f lunar soil. This was o f exceptional value since In
addition, these properties were investigated both by Soviet and American vehicles.
244
Artificial lunar satellites established the mass, gravitational and magnetic field, the reflectance and radiation characteristics of the lunar surface. Extremely detailed pictures of
practically its whole surface were obtained which could not be determined from earth even with the largest astronomical instruments. Now, automatic control units are allowing scientists to
carry out effective, com,prehensive research in the most difficult conditions of outer space. The Luna-16 made a soft landing on the moon in the northeast part of the Mare Fecunditatis, drilled the lunar soil to a depth of 35 cm and brought back to earth a column of regolith for laboratory research. In November 1970, the Luna-17 landed in the
region o f the Mare Imbrium, and the Lunokhod-1 self-propelled vehicle, equipped with various instruments, emerged from it.
It
was supplied mainly by solar batteries and, therefore, the active periodsof the "moon research vehicle" were during lunar days. In
10.5 months, or 11 lunar days, the moon research vehicle traveled 10, 540 m, examined approximately 80,000 m2 of lunar surface, transmitted more than 200 panoramas of the surrounding area and took more than 20,000 photographs.
It studied the physical and mechani-
cal properties of the soil and determined its chemical composition. The French angle reflector in the moon research vehicles was used for lunar laser location. One extremely important fact must be mentioned: the equipment sent to the moon did not work independently. In other words, it
did not only carry out a program fed into it earlier, which, by 245
necessity, would have had limitations, restricted its maneuverability and capability of operating independently of factors which occurred. The equipment continually worked in close communication with earth and followed out the ground center's instructions, which traced each movement of the research vehicle and the functioning
of its equipment. For example, when the moon research vehicle met
a steep crater or large stone, the operator on earth guided it around the obstruction. This was as if a person on earth had hands
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which reached the moon and controlled instruments there. The moon research vehicle successfully worked on the moon in a high vacuum, great temperature gradients, etc.
An
automatic con-
trol unit is more easily protected from the harmful effects of the surrounding medium, and the energy required for operating the equipment can be supplied by solar batteries.
a wide selection of tasks.
In our first steps into space,knowledge is more important than perception, but in the future controlled automatic control
4
units will probably transmit not only what the brain can accept, but can influence our five senses. A man, remaining on earth, but linked by electromagnetic waves with an automatic control unit in space or on another planet, will have the impression that he himself is in the place o f :be automatic control unit in completely unusual conditions. Of course, he will be in no danger whatsoever. In this way, it is quite feasible to have an automatic observatory on the moon carrying out different astronomical, physical and geological observations and research controlled from earth and
246
Undoubtedly, the
organization and especially the use of this observatory will be much cheaper and less complex than a manned observatory on the moon. The present conditions and rate of development of science
and technology will make this possible in the very near fature. What has been said is true of Venus, Mars and other planets. Great efforts and resources are required for an astronaut to remain active during the many months o f flight to these planets.
d I
It is even more difficult to land there and wcrk there, for example,
on Venus with its extremely high temperaturk?s and atmospheric pressure, or on other planets, the atmosphere of which contain poisonous gas.
No, success here for a long time will be in the
b
I
must be manned. The accurate light of the Soviet Luna-20 confirms the above. The Luna-20 brought back to earth new samples o f lunar rock from the highland region. This considerably increases our knowledge
of the mineralogy and geology of the moon, since, until now, we only had information from the so-called mare regions.
It is
247
achievement of space automatic control units allowing Soviet science to make one more important step in studying bodies of the solar system.
248
vivid new page has been written in the annals o f Soviet and The Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station
/123 -
world astronautics.
reached Venus after four months of flight, and its descent vehicle made a smooth descent in the atmosphere on the illuminated side of the "Morning Star", and made a soft landing on its surface. Valuable scientific information of the unknown properties o f the atmosphere on the diurnal side o f Venus,and the nature o f rock on its surface layer was transmitted back to earth for 50 min. The Central Committee o f the Communist Party o f the Soviet Union, the Presidium o f the Supreme Soviet o f the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR heartily congratulated scientists, designers, engineers, technicians, workers and all teams and 0rgki.izations participating in producing, launching and controlling the flight and landing the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station. "This outstanding achievement o f Soviet Science and technology was made possible due to the inspired work of the Soviet nation, greeting the 50th anniversary of the formation o f the USSR with new feats o f labor."
249
This remarkable -cientific experiment is another clear demonstration of the possibilities of automatic vehicles for researching outer space and planets of the solar system. The Venera-8 successfully carried on the work of other automatic vehicles giving much important information on the universe and consolidating the USSR as the true authority on initial space flight, Scarcely 15 years have passed since the whole world was astounded by the call signs of the first Soviet artificial earth satellite. The "beep-beep-beep" signal was of the man-made device, arrived from orbit and showed the genius, technical skill and economic might of the USSR. Since then, mankind has passed
through real "space" universitles". There have been outstanding manned flights beyond the earth, the first of which was that by Yu. A. Gagarin. Man has been into open space and landed on the moon. The Snlyut manned orbital
station has been produced - - the forerunner of space laboratories of the future for prolonged research of the earth and interplanetary space. Space automatic control units have served science well in this field. They showed their worth in near-space and continued Twenty-five Soviet "lunar probes" have given
valuable information. Progressive, international public opinion has recognized the importance of the work ofthe Lmokhod-1 s e l f -
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propelled vehicle over many months, and has recognized it as the prototype o f planetary research vehicles of the future; flights from earth-moon-earth by the Luna-16 and Luna-20 which brought
250
back lunar rock samples. The crowning achievement was the flight of Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations which became artificial satellites of the "red" planet, sent down an instrument capsule to its surface,and discovered much new information about I:ars. Soviet automatic control units gave much important information towards our knowledge o f Venus. They are determining the level o f Soviet
Venera stations conseqQently sqlved a number of complex scientific and technical problems: one of the stations reached the planet for the first time; others descended smoothly in its atmosphere and gave us valuable information of its composition. Now there is a new remarkable success; the vehicle, notwithstanding the intense heat and hjgh pressure, "sensed" Venus itself, measured
i
s illu-
mination for the first time and other characteristics ofthediurnal side of the planet. The earth clearly heard the station's voice
The
it was calcu-
lated that the space "snipers" had hit a target as bit as a ten kopek coin moving at a range of 80 m. One sometimes hears it said that the triumphs of astronaLtics have ceased to amaze people. Perhaps the opposite is true; astro-
nautics has amazed and continued t o amaze the human intellect, and the daring and limitlessness of human resources. The Soviet nation is indeed proud that it was the first to bring about these
251
achievements and t h r o u g h o u t t h e whole s p a c e age l e a d s t h e c o n q u e s t of space f o r f r i e n d l y purposes. Ahead a r e new l a u n c h e s i n t o s p a c e . They w i l l p r o v i d e know-
t h e Directi..res o f t h e 24th Congress o f t h e Communist P a r t y of t h e S o v i e t Union, which e n v i s a g e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f s c i e n t i f i c work i n s p a c e t o develop l o n g - r a n g e t e l e p h o n e and t e l e g r a p h comm u n i c a t i o n , t e l e v i s i o r i , w e a t h e r f o r e c a s t i n g and t h e s t u d y of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , g e o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h and s o l v i n g o t h e r n a t i o n a l economic problems by u s i n g s a t e l l i t e s , a u t o m a t i c and manned v e h i c l e s , and a l s o c o n t i n u i n g r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e moon and p l a n e t s . I n s e t t i n g s u c h wide t a s k s , t h e p a r t y and government w i l l f o c u s i t s a t t e n t i o r t o t h e development o f t h e whole of S o v i e t s c i e n c e , i n c l u d i n g one o f t h e main d i r e c t i c n s o f s c i e n t i f i c and technical progress - - astronautics. The S o v i e t n a t i o n t h i n k s
h i g h l y o f t h e achievements of a l l t h o s e who t o o k p a r t i n p r e p a r i n g and c o n d u c t i n g s p a c e e x p e r i m e n t s , w i l l c r e a t e c o n d i t i o n s f o r f r u i t f u l work,and h e a r t i l y w i s h t h a t new s u c c e s s e s w i l l be a c h i e v e d i n conquering s p a c e . To t h e s e w i s h e s may ':e add t h o s e of o u r f r i e n c l s p e o p l e o f good w i l l t h r m g h -
They c l e a r l y s e e i n t h e s z achievements t h e
252
n a t i o n a l achievements, b o t h on e a r t h and i n s p a c e , o f t h e b u i l d e i s
o f communism b e f i l l e d w i t h i m p o r t a n t e n t r i e s !
A TASS Report:
"Pravda",
.
Scien-
planned t c conduct r e s e a r c h from t h e s t a t i o n on t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of i n t e r p l a n e t a r y s p a c e , e s p e c i a l l y measurement of t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f n e u t r a l hydrogen and s c l a r plasma f l u x e s . The Venera-8 c o n t a i n s p e n n a n t s w i t h t h e b a s - r e l i e f o f Vladimir I l ' i c h Lenin and a pict:*re of the S t a t e Emblem of t h e
USSR.
'ihc iieight of t h e
s t a t i o n i s 1,180 kg.
Venus from i n t e r m e d i c l t L . i r t i f i c i a l e a r t h s a t e l l i t e o r b i t s t 8 h o u r s
4 5 minutes b l o s c o ~t i n i p .
The e n g i n e s of t h e ' i n a l s t a g e o f t h e
. PI-
launch v e h i c l e fLnctione.-
c l o s e t o t h e calcul3tcci ones.
253
In July 1972, after flying 312 million kilometers, the Venera-8 should reach the vicinity of the planet. According to the prggram, the descent vehicle should separate from the station and descend smoothly in the atmosphere of Venus and carry out scientifh measurement. According
to
of the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station are working normally. Radio communicbtion with the station and receipt of
B
frequency of
megahertz.
station was at a distance of 65,000 km from earth above the earth's surface with coordinates: 78O25" east longitude.
point on
The fligSt of the Venera-8 is being controlled from the longrange space communication center. The coordinating computation center is processing the incoming information.
The Amazing World of Venus M. Marov, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences "Izvestiya", March 28, 1972. We are living through an exciting time, when science is "fiercely" attacking" planets near earth. Space vehicles, con-
taining daring, scientific projects and the latest achievements of engil.eering, have brought us nearer to our objects of research which are at a distance of tens and hundreds and millions o f
254
kilometers.
from near-
Mars o r b i t .
launched on i t s l o n g j o u r n e y .
f u l l y b e g i n by i t s p r e d e c e s s o r s . Over t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s , so f r u i t f u l f o r s t u d y i n g t h o s e regions o f o u t e r s p a c e and t h e heavenly b o d i e s c l c s e t o e a r t h , s c i e n t i s t s began t o r e a l i z e t h a t Venus i s a s i g n i f i c a n t l y s p e c i a l , wonderful world, f u l l of mystery and s u r p r i s e s . Imagine t h e c o n d i t i o n s on Venus from t h e v i e w p o i n t o f a n o b s e r v e r on i t s s u r f a c e . Khat would he see and t r a n s m i t t o e a r t h ? /126 -
There i s no q u e s t i o n t h a t t h e f a n t a s t i c n a t u r e o f s u c h a s i t u a t i o n
on t h e n i g h t s i d e where t h e Venera-7 l a n d e d i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y
500 C (almost t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f r e d h e a t ! ) , t h e p r e s s u r e i s
Therefore, these features of Venus's own radiation have been carefully studied by radio astronomers. However, they could not confirm confidently that they cauld "see" the surface, and, consequently, determine the conditions on the planet. The cloud and dense atmosphere greatly attenuate solar light. Therefore, it can be expected that the illumination on the surface of Venus is small. Kost probably, it corresponds to our twilight on a dull day. There is little visibility - - the strong light
scattering by molecules of such a dense gas must produce conditions close to those on earth during fog. Hovever, if the visibility conditions in the atmosphere of Venus were favorable, the observer on its surface would see the astonishing optical effects due to the vzry strong refraction
or
I
;
i
hoz-izon in all directions would aypear elevated, and one would nave the sensation of being on the bottom of a giant bowl. The discovery o f the planet's dense carbon dioxide atmosphere, and measurement of its parameters have made it possible to l o c k for physical and geochemical mechanisms which cailse these features, mainly its distinctive thermal conditions. These mechanisms must
be directly linked with the interaction of the lithosphere with the atmosphere, the nature o f the clouds and the planetls evolution.
Nhy did these high temperatures and pressure occur and remain
on Venus? Apparently, the main reason is that Venus is approximately m e third closer to the Sun than is the earth. Among
suggested theories, the most worthy o f mention are the so-called greenhouse model and the deep circulation model. The greenhouse
256
e f f e c t i s well-known. hothouses:
The c r e a t i o n o f t h e greenhouse
a d m i x t u r e o f water vapor ( a l s o o b s e r v e d i n t h e atmosphere by d i r e c t measurement from t h e Venera s t a t i o n s ) , s h o u l d hold back t h e o u t going t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n . t h i s effect i s increased.
A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e and p r e s s u r e r i s e ,
A p p a r e n t l y , e x i s t i n g c o n d i t i o n s on t h e
state.
Obviously, t h i s b a l a n c e Is n o t o n l y a temperr.-
/127
approximately
was
linked
in
c a r b o n a t e s o f s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k , on Venus, which
o c c u r as t h e r e s u l t o f t h e a d i a b a t i c compression o f g a s when i t
257
i s r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e lower l a y e r s o f t h e atmosphere.
The f a c t
t h a t t h e h i g h - a l t i t u d e t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e i s c l o s e t o t h e adiabatic one down t o t h e s u r f a c e , was o b s e r v e d as a r e s u l t o f measurement by t h e Venera s t a t i o n s . o f t h e greenhouse model. However, t h i s f a c t i s c o n f i n e d t o c o n c e p t s T h e r e f o r e , i n o r d e r t o choose between the
two models, one must know how t h e a t t e n u a t i o n o f s u n l i g h t takes p l a c e below t h e c l o u d l e v e l which i s v i s i b l e from e a r t h .
O f c o u r s e , one must a l l o w f o r t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e i n t e r n a l
h e a t of t h e p l a n e t p l a y s a c e r t a i n r o l e i n i t s thermal c o n d i t i o n s . I n b o t h models one must assume t h e i m p o r t a n t r o l e o f c i r c u l a t i o n on Venus which e v e n s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e between t h e day and n i g h t s i d e s , and t h e e q u a t o r s and p o l e s . T h i s i s i n d i c a t e d by
r a d i o a s t r o n o m i c a l measurement showing t h e aDsence of n o t i c e a b l e t e m p e r a t u r e changes o f t h e s u r f a c e and t h e lower atmosphere a l o n g t h e p l a n e t ' s d i s c , depsnding b o t h on t h e phase and on calculations.
A most i n t e r e s t i n g problem i s t h e n a t u r e o f c l o u d s on Venus.
e s s e n c e , t h e problem o f c l o u d s on Venus h a s many forms, and u n t i l now o n l y g u e s s e s have been made o f t h e i r f o r m a t i o n , c o m p o s i t i o n and e x t e n t .
I t would a p p e a r t h a t t h e most a t t r a c t i v e h y p o t h e s i s
i s t h a t of w a t e r - i c e c l o u d s , s i m i l a r t o t h o s e on e a r t h .
with c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s .
T h i s meets
However, i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e
258
10-12 km, on Venus similar clouds must begin at altitudes of almost 60 km, and their thickness (if one assumes the measured concentration of water vapor) must exceed 10 km. Serious attention is being paid to other possibilities - - the abundance of dust in the atmosphere, and also the stratified cloud formation on Venus. The latter is a unique feature of this planet, The
temperature on its surface is higher than the fusing or bciling temperatures o f many elements and compounds existing in oir natural conditions in the solid phase. For example, apart from water, sulfur, bromine, iodine and mercury could have entered the atmosphere of Venus, and alkaline metals, tin and lead could be found on the surface in liquid form. But with altitude the temperature falls, and the vapors of impurities in the atmosphere aust be condensated at different levels, similar to that which occurs when the temperature is reduced with water vapor. Therefore, there is the possibility of an extremely
curious picture of a stratified cloud formation on Venus with an extremely unusual chemical composition of condensates o f individual layers. During observation from earth in ultraviolet rays, one can detect individual contrast details, not discernible in the visible region of the spectrum, in the structure of clouds of Venus. It
was found that the displacement of these details along the planet's disc, called "ultraviolet clouds", takes place approximately
60 times faster than the
/128
259
On earth, the leading rotation of the atmosphere, no more than 1.2-1.4 times greater, is only found at relatively high altitudes
In particular,
in the planet's evolution process water would have been precipitated from below due to volcanic activity, as took place on earth. However, the water content in the atmosphere of Venus (of
course, this is impossible on the surface in the liquid phase) is at least 1,000 times less than on earth. One o f the possible explanations is that the temperature of the cold region itself in the upper atmosphere of Venus (in the mesopause) is 10-20' higher, and sufficiently hard ultraviolet radiation can penetrate deeper than on earth. The result would be a more intense separation (photodissociatisnj of water into oxygen and hydrogen and an intenser "runaway" of light hydrogen from the atmosphere into outer space. The oxygen would not bond with the solid matter of the planet's surface. The hydrogen corona o f Venus was actually detected by measurement from space vehicles.
hzs a hydrogen corona),and
260
possibility cf its interest, in particular, one must know the ratio of hydrogen with its heavier isotope deuterium in the upper atmosphere of Venus. This short list shown by no means exhausts the problems of Venus which exist, in spite of the enormous success achieved in studying it, and its title of "planet of riddles" is justified. Venus and Mars are close planets, a i they are interesting rd since scientists not only hope to find here the explanation for many zstonishing natural phenomena, but also "read" the pages of history of the origin and development of the solar system, which have been erased over billions of years on earth. Of course, to answer these questions one requires years of intense work, many complex experiments from space vehicles and intensive ground observations. This new flight of the Venera-8 automatic station will bring u s closer to solving these jnterestifig and complex problems.
A TASS
"Pravda", i u l v 2 3 , 1972. Soviet science and technology have achieved new successes in the research of planets of the solar system. On July 2 2 , 1972, the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station, having covered in 117 days a flight distance of more than
300 million kilometers, reached the vicir,ity of Venus.
When it entered the planet's atmosphere, the descent vehicle containing scientific equipment was separated from the station.
261
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b a s - r e l i e f o f t h e founder o f t h e USSR,
Vladimir I l ' i c h Lenin and a p i c t u r e o f t h e S t a t e Emblem o f t h e USSR was s e t down on t h e p l a n e t . During t h e v e h i c l e ' s p a r a c h u t e d e s c e n t and 50 min a f t e r l a n d i n g , s c i e n t i f i c equipment c a r r i e d o u t r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e atrnosp h e r e and t h e p l a n e t ' s s u r f a c e l a y e r a t t h e l a n d i n g s i t e . i n f o r m a t i o n was s e n t back t o e a r t h . During t h e i n t e r p l a n e t a r y f l i g h t 86 communication s e s s i o n s were h e l d w i t h t h e V e n e r a - 8 , d u r i n g which t h e s t a t i o n was c o n t r o l l e d and t h e o n - b o a r d systems were checked, t h e t r a j e c t o r y p a r a m e t e r s This
s t a t i o n t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n was made on A p r i l 6 , 1972 t o b r i n g t h e s t a t i o n towards Venus a t t h e e s t i m a t e d t i m e and l a n d t h e d e s c e n t vehicle i n t h e appointed area. T r a j e c t o r y measurement made l a t e r
showed t h a t t h e maneuver was done v e r y a c c u r a t e l y , and as a r e s u l t , a second f l i g h t c o r r e c t i o n program was c a n c e l e d . During t h e f l i g h t i n n e a r - p l a n e t a r y o u t e r s p a c e and t h e upper atmosphere of Venus, measurements o f t h e r a d i a t i o n l e v e l , and t h e d e n s i t y of hydrogen and d e u t e r i u m were made.
262
minutes Moscow time. During aerodynamic braking in the planet's atmosphere, accom-
and a considerable
rise of temperature on the vehicle's exterior surface, its speed was reduced from 11.6 km/sec to 250 m/sec, after which the parachute system came into operation. During the parachute descent the first research into Venus was done and experiments were carried out to determine the illumination, pressure and temperature in the atmosphere and on the planet's surface on its day side. Information was obtained on the nature of rock of the planet's surface layer. The results of scientific measurement are being processed. The Soviet research program for outer space, the moon and planets o f the solar system i s being successfully carried out by automatic space vehicles. This new success of Soviet astronautics, achieved on the eve
of the 50th anniversary o f the formation of the USSR, is remark-
able proof of scientific and technical progress and the creative enthusiasm of all nations of the Soviet State.
263
--
D'ssimilar
Sisters
t h e f i f t h s p a c e v e h i c l e t o have s u c c e s s f u l l y descended i n t o t h e atmosphere o f t h i s m y s t e r i o u s p l a n e t and t r a n s m i t t e d new informat i o n about i t , o b t a i n e d by d i r e c t measurement. f i r s t experiment o f t h i s k i n d f o r 1 9 7 5 . What do we know of Venus t o d a y and what would we l i k e t o know i n the future? circular orbit. Venus, l i k e t h e e a r t h , moves i n an a p p r o x i m a t e l y
I t s a v e r a g e d i s t a n c e from t h e Sun i s 108 m i l l i o n
-/130 .
The USA p l a n s t h e
k i l o m e t e r e ; i t i s 1 . 4 times c l o s e r t o it t h a n e a r t h , and r e c e i v e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w i c e a s much e n e r g y from i t on one u n i t o f z r e a . However, Venus i s a b e t t e r r e f l e c t o r of s o l a r r a d i a t i o n t h a n e a r t h . The m a j o r i t y of r a d i a t i o n a r r i v i n g a t t h e boundary of i t s atm.osphere r e t u r n s
t.0
s p a c z , and a s
a r e s u l t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same
amount of s o l a r energy h e a t s b o t h p l a n e t s . Apart from which, Venus and t h e e a r t h a r e a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l i n s i z e and mass, and have t h e same a v e r a g e d a n s i t y and a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y on t h e s u i l a c e . These two p l a n e t s a r e r e a l sisters.
s u r f a c e i s 90-100 atmospheres.
amount of w a t e r compared w i t h t h e e a r t h .
oceans on e a r t h i f o u r p l a n e t was h e a t e d t o such a t e m p e r a t u r e ? They would e v a p o r a t e ; t h e p r e s s u r e o f w a t e r vapor would be approximately 300 atmospheres, and t h e w a t e r vapor would become t h e main componerit of t h e atmosphere.
In e s s e n c e , Venus i s w a t e r l e s s .
The r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t of
According t c t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t of
t h e r e s u l t o f t h e cohesion o f s o l i d p a r t i c l e s i n a c o l d p r o t o p l a n e t a r y cloud which s a r r o u n d e d t h e Sun d u r i n g i t s f o r m a t i o n . The e a r t h could or.ly m a i n t a i n i t s o r i g i n a l atmosphere, s i m i l a r i n composition t o t h a t o f t h e Sun (hydrogen, helium, i n e r t g a s e s , e s p e c i a l l y neon) f o r a s h o r t time. Then, t h e i n i t i a l atmosphere
was almost c o m p l e t e l y l o s t ( w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of heavy i n e r t g a s e s ) , and was r e p l a c e d by a secondary one c o n s i s t i n g of t h e products af volcanic a c t i v i t y . Water was t h e main one o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s . There was 1 0 times Molecular oxygen
- - t h i s g a s was s p e c i f i c a l l y t e r r e s t r i a l .
265
b i o s p h e r e was a l s o i m p o r t a n t since i t e x t r a c t e d from t h e atmosp h e r e t h e m a j o r i t y of carbon d i o x i d e which formed s e d i m e n t a r y r o c k such as l i m e s t o n e . With t h e a r r i v a l of w a t e r , of which t h e r e was
an a3undance on e a r t h , n o n - b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a l s o took p l a c e which bound up c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n r o c k ( c o n v 2 r t i n g s i l i c a t e s i n t o carbonates). The s i m i l a r i t y between e a r t h and Venos i n s i z e and mass i n d i c a t e s t h e similar i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f b o t h p l a n e t s . Therefore,
one c o u l d e x p e c t t h a t a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l v o l c a n i c p r o c e s s e s t o o k p l a c e i n b o t h o f them.
I n some a s p e c t s t h e r e i s a r e a l s i m i l a r i t y :
f o r example, t h e
amount o f c a r b o n d i o x i d e p r e c i p ; ' - a t e d
i n t o t h e atmosphere of b o t h Howevex, on
p l a n e t s d u r i n g t h e i r evolut'-on i s almost i d e n t i c a l . e a r t h i t d i d n o t remain i n t h e atmosp.:re, q u i t e r a p i d l y i n sedimentary rock. i n t h e amount of water v a p o r . Wy d i d t h i s occur? h a r e two b a s i c t h e o r i e s .
There i s a g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e
T h i s i s one o f t h e main r i d d l e s .
There
fornied "without water" s i n c e t h e r e were no i c e p a r t i c l e s i n t h i s p a r t of t h e i n i t i a l p r o t o p l a n e t a r y c l o u d owing t o i t s p r o x i m i t y t o t h e Sun (and h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e ) . Venusian The second t h e o r y i s t h a t t h e 1~31
266
One of t h e p o s s i b l e means of s e l e c t i o n i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t e n t o f deuterium a r d hydrogen i n t h e water vapor and o t h e r hydrogenous g z s e s o f which t h e r e a r e small anlounts i n t h e atmosphere of Venus.
The r e s e a r c h done by Venera-8 i n t o t h e d e n s i t y o f
deuterium and hydrogen i n t h e upper atmo.;phere i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t . Atoms of deuterium a r e heavy, t h e r e f o r e , t h e y l e a v e t h e p1ane:'s atmosphere slower t h a n atoms o f hydrogen, e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e r e i s w a t e r and
; i
conditions.
I t i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e absence of w a t e r , t h e
I t is possible that i C
ti. i n s ~ o ud l o c c u r .
lie have onl::
\c:ii.+
.-!:i:ii
Fcritic>::cLi
,>:-i-.:i:;
,
,e o f t h e problems o f r e s e a r c n i n t o
ere
7.
sclcIii..ists
- - t h e problem of t h e e v o l u t i o n
Ke do n o t com-
o f i t s z t m o s ~ h c r ~ .T h S s i s n o t t h e orily mystery.
iacr., a l t
267
i t s atmosphere i n t h e i n f r a r e d r e g i o n of t h c spectrum.
The compo-
s i t i o n anL f o r m a t i o n of t h e p l a n e t ' s -*oud l a y e r h a s not been d e t e r m i n e d , n e i t h e r h a s i t s role i n t h e h e a t i n g up of t h e atmosphere. However, one c a n be a s s u r e d t h a t t h e r e will soon be a n s h e r s
t o these questions.
I would l i k e t o s t r e s s t h a t t h e problem o f e v o l u t i o n of
p l a n e t a r y atmospheres i s n o t an a b s t r a c t one.
Even a s m a l l change
i n t h e a t m o s p h e r i c c o m p o s i t i o n and c l i m a t e on e a r t h i s e x t r e m e l y
dangerous, and t h e r e f o r e , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d how t h e composition o f p l a n e t a r y atmosphere t o o k p l a c e , a n d how t h e climate
i s determined by e v o l u t i o n f a c t o r s .
planets of t h e s o l a r
D e t a i l e d s t u d y of o t h e r
system c a n g i v e a c l u e t o s o l v i n g t h i s p r o b -
Tcwards Venus f o r t h e Sake o f E a r t h P r c f e s s o r A . Monin, t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e I n s t i t u t e of OceanologY of t h e Academy of S c i e n c e s of t h e USSR, S . Z i l i t i n k e v i c k , Doctor o f P h y s i c a l and Mathematical S c i e n c e s "Izvestiya", July 27, 1972.
The d i s c o v e r y of t h e p l a n e t P l u t o by mathematical c a l c u l a t i o n
became a t e x t b o o k example of s c i e n t i f i c f o r e s i g h t .
Powever, methods
However,
268
until now ne had no experimental information on the winds blowing there. The information acxmulated has already allsued t h e problem 1132 -
temperature distribution, that is, the general circulation of the planet's atmosphere. Calculations of the %eather"
of Venus were
carried out during 1969-1972 at the Institute of Oceanology of the Acadeny of Sciences of the U S R . Let me explain that this is a numerical experiment. At first, it was accepted that there was no bL,;d in the atmosphere
of Venus, the temperature on the surface was identical and dropped
in altitude according to the so-called adi-llatic law (which corresponds to complete agitation). Later, the solar source of heat
was "included" and changes in atmospheric conditions were calculated with the passing of time. In this way, the numerical experi-
ment reproduced the imagined behavior of the atmosphere as it would be if the temperature was evened out. and circulation was "stopped"; we gave it, as it were, the chance to begin to develop again. There were reasons to suppose thaL after a more or less prolonged period o f adaption, the model of the atmosphere would assume dynamic equilibrium with ambient conditions. Calculations showed that equilibrium is attained after approximately one earth month, and as a result o f the whole experiment, information was obtained on changes, over time, of the speed and direction of the k-nd, the temperature, atmospheric pressure, the vertical movement of gas, heat fluxes, and gas friction on the
269
s u r f a c e d u r i n g t h e whole Venusian d i u r n a l c y c l e - - a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 1 7 e a r t h days.
R e s u l t s o f t h e experiment showed t h a t t h e c i r c u l a t i o n o f t h e atmosphere o f Venus i s p r a c t i c a l l y symmetrical r e l a t i v e t o t h e equator,and develops a s a r e s u l t o f t h e temperature d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e day and n i g h t hemispheres. These d i f f e r e n c e s a r e con-
s t a n t l y m a i n t a i n e d s i n c e t h e day s i d e o f t h e p l a n e t i s warmed by t h e Sun, and t h e n i g h t s i d e c o o l e d from above by n a t u r a l r a d i a t i o ? . The c i r c u l a t i o n i s n o t symr:. : r i c a l r e l a t i v e t o t h e axis of r o t a t i o n n o r r e l a t i v e t o t h e l i n e from t h e Sun t o Venus: the
- - i s t h e l i n e d i v i d i n g t h e day and n i g h t h e m i s p h e r e s ) .
The
t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a r i o u s p a r t s of t h e p l a n e t a r e v e r y
small - - o n l y 1 - 2 ' .
The wind system i s a s f o l l o w s : i n t h e lower l a y e r s , g a s e s
forming t h e Venusian atmosphere, converge towards t h e most h e a t e d r e g i o n , a ~ ? dt h e r e r i s e upwards and s p r e a d i n t h e upper l a y e r s , forming t h e "cold" region, and a g a i n descend. T h i s movement spreads
F o r comparison, a t y p i c a l wind s p e e d on e a r t h i s
t h a n on e a r t h , - - t h e y c o r r e s p o n d t o o u r h u r r i c a n e s .
270
Friction on the surface of Venus is 10-15 times greater thar, on earth. relief. Therefore, one can expect that the planet has a smooth It is interesting that, according to calculations, verti-
cal speeds reach several centimeters per second (on earth they are measured in several millimeters per second). The whole lower atmos-
mitted to earth by the Venera-8 will provide material for making more precise the initial parameters of the calculation and for comparing theoretical re;ults with actual ones.
T h i s article on the circulation of the Venusian atmosphere
1133
this research necessary; why do we need to kno.. about th.j circulation on another planet; and what practical use can be gained from
t h i s knowledge? These questions deserve a detailed answer.
We
One oE
271
on our planet ( a term already known) as a result of the conscious or involuntary effects caused by man's economic activity. The practical in1r;rest in this is obvious. Technology is
develcping so quickly that even now the question arises - - what is the further fate of the abmdancc o f carbon dioxide entering the atmosphere from fuel combustioR, and c a m o t this accumulation of carbon dioxide, by increasing the "greenhouse effect", lead to
a
experirrents sir:iuli
!yr.::s 3
circulatio.1 w h i c h would acciirately describe not only conditions existing o n earth at .-esent, b u t o t k r p,.>sible conditions. Can
one test -uch
model b . h ,t
SUCI-xaterial?
1 k l . s is where planea
t ~
;ary zi-mospLeres are : ; > e f u l . By ?tudying them we acqLire know: .dge of prc c e s s e s
A .
tch:Ii-.q
. _
piace cn earth.
Academiciar,
'i.
"Pravdcl", July 2 9 , 1 0 7 2 .
!..
is
1761 by M. 1'. L o r n c . , ~ ~ ~ ~ : - .
272
position; it attracted the attention of many scientists and aroused the imagination. There were many theories on the "Morning Star". There was even contradictory information on its rotation around its axis. In size, mass, density and gravity, Venus is more simiHowever, owing to its prox-
imity to the Sun,more than twice as much solar heat falls on one unit of its surface than that o f earth, and this creates a high temperature in deep regions of the extremely dense atmosphere and, consequently, its surface is hidden from us by cloud. Some information on the atmosphere of Venus was obtained from spectroscopic observations in the infrared region.
It was
shown that there was a predominance of carbon dioxide with a very small admixture of free oxygen. Beginning 15 years ago, radio
observations gave more reliable information on the temperature and rotation of Venus.
As
the temperature greatly increases and reaches hundreds of degrees centigrade in the nearest surface layers. Amazingly, it does not rotate very slowly, one revolution approximately every 2 4 3 earth days, but in a direction opposite to that of planets around the Sun and the axial rotation of the majority of them.
A
/ 134
made possible
st.itions. The first two (Venera-1 and Venera-2) passed close to it, and the Venera-3 reached the planet and penetrated its atmosphere,which was dense and hot. Later, the Venera-4 made the first
273
smooth descent in the atmosphere of another planet and provided details of its features. During these flights it was sometimes necessary to operate blindly, but nothing is conquered easily, most of all in science.
achievement for Soviet science. The information obtained allowed a vehicle to be built to withstand high temperatures and pressure.
the intensity of cosmic rays due, probably, to its proximity to the Sun is noticeably greater than in near space. The high temperature and great pressure deep inside its powerful atmosphere have set scientists and designers of automatic interplanetary stations, and especially their descent vehicles, an zxtremely difficult task: to produce instruments which would
work perfectly at temperatures reaching 400-500 C, and at a pressure of up t o 100 kg/cm2, capable of withstanding g-force which occur when entering the atmosphere of Venus with a speed exceeding the escape velocity,and for Venus equalling 10.2 km/sec. -411 these difficulties were overcome as the outstanding flight of the Venera-8 showed. The descent vehicle reached the surface 274
phere, but on the surface itself which, was "sensed" in this way for the first time. The new experiment nGt only shows the high degree of development of Soviet science and technology, but once more confirms that the future is behind space work, and an important rol, can be played by them when investigating outer space, One is amazed by the accuracy when correcting the station's orbit and landing it on the prescribed point of the planet. On
the day of the landing Venus itself was visible from earth like a 10-kopek piece at a distance of 80 m.
It would be difficult to
find a sniper who could not only hit a moving coin at such a distance, but also choose a certain point on it beforehand.
Some time is required to completely But one can already safely say
that our knowledge of the nature and properties of planets has been increased. Venus, the earth and Mars, belonging to the s o callcd earth group of planets, do not differ significantly in mass, size, density and distance from the Sun and motion around it. their p4iysical conditions, -.hemica1atmospheric composition, and surface structure are widely different! The enormous difference in tktir nature has once mor- Seen shown. But
275
The Birth of Mineralogy on Venus Leningraci "Moskovskaya pravda", July 2 8 , 1972. Professor D. P. Grigor'yev, a well-known scientist and the president of the International Commission on Space Mineralogy, described one of the experiments conducted by the Soviet Venera-8 as the first blow by the geclogical hammer on the hot rock of Venus. At the request of N. Konstantinov, a TASS correspondent, he showed the scientific value of "testing" soil on Venus and the prospects of such research for discovering the geological nature
/ 135 -
and evolution o f our space neighbor. As mineralogists,we are extremely interested in the first information on the atmospheric composition and physical conditions on Venus. The fact is that the atmosphere of planets is the result Therefore,
analysis o f the atmosphere allows conclusions to be made on the composition, condition and other properties of rock and minerals on Venus. one. This planet, as opposed to the moon and Mars, is a rich
For example, whereas the moon does not have an air envelope
and is, as it were, a hardened model o f the earth's distant past, Venus, apparently, is undergoing an active geological evolution. After detailed stady we rit phenomena, wiiicl; :ire taking place on lz earth much s l o w e r , and p.ssibly, this will happen to our planet in the future.
276
The h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e and abundance of c a r b o n d i o x i d e i n t h e Venusian atmosphere c a u s e s e v e r a l c o n c l u s i o n s t o be made on t h e p l a n e t ' s geological n-ture. Experiments i n l a b o r a t o r i e s showed
t h a t i t was p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t e m i n e r a l s c o n t a i n i n g c a r b o n i c a c i d
salts.
calcite world.
On e a r t h , one of t h e most w i d e - s p r e a d o f t h e s e m i n e r a l s i s
- - t h e b a s i s of l i m e s t o n e , c o v e r i n g l a r g e areas o f t h e
By h e a t i n g c a l c i t e and q u a r t z s c i e n t i s t s observed t h e
A t h e o r y on t h i s mechan-
a c t i v e f o r m a t i o n o f f r e e carbon d i o x i d e .
H s a y s t h a t when t h i s o c c u r s e
a new m i n e r a l , w o l l a s t o n i t e , i s
pened on e a r t h d u r i n g i t s h i s t o r y s o much c a r b o n d i o x i d e would have been i s o l a t e d , a n d i f i t had n o t been r e q u i r e d by v e g e t a t i o n , t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e e a r t h ' s atmosphere would have been 4 0 t i m e s g r e a t e r than i t i s today. Carbon d i o x i d e c a n a l s o be produced when h e a t i n g d o l o m i t e s ,
and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f i r o n o r e , a s i d e r i t e w i t h a number o f o t h e r minerals. on Venus. There i s m x h t o be s a i d f o r t h e t h e o r y o f t h e u n u s u a l a c t i v e volcanism on Venus which h e a t s i t s s u r f a c e and h u r l s i n t o t h e atmosp h e r e a huge amount g f c a r b o n d i o x i d e . " c o l d e r " t h a n t h o s e on Venus. o f t o n s o f & a s and a l a r g e Volcanoes
OIL
earth are
amount
h e a t a r e produced.
277
--
mineralogy
The l a n d i n g o f t h e Venera-8 i s h e l p i n g t o d e v e l o p t h i s S u f f i c e i t t o s a y t h a t c n l y i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e d e n s i t y
science.
o f s o i l c a n s e t t l e s c i e n t i f i c q u a r r e l s on t h e f o r m a t i o n o f Venus.
I n i t s t u r n , t h i s w i l l a f f e c t o u r c o n c e p t s of t h e g e o l o g i c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e e a r t h , which, i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s , w i l l h e l p t o throw l i g h t on laws governing t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m i n e r a l s . Venera-8 Was Born Here V. Sn;irnov (A "Pravda" s p e c i a l c o r r e s p t , n d e n t )
"Pravda",
August 5 , 1 9 7 2 .
/ 136 -
t h e damaged d i s c of Mars s u r -
....
bly department.
d e s i g n e d and Froduced, i n s h o r t , which was born h e r e . The deputy c h i e f d e s i g n e r s a y s , "NOW, when t h e experiment h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y c o n c l u d e d , t h a t s t a g e f o r us i s o v e r . now s o l v i n g o t h e r complex problems and l o o k i n g ahead. t a l k of t h e Venera-8. W are e
But we can
278
This
information has helped science to discover the nature of Venus. However, the value of the experiment has not been exhausted.
as was the selection of material from which it was constiucted and the xethods o f testing its subassembly units on earth. Valu-
able engineering experience was gained which will be useful when I1 producing further autumatic vehicles for investigating Venus
...
Those taking part in the conversation returned to the days when the Venera-8 did not exist, an3 its descent vehicle could only be seen on drawings or in the plant workshop. The leading designer continues the conversation.. "The Venera-8 was a logical continuation of the previous Venera-7. However, the building o f the descent vehicle was almost completely new. How were these important problems solved? The vehicle was designed for prolonged work on the planet's surface. Therefore, there was a great need for thermal protection.
coekficient of heat conducticn. After landing, it assumes the functicna o f thermal protection from the hot atmosphere. This is
279
also done by an effective refrigerant used in the descent vehicle. All this is to delay the vehicle's "thermal death". New devices and additional scientific instruments were installed
experiment with
the Venera-7 showed that there were reserves for economy. However, it was necessary to conduct research in calculating the strength of the load carrying shell. Thd theory for calculating the resistance to external pressure was also investigated. khy external?
tion from the geometrical sphere could be corrected independently. But when there are great external pressures not even the slightest error is permissible in the spherical shape of the shell; it must
be perfect.
1137 -
vehicie to dis.i.ntegrate. The prol-ccili is complicated since several tens of "holes" for feeding external sensors, antennas, etc. must be made in the load carrying, part of the descent vehicle. Each one of these apertures
weakens the construction and this must be compensated for. Kevertheless, the weight of the vehicle's body was considerably reduced.
All the sensors and sensing eleDents during the descent stage
by parachute come into contact with the tnviro.mer.t, but the
280
measurement equipment and radio transmitter are inside the "globule". ment module. The most compiex problem is the sealing of the instruI f the hot atmosphere of Venus entcrs it the instru-
Normally, various types o f rubber are used when Obviously, these are not suitable for a
of the vehicle on the surf:ic.: -?f Venus shows that this has been
successfully solved. Those who test space vehicles are not boastir,g tihen they say that their work cannot be written a5 a newspaper report,but as a long novel. At first, individual parts of the space station are
developed and tested, later they are assemblec i r l t o subassembly units,tnd only after th;s wholc carried out. is complex testing of the vehicle as a
This
Car5on dioxide, the main cornponent cf the Venusian In this way, sensors and
film cameras were able to observe the behavior o f the garachute system in conditions close tc the actual ones. The "globule" itself was tested repeatedly in a high-pressure chamber. Here, physical conditions were simulated where it falls onto the surface o f the hot planet which has a pressure of more 281
1j .
When
the vehicle lands there will be an impact when it meets the planet. Therefore, o m nust test its capability to "withstand" this impact. The landing of the vehicle was also simulated in this chamber by using special shock absorbers. The testers carefully studied how
the equipment worked during such impacts. But now it is time to assemble not a flight model of the vehicle, but one which is to be sent to Venus. This is a tense On
~ o m e n tfor engineers, foremen, technicians and plant workers." one of the test benches set up on a factory street planted with trees, I saw the sign "Comrades!
of the enterprise:
"The design of a space vehicle includes technical problems, and strict requirements for accuracy in producing components and assemblying subassembly units. The quality o f the work is
decided by the accuracy of lathe operators, welders, adjusters, assemblers,and their responsible attitude to their work. Space
This is
because each one understands that he is responsible for how the vehicle works in space and the contribution it makes to Soviet science
...
It
282
To Scientists, Designers, Engineers, Technicians, Workers and All -*i!i,-= Organizations- Participating in the C o- -. - - :tion, Launch, - 2nd r 2. ,,ornatic Interplanetary Flight Control and Landing of the Vener:, Station
"
/138 -
"Pravda" , August 1b , 1972 . Dear comrades! Soviet science and technology has achieved a new outstanding success. ' h e laid-down flight program of the Venera-8 automatic inter-
planetary station has been completely fulfilled. On July 2 2 , 1972, after a four-month spxce flight, the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station reached the planet Venus. The station's descent vehicle investigated Venus for the first time, descended smoothly in the armosphere on the illuminated side of the planet m d made a soft 1-~i,iLng its surface. on During the launch of ti:*; vehicle in the atmosphere and for a period o f back
tc-1
i;j
&a t h
greeting the Sot?. anniversary of the formation of the USSR with new feats of labor. The Central Committee o f the Communist Party
283
--
The Presidium a f the Supreme Soviet o f the USSR. The Council of Ministers of the USSR.
"Pravda", August 16, 1972. We, scientists, designers, engineers, technicians and workers participating in the construction, launch, flight control and landing of the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station,report to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, the Presidium o f the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on the successful completion o f a new space experiment. In this jubilee year of the Soviet State a primary task o f the party and government has been carried o u t .
284
On July 2 2 , 1972, the Venera-8 automatic interplanetary station, launched on March 2 7 , 1972, after covering a distance of more than 300 million kilometers, set down on Venus a descent vehicle containing scientific equipment. During the parachute
descent stage, investigation of Venus was carried out ,o the first 'r time, and measurements were made to determine the illumination, pressure and temperature in the atmosphere on the surface of the planet on its day side. Information was obtained on the nature
of rock on the planet's surface layer. The Venera-8 station's descent vehicle left on the planet pennants with the bas-relief of the founder of the Soviet State,
Vladimir Il'ich Lenin, and the State Emblem of the USSR. New information on the atmospheric properties on the illuminated side o f the planet and measurement results on its surface will significantly broaden our knowledge of Venus and be a valuable contribution to the science of planets of the solar system. We assure the Central Committee of the Party, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Soviet government that we shall strive for new successes in the conquest of outer space for the benefit of Soviet science and technology, our people and the whole o f mankind. Venera-8: The Results of the Spa-e Flight TASS "Pravda", September 10, 1972. The 50th anniversary of the formation of the USSR has been marked by a new outstanding achievement of Soviet astronautics: 285
surface layer obtained during the descent and work on the surface is o f basic scientific value. The Soviet program for studying the solar system by using automatic vehicles is being successfully accomplished. The Venera-8
flight is an important contribution to science and a new step towards our understanding o f nature. The launch date and length of the flight were determined basically bj t h f favorable, mutu=ll positions of the earth and Venus. The station had to reach Venus at a
tili!>
-?henthe planet
was qiiite
Since Venus's orbit is inside that o f the earth, when the planets are approaching each other,the greater part of Venus turned towards
nated part of the planet visible from earth was limited by the descent vehicle's phere. prez-ribed entry corridor in the planet's zcmos-
by g-force, and if the entry was not steep enough it would pass
the planet.
radio communication with the descent vehicle. All these factors significantly limited the vehicle's landing area on
thL
planet, its maximum diameter was less than 500 km. / 140 -
This called for increased accuracy of flight control. Forecasting the station's movement and flight control was done by ground command and measurement facilities.
287
Determining che s t a t i o n ' s t r a j e c t o r y p a r a m e t e r s was accomp a n i e d by r a d a r measurement o f t h e d i s t a n c e f r o ? e a r t h t o Venus. T r a j e c t o r y measurement d a t a and r a d i o l o c a t i o n o f t h e p l a n e t r e l i a b l y d e t e r m i n e d and f o r e c a s t e d t h e approach p a r a m e t e r s of t h e s t a t i o n towards Venus.
A s t a t i o n t r a j e c t o r y c o r r e c t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t on A p r i l 6 ,
1972.
v e h i c l e would l a n d i n t h e c ; l c u l a t e d accuracy -
t h e r e f o r e , a second c o r r e c t i c n e n v i s a g e d by t h e program
was n o t Fade.
During t h e whole f l i g h t , t h e s t a t i o n h a s o r i e n t e d towards t h e SUR by p a n e l s of s o l a r b a t t e r i e s ( a p a r t frcin t h e c o r r e c t i o n s e s s i o n snd soine communication s e s s i o n s ) . and t h e I n t h i s way, t h e s o l a r b a t t e r i e s
A f e w days b e f o r e t h e s ? a t i o n r e a c h e d t h e boundary o t t. .?
atmosphere of Venus, t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e ' s i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i r , e r was c o o l e d t a i n c r e a s e t h e l e n g t h o f r e s e a r c h i n +.le p i a n e t ' s h o t at7,tosphere. A f t e r 1 1 7 f'.;ys o f f l i g h t , on J m e 2'2, 1 9 7 2 immediately b e f o r e e n t e r i n g t h e a t n o s p h e r e o f Venus,a n e a r - p l a n e t communication s e s s i o n was h e l d w j t h t h e s t a t i o n , d u r i n g .c:hich s c i e n t i f i c d a t a and i n f o r niatLdn on e h e s t a t e o f o n - b o a r d systems was t r a n s m i t t e d , p r e p a r a t i o n s were made f o r s e p a r a t i n g t h e d e s c e n t v e h i c l e from t h e o r b i t a l n;odu!e, t r a j e c t o r y measurement was c a r r i e d o u t . During t h i s ,
t3e c o o r d i n a t i n g c c m p t a t i o n c e n t e r p r o c e s s e d t r a j e c t o r y measure-
288
1141
spent 53 min in the planet's atmosphere. During the aerodynamic braking phase, the speed of the descent vehicle was reduced from 11.6 km/sec to 250 m/sec; the maximum g-forcewas 335 units and the gas temperature in the shock wave in front of thc vehicle's body was more than 12,000. However, the
casing of the descent vehicle was well-shielded from high temperatures by its therT.al protection. When the g-forceand the speed of the descent vehicle was reduced to the calculated amount, an on-board device was activated and gave a command for the parachute system to be used. After the parachute opened,information was received from the descent vehicle on the parameters of the atmosphere of Venus and the condition of the on-board systems. The parachute descent and transmission of information lasted approximately one hour, and at 12 hours 29 minutes,the descent vehicle made a s o f t landing on the side oi the planet illuminated by the Sun. The descent vehicle's on-board systems and scientific instruments continued working on the surface of Venus f o r 50 min; during this period measurement information on the parameters of the atmosphere and characteristics of the soil on Venus, and also information on the condition of on-board systems was transmitted to earth.
289
astroorientation system, solar battery panels, semi-directional helical and high-directional parabolic antennas. Communication with earth is done mainly via the semi-directional antennas; special radio communication sessions,using the high-directional parabolic antenna,are held with the station when it is at great distance or when there is a large amount of information to be transmitted. Here, the station is positioned so that the parabolic antenna is directed towards the earth. The equipment is supplied by chemical sources of current and the solar batteries charge these up during the flight between communication sessions. The astroorientation system which controls the position o f the station consists of optical and electronic instruments for solar, solar-earth and solar-stellar orientation, and automatic equipment and servoelements - - microjet engines, The optimum thermal conditions of instrument containers of the orbital module and the descent vehicle were maintained by an active thermoregulating system, based on the circulation of gas carrying heat from the containers to the external emitting radiator. The thermal conditions of the remaining equipment thermal insulation,
and elements were maintained by passive means: special optical coatings, etc.
After the descent vehicle was separated, the orbital station was destroyed when it entered the dense atmospheric layers. 291
The Venera-8 descent vehicle underwent significant modification. As a result of the investigatiop of the atmospheric parameters by the Venera-7,the estimated values of the fully-factored load on the descent vehicle and the maximum temperature of the environment were reduced.
includes a parachute system, a radio altimeter, scientific equipment sensors and an on-board radio system antenna. The descent vehicle's instrument module contains a radio technical and telemetry system, electrical supply sources, fans znd other units o f the thermoregulating system, automatic equipment and scientific instruments.
To create the required temperat.ure conditions in the descent
vehicle's instrument module,the efficiency of the external thermal insulation envelope was increased and heat absorbers, made of material with a high heat capacity, were installed inside the modii.Le. When the vehicle is heated they remove
a
considerable part
292
The faultless operation of all the systems and sci.enL_ific instruments of the Venera-8 and its descent vehicle was ti restlt !e of careful ground development in conditions almost identical to those in outer space, and in the atmosphere and on the planet's surface. Scientific Results The Venera-8 was equipped with scientific instruments allowing a wide range of research to be made into the atPosphere and the surface of the planet's day side, and into the interplanetary medium during the flight. The main aim when selecting scientific experiments for the descent vehicle was to obtain answers to a number of basically new questions on the physical and chemical characteristics of Yenus's atmosphere and surface. The descent vehicle's scientific equipment was designed for carrying out the following tasks:
- - determining the ammonia content in the atmosphere; - - measuring the g-loads occurring during aerodynamic braking; - - dztermining the physical characteristics of the surface
layer and the nature of surface rock where the descent vehicle landed:
2 94
Information obtained from this coulplex experiment is being processed, therefore, the results shoiJn are preliminary. The Venera-4, - 5 , - 6 and - 7 stations,which made a descent on the night side of the planet,measured quite accurately the temperature and pressure of the atmosphere at an altitude and d o m t o the surface. A model of Venus's atmosphere was made as a result of this measurement and, as has already been said, was used when producing the Venera-8. Although days or, Venus last approximately four earth months, on the basis of theoretical calculations and result of radio astronomical observations, it can be expected that the daily measurement of temperature near the planet's surface are small, however, this must be checked experimentally. The Venera-8 station carried out direct measurement of temperature and pressure by using a sensor system during the descent from an altitude of approximately 55 km to the planet's surface and after landing. Altitude measurement above the surface usin2 the on-board radio altimeter was carried out during the whole of the descent time. The altitude above the surface was a l s o determined from the hydrostatic equilibrium of the atmosphere by using measurement
data of temperature ni,.d pressure,and by the equation of motion of the vehicle using a pi. .achute with known aerodynamic characteristics. Additional information
GP.
:I:-.
z'titude
obtained by calculating
ti!?.
parachute phase which, in its turn, is determined from earth according to the radio measurement data of the vehicle's speed.
295
C, the pressure
90
very close to values obtained as the result o f an experiment by the Venera-7 when it landti\?on the planet's night side. When the des,..crlt-vehicle entered the atmosphere during the aerodvnamic b r d i . : , ?h,.i.
Df
Venus
Ltnospheric density
key question when the b'eptra-8 landed was that c:' whether
*'
sunlight reachz. the planet's surface or is almost completely held back by t h e atln2sphere and clouds. In other word;, is it light on
a special instrument, a photometer, was installed in The instrument was designed for measuring the
illumination in a wide r::.oc' of liqfit f u ; values, which could be l: expected .In Venus, and 'lad
to
tion on the strength of illumination was obtained during the whole desccnt stage and down to the surface.
296
..
proves that a certain a m o u t o f sunlight in the visible region of the spectrum arrives on the planet's surface,and there are noticeable differences between day and night. Preliminary evaluations
of the nature c r change of illumination according to altitude show that the atmosphere
v,t'
Quantitative analysis o f these results is being carried out at present,and this will allow us to calculate a number of important parameters determining +ha optical characteristics of Venus's atmosphere.
As
basic chemical composition of tl;e atmosphere of Venus, which was subsequently made more exact by the Venera-5 and Venera-6.
It was
found that the planet's atmosphere consists of 97% carbon dioxide. The nitrogen content is no more than 2 % , oxygen less than 0.1%, and water vapor near the cloud 1a)c: less than 1%.
At the same time, in spite of compiling some information on the composition and structure of the atmosphere, the problem of Venus's cloud layer is still unsolved The lack of actual material
taining a r n ~ ~ n t (ammonium salts) could form the c1o1x?5. In this a case, at altitudes lower than 4 8 krn,one could expect large amount of free ammonia in the atmosphere. Therefore, an
i-
rciatively
reagent which becomes blue when contacting ammonia. of color was recorded by photoresistors.
The change
The first measurement was made in the atmosphere of Venus at an altitude of 46 km, the second at an altitude o f 33 km. of the experiment give basis to suppose that there was
r,
Results >mall
amount o f ammonia in the atmosphere where the measurements were made. Its volumetric content was estimated at being 0.01-0.1%. The influence of wind on the descent vehicle during its slow descent in the atmLsphere by parachute was indicated when it drifted horizontally. Therefore, knowing the vehicle's radial
velocity in relation to the earth, determined according to the Doppler shift of frequency and the vehicle's descent spcci relative to the surface o f Venus, which was determined independently, one can estimate the wind speed in the atmosphere. The Vecera 5, in
descent, measured the horizontal velocity component. A t altitudes greater than 45 km this was more than 50 m/sec, 3ecreasir.g to less than 2 m/sec at altitudes lower than 10-12 km. This measure-
ment shows there is zonal (latitudinal) wind directed from the terminator to the day side, that is, towards the planet's proper rotation, and this is very important for understanding the dynamics of Venus's atmosphere. :.tuch attention was paid to studying the physical and chemical properties of the planet's surface by the Venera-8 in rhe Venus r e s e 5 . A program.
298
The dielectric permeability and soil density were determined by analyzing the level of radio waves emitted by the vehicle during descent, and reflected by the surface. ment!: ,-ve basis t o assume that Results of these measure-
surface area waa quite loose, with a soil density rather less than 1.5 g - ' /m. The results of measuring the content of natural radioactive elements in the surface laysr of Venus where the are very important. The nature o f rock can either be determined by its full chemical or mineralogical composition. Apart from this, one can detervehicle landed
/1461
mine the nature o f rock acccirding to a number of separate chemical elements which are characteristic of a certain type of rock, for example, by the content of natural radiation elements in rock: uranium, -horium and potassium. Therefore, Venera-8 was equipped
with a gamma-specLrometer which determined the content of radioactive elerents according to gammc radiation in the surface layer of Venus. The gamma-spectrometer was installed inside the station
and registered in the 0 . 3 - 3 megaelectron volt range gamma irratiation emitted by radioactive elements of the surface layer which passed througb the statiqn's shell nto the spectrometer's detector. The gamma-spec+rometer also measured the sum intensity o f gamma radiation i ' i t h energy greater thar. 0 . 3 megaelectron volts recorded by the spectrometer's seni,ar. In Iccordance with the station's work program,the Vencra-3
was
for measuring the sum inteiisity aria carried out measc dment both
299
during the descent stage in the planet's atmosphere, and after landing on its surface. Measurement of the whole s2ectrum of gamma radjati-n was only done on the planet's surface.
A number
content of uranium, thorium and potassium was carried out on the g r o u d for calibrating the inztrument. The instrument was installed inside an analog of the Venera-8 station to simulate measurement conditions which w0d.I exist on the planet. on granite, basalt and other rock. Measurement was made
own background was measured above the powerful cover of rock which
has an extremely low content of natural radio elements (dunite).
This background is caused by gamma radiation of natural radioactive elements in the form of trace impurities in the construction material for the station and the instrument. Three measurements were made o f the sum intensity of gamma radiation when the vehicle descended in the atmosphere of Venus, and one measurement after it landed on the surface. The intensity recorded during the descent did not change significantly, and this shows the practical absence of radiations causeo by short-lived isotopes formed as the result o f cosmic rays when the station was
300
The gamma radiation spectrum was measured while the station was on the surface of Venus. trometer was read out twice. All this information from the specMeasurement of gamma radiation spec-
tra determined the amount of uranium, thorium and potassium content in the surface layer. According to preliminary information, material on the surface near the landing sltz contained 4 % of potassium, 0 . 0 0 0 2 % of uranium and 0.00065% of thorium,similar in content and in composition to the radioactive elements of granite rock. In this way, the
Venera-8 detected rock which was relatively rich in potassium, uranium and thorium.
mainly relatively rich in potassium, is characteristic of rock which has undergone a secondary change when affected b, different factors of the environment after primary melting from deep inside the planet. This information is extremely useful when one studies For the present, it has been obtained from
a snall area of the planet; further research will include other areas and conclusions will be made on processes taking place in the hard envelope of Venus, and the nature o f its evolution. Radiometric eq!.iipment in ?he station is designed for studying dynamic processes in interplanetary space, linked with solar activity, by systematic measurement of the composition, energy spectrum and 1.ariations of intensity of cosmic rays. During the Venera-8 flight there was an anomalous increase of solar activity which greatly influences the level of intensity of cosmic rays in different energy intervals. Four powerful solar 301
fi:res, hrinp whic5 the solar intensity of protons with energies grea er t h m
O L ~ million
were recorded earlier, especially by instruments in the Venera-7, the Lunokhod-1, and the Mars-2 and - 3 . Both during the flight and the approach to Venus measuiements were made of ultraviolet radiation caused by neutral, atomic hydrogen scattered in outer space. In some regions of interplanetary space the intensity of this radiation increased by 2 - 3 times. The
intensity of radiation, caused .nainly by the background of bright blue stars, was measured in the narrow interval of the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. The successful flight of the Venera-8 confirmed the correct choice of technical :.elutions adopted when designing this automatic interplanetary vehicle f o r working in the extremely complex conditions of the Venusian surface. Scientific results obtained by the Venera-8 have made an important contribution to our knowledge of Venus, and have been most important to broaden our concepts of its nature.
T h i s new achievement in space on the eve of the 50th anniver-
302
Riddles o f the Planets "Izvestiya", October 18, 1972. October 18 was the fifth anniversarv of the day when the Venera-4 made its legendary finish and opened up a new era of direct research in the skies of other planets. Many readers of
"Izvestiya" want to hear how our concepts of Venus have changed during this time. The editor asked Professor Yu. Surkov, a Doctor
Research into Venus by Soviet space vehicles has significantly changed our notions previously held of its resemblance to earth. It was found that the atmosphere of Venus contains 97% carbon dioxide, not more than 2 % nitrogen, not more than 0.1% water. The tempera/148 -
+ * : and pressure near the surface of Venus, first measured by the l:e Venera-7, were 475' C and 90 atm, respectively. Having all this data, scientists directed their efforts mainly
tc
phere which is so different from that o f the earth. The majority o f them now believe that during the period of formation o f planets from a protoplanetary gas and dust cloud they had other primary atmospheres. The basic components of these primary atn,ospheres were the lightest and most wide-spread gases in the solar system, hydrogen and helium. However, with time the decay of natural radioactive Flements took place; heat was formed and the interior of the planets was
303
,
fused.
A s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of m a t t e r t o o k p l a c e on t h e s u r f a c e s which
t h e s u r f a c e w a t e r v a p o r s , c a r b o n d i o x i d e , ammonia, ammonium chloride, s u l f u r g a s , hydrogen c h l o r i d e , hydrogen f l u o r i d e and o t h e r g a s e s formed and c r e a t e d a secondary atmosphere. The f u r t h e r e v o l u t i o n o f p l a n e t a r y atmospheres was determined by a number o f f a c t o r s . The l i g h t e s t g a s e s g r a d u a l l y d r i f t e d i n t o Solar radi-
o u t e r s p a c e , and t h e most a c t i v e i n t e r a c t e d w i t h r o c k .
i t s c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e Sun.
A t some s t a g e of i t s development
I
even s m a l l amounts o f w a t e r and c a r b o n d i o x i d e , p r o b a b l y , caused t h e "greenhouse e f f e c t " t o develop ( t h a t i s , c o n d i t i o n s when s o l a r h e a t p e n e t r a t e s t h e atmosphere and warms t h e s u r f a c e , and t n e h e a t f l u x , e m i t t e d by t h e s o i l , t o a c o n s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t , i s absorbed by t h i s atmosphere).
As a r e s u l t , t h e s u r f a c e g r a d u a l l y became
"greenhouse e f f e c t " and, i n t h i s way, s e l f - h e a t i n g of t h e s u r f a c e took p l a c e and a heavy carbon d i o x i d e atmosphere was formed.
304
c
The present-day atmosphere of Venus is in dynamic equilibrium with surface rock and is determined by temperature conditions existing on the planet. Of course, in spite of the fact that much has been explained of the concepts we had of the atmcsphere cf Venus, many mysteries remain. The main one of these is the cloud layer o f Venus. The lack
of sufficient information on the composition and formation of Venusian clouds gave rise to various theories and fantastic speculation. Among the enormous amount of volatile compounds which could be resent in a cloud layer, the most often met are: water droplets and ice crystals, hydrates of iron chloride, haloid compounds of mercury, carbon monoxide and dust. Until now, only the presence o f water in the atmosphere of Venus has been reliably determined, which, at cloud level can be in the form of droplets or ice crystals,depending on the altitude above the surface. Apparently, clouds of Venus are formed not only from water but have other components. Since in the planet's atmosphere (especially in the cloud layer) there must be some vertical movement of "air" masses, naturally, there will also be transition zones where either the ice crystals melt or rain falls when the /149 cloud layer descends. Of course, the arca where rain falls does not extend to the surface itself, but only to a level where pressure reaches 5 atm - - below this, water will again become vapo,. There are serious arguments in favor o f the possible existence of ammonium clouds. Ammonia, like other gases, is formed as a
30 5
r e s u l t of volcanic a c t i v i t y .
When it i n t e r a c t s w i t h c a r b o n d i o x i d e
and w a t e r ammonia forms compounds which a r e w h i t e , crystal substances, and e a s i l y decompose when h e a t e d . The d e n s i t y o f ammonium c l o u d s
must be s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n aqueous o n e s . Other c l o u d models a r e b e i n g examined. Another problem which we have s t a r t e d t o s o l v e i s t h e o r i g i n , e v o l u t i o n , p r e s e n t - d a y c o m p o s i t i o n and f o r m a t i o n and p r o p e r t i e s of Venusian r o c k . I n p a r t i c u l a r , s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t i s being p a i d t o
The problem i s made more complex due t o t h e f a c t t h a t on Venus, owing t o t h e s p e c i a l c o n d i t i o n s on t h e s u r f a c e , r o c k s c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r from t h o s e on e a r t h , i n s p i t e o f t h e s i m i l a r processes t a k i n g p l a c e when t h e y were formed. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s a r e s u b s t a n t i a t e d by r e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t i n t o l u n a r m a t t e r b r o u g h t back t o e a r t h . According t o
back by Luna-20 showed, apparently, the najority of the lunar surface is covered by anorthosite rock, of which there Is relatively little on the earth's crust. As is known, the main component of the earth's crust is basalt rock, which is only found on the moon in the mare regions, occupying about one-fifth of its surface. Analysis of information transmitted by Venera-8 showed that the planet has a rock relatively rich in natural radioactive eleaents - - potassium, uranium aad thorium. This amount of radio
elements on earth is contained in granite which covers continents on our planet, but this rock has a density of approximately 1.5 g/cm3, which is significantly lower than that of our granite, which is 2 . 4 g/cm3. The fact that the surface of Venus is made
from leaky ar.d, probably, loose rock, relatively rich in radioactive elements, indicates the existence of a process of deep re-shaping. The future will tell whether this rock is characteristic of the whole surface of the planet and how it originated and evolved. Finally, in the future much attention vi11 be paid to the study
&:-
this
problem is also caused by the fact that we know little of the internal structure of our own plar,et. As for Venus, at the present time we have hardly any reliable information of its structure. Apart from this, flights of the first automatic stations to Vsnus showed that there were no noticeable radiation belts or magnetic field. Therefore, apparently, Venus does not have a ccre like the earth. This makes the problem even more interesting.
307
8
What is its origin and how did it change For example, the
magnetic field on the moon, in its distant past, was 10,000 times greater. At what stage of development is each one of the planets of the solar system in this respect? Finally, what caused the appearance of a biosphere on our planet? When we know all these things we shall understand our own planet better, its past, its present and future.
B.
The Planet Tells Its Story "Pravda", January 9, 1972. The Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations have been working for two months in orbits around Mars. Scientific instru-
ments in the orbital stations are investigating the planet and the space surroundj.ng it. Scientists are accumulating the first results
Sciences of the USSR into the editorial office and asked them to tell us o f the work of scientific instruments in the interplanetary stations, and some results which have been obtained At our "round table" are:
SD
far.
308
Professor V. I. Morfz, a laboratory head; V. G. Kurt, a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences and a laboratory head. Yu. K. Khodarev speaks f
.t.
of the problems solved during the orbital flight of both stations: "If one formulates these problems on a large scale, one must isolate the following. The first
--
face of Mars, its atmosphere and the processes taking place there. The second - - is the study of M r r s as a planet as a whole - - show its formation features, and the evolution of its development in the solar system which, in the final analysis, will help us to understand the nature of earth. The third - - is to answer the Of course, we are not
taking of Martians, but the possibility of detecting life or traces of it, however primitive. The instruments in the stations must provide us with information on the physical conditions on the surface of Mars and in its atmosphere. We are interested in the relief and characteristics of the surface in various regions, information on pressure, humidity and temperature. We wish to study in detail the composition and structure of the planet's upper atmosphere, the physical conditions in the close vicinity o f Mars, and also the nature of its interaction upon the surrounding interplanetary medium. Incidentally,
the latter will give us a concept of Mars and its structure as a .. planet as a whole. The orbits of the Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations pass close to the planet's surface above its southern hemisphere. This will 309
allow observation and measurement t o be made in areas which have been studied least of all. The fact is that in observation from
*
earth, e-len in the most favorable coiititions, one can only satisfactorily determine the character and relief of the surface for the limited equatorial region of Mars. The best maps, compiled
from these observations, allaw us to study (and very approrimately; the belt from 20 north latitude to loo south latitude. little of the appearance of Mars beyond this belt where seasonal changes are observed. We know
--
in latituaes
/ 151 -
of Mars-E and Mars-3 space stations will allow us to see the night
side of Mars, which is inaccessible from earth. At the present time, both stations continue their work and are giving us new information. Measurements have been made of the atmospheric humidity and the surface temperature in various regions
of the planet.
phere and surface, and photographs of Mars were taken from orbit and sent back to earth. It is worth noting that in December seasure-
ments were made during a strong and unusually prolonged dust storm covering large areas of the planet. However, this "present" from
Mars will give us new, interestifig information". What are the first scientific results obtained during the experiment? This q.Aestion is answered by V. I. Moroz: "Even during major oppositions, when the distance between the earth and Mars i s reduced to a minimum, the largest telescopes only give
i i
For
:-:,.ation
wa:
01
During one of the sessions a temperature was recorded along a rcute eu'endlng from 58' latitude, i9C0 longitude. the midday region. south latitude, 330' longitude to 3 O o ~ n h The highest temperature %as recorded near
the termina2or (the boundary between day and night) in the Cerberus region. Such small temperature irregularities can be
explained either by the increase,: thermal lag in different regions, which is linked, for example, with the exposure of rock, or volcanic activity.
A-
are lower than expected, obviously due to the fact that the surfgce was covered by
a
ment was attenuated by dust clouds. "Photometric profiles" in three regions of the spectrum: obtained when using a visual band photometer: violet filters were used. were
+he edge
: h
: , - ~ filtei. d
311
shows t k significant f 2 - I . i of brightness near the limb of the planet and a smooth one near its terminator. The dark region:. were car.pletely invisible due to the dust storm. Recordings witii the ultraviolet filter showed a number interesting details of atmospheric origin:
4 f
'1
'.
an increase of br,ght-
ness near the limb and the terninator, and in the r c t ? ' . n with a longitude of 220 and a south latitude of 15" a blight cloud was obscrved stretching for several hundreds a f kilometer:. This c c r ! lt:
t
It is obviously higher
bands, is designed for studying the planet's relief with respect to the optical thickness of the atmosphere, and in a dust storm cannot accomplish its main task - - measuring the depth of the atmosphere. When the storm ends it will be possible to compare the results obtained in normal conditions with those
wzy,
at
i
/I52
instrument did not examine thc lower layers o f the atmosphere owing to the dust storm. Similar measurenent was made in sess:ms at the end o f Decer'iber. Interpretation of results has only just begun, and the equip-
312
On photox,tric recordings,
GLz
tigation into the upper atmo:pl;;-~~~ - - its luminescence at altitudes greater than 100 kn;.
"Compleu physical and chemical processes, in which atoms, molecules and ions take p a r t , occur in the upper atmosp ere of the Flanet. Molecules of when affected
\;,
c - rbon
solar ultr,Y;clet
carbo,: dic\.ide; n d atomi: oxy,en. Apart from this, there is a very ;mall amou;lt 01: water vapc
radiation, and as affected b> so;;;r ~:traviolct atoms 'lppeai in Mars' upper atmosphere.
result, hydrogen
However, hydrogen
atoms, t h e lighLest in the Martian atmosphere, may leave the upper atmosphere of the planet and rise into the interplanetary medium, since gravit,. is three times less than on the earth's surfa
.
31 3
These atoms form a hydrogen corona, earlier discovered near the earth and Venus. All these atoms and molecules in the upper atmos-
characteristic lines m e can calculate the density of components of the upper atmosphere of Mars and build a model of it. Instruments recording radiation in three bands of the spectrum, containing lines of atoms of hydrogen , oxygen and argon ,were fitted into the artificial Mars satellite for this research. The first
observations showed that radiation in hydrogen lines extends to very great altitudes, exceeding the radius of the planet (3,400 lan). Heavier oxygen atoms are concentrated near the surface up to altitudes of 6 0 0 - 8 0 0 km.
atoms can be observed "on the beam of vision" and the resolving power can be significantly increased.
will. not only determine the density of atoms in the upper atmosphere of Mars, and its temrrrature, but trace the changes of these characteristics. Similar research is being done by our American
colleagues with the Mariner-9. We have already received the first information from them and can compare results. Meanwhile, we only have information on the intensity of illuminescence in individual spectral lines. 314 Labor-consuming machine computation is required /153
Complex, matheaatical
K>wever, it is alre-dy
clear that however paradoxical this may seem, the upper atmosphere
o f Mars is more similar to tbe atmosphere of Venus than the upper
atnosphere of earth.
need only add that the first results obtained to date, and information of subsequent measurement will requjre careful processing, analysis, and study. Long months of work are ahead beforc. the
"raw" material received by the stations is converted into relief maps or temperature distributions, and before a corrected model of the atmosphere is built. The processed results must be generalized
Reconnaissance of the Magnetic Field "Izvestiya", January 8 , 1972. During the six-month flight to the distant planet, the Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations investigated the magnetic fields of interplanetary space. Now they are studying them during
315
Professor S. Pikel'ner to tell us what the research i i o planetary !t magnetic fields means to science. Among planets of the earth group, including Venus, Mars, Mercury, and with reserve one cai. say our own planet's satellite, the moon, the earth is unique since it has a relatively strong magnetic field. Many scientists believe that this was the reason The "magnetic shield" 3rotects our planet from
lethal flows of charged cosmic particles. According to present-day theories, the earth's magnetic field exists owing to motions in the liquid core and the earth's rottttion. Generally speaking, the magnetic field, apparently, was in the r,olar system from the very bebinning, when interstellar gas had been compressed and the Sun had formed. At first, when the planets were formed rolid particles conglomerated, forming llstones'l an of asteroid type, and later these werz united. into
a
compact whole.
But the planets which were coming into bejng could not retain the strong magnetic field sufficiently.
radioactive elements decayed caused a stratificAtion of mntter. liquid core was formed, inside o f xhich fused masses generating
electricity constantly moved in the weak, primary magnetic field. Since the planet was rotating, this motion became rather asymmetrical. Therefore, a stronger rriagnetic field was produced. This
I t i s too small t o
/ 154 -
accumulate a s u f f i c i e a t reserve o f h e a t t o f u s e r o c k i n i t s c o r e . Venus i s p r a c t i c - - 1 l y t h e same size a s e a r t h and c o u l d be expected t o have a l i q u i d c o r e a n d , c o n s e q u e n t l y , a magnetic field. However, a u t o m a t i c s t a t i o n s d i d nc?t d e t e c t a n o t i c e a b l e A p p a r e n t l y , t h i s can be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t
"A day on Venus"
magnetic f i e l d .
I n s i z e , Mars l i e s between t h e moon and e a r t h and r o t a t e s j u s t a l i t t l e slower than t h e e a r t h . a negative r e s u l t . However, measurements g i v e
T h i s i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t f o r s c i e n c e , and l e a d s The l a c k of a n o t i c e -
a b l e magnetic f i e l d on Mars p r o v i d e s t h e o r i s t s w i t h new "food" f o r thought. I t i s known t h a t t h e r e a r e magnetic anomalies on e a r t h , f o r example, Kursk. The absence of a g e n e r a l p l a n e t a r y magnetic f i e l d By u s i n g
v e h i c l e s which can l a n d on Mars and move around t h e r e , i n t i m e , a d e t a i l e d magnetic s u r v e y of t h e p l a n e t could be made. I t would be
317
From 9rbits Around Mars "Pravda" , January 23, 1972. The long-range space communication center, 22.
(TASS).
The
Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic interplanetary stations are continuing to orbit around Mars. On January 22 the Mars-2 completed 74 revol-
utions around the planet, and the Mars-3 four revolutions. The stations are observing the surface of Mars, its atmosphere and surrounding outer space. According tc instrument readings, in some regions there have been signs that the dust storm, which has been continuing on Mars for several months, is dying down. However, the dust storm is still making photography and scientific measurement o f the planet difficult.
At the same t!.me,
prolonged systematic observations which are beir.,;made in the direct vicinity of this unusual and powerful r_zf,ural phenomenon are of great scientific interest.
areas the upper boundary of the dust clouds is 6-8 km higher than the average level of the surface of Mars. Owing to the low trans-
parency of the planet's atmosphere, caused by the dust storm, details on the surface can only be reliably distinguished in some photographs taken of areas where conditions are more suitable (Fig. 2 8 ) . Scientific instruments in the stations are measuring the surface temperature of the planet, the humidity, the brightness and other characteristics of its atmosphere. The research conducted fron: areas at the pericenters of the orbit is very important. A series
318
i
,
and
This
tude).
obtain detailed information on areas of Mars which a r e inaccessible when one uses astronomical observation from earth. The latest measurement confirms t h a t t h e temperature near the terminator (the boundary between day and night) is -80-90 C. Some
and scientific equipment in the Mars-2 and Mars-3 are working normally, Photographs and other i n f o r m a t i o n transmitted by the
319
Mars-2 and Mars-3 are being processed and carefully studied in scientific institutes of the Soviet Union.
Science of Life
forms on another planet, let us say Mars, this would be an outstanding discovery. Judge for yourself:
dently and exists on two planets in one system, apparently, it should be found quite extensively throughout the universe. Similar suggestions have been put forward earlier. The
present-day level of technical develcpment will allow us to test them practically: this means sending automatic stations into orbit around planets and landing descent vehicles on the surfaces
of them.
It is true, the first disappointment was when vehicles investigated Venus. The results of direct measurement of the parameters
existence of life, as we know it c.n earth, was very improbable. Hence, there is a greater interest in Mars. Conditions there are
not so severe. A t least, not so severe as to completely rule out all possibility o f life (for example, the existence of micrGorganisms
320
or even plants).
have an amazing adaptability. They can withstand temperature changes in very wide ranges, from -60-100 to +80-looo, do not die in great pressure differentials - - even in an almost complete vacuum, and they can survive in atmosphere containing aciO and alkaline vapors. It is true that in these conditions life, as it were, stops. But one only has i o improve the environment and it again revives. For example, it vas shown that the simplest life-forms can exist cven in lunar condjticns. Hence, there is a theory according t o which life can be transterred in spore form through outer space from one planet to another. But in order not to commit an error
in the conclusions, one must always remember that the most favorable Conditions in themselves still mean nothing.
At first, life
one only hds to sent to Mars a scientific station with the appropriate equipment which would prove or disprove the existence of life. However, there is a serious obstacle even when setting such a problem. It appears that scientists still do not agree as to
which signs of life mdst be considered basic and determinant. Some believe that such signs are the ability for cells to grow, some -,*ievethat it is more important that they divide, some give preference to metabolic processes, and others believe in the ordered structure inherent in living formations.
321
l i f e , we must assume t h a t i t i s b a s i c a l l y s i m i l a r t o t h a t on e a r t h .
I n o t h e r words, we must a c c e p t t l i a t t h e b a s i c chemical element f o r
it i s carbon ana a c i d i s i t s o x i d a n t .
W have no o t h e r a l t e r n a t i v e , e
is a r g u a b l e :
carbon.
An e q u a l l y c o m p l i c a t e d t a s k i s t o choose a p l a c e and a t i m e
f o r conducting r e s e a r c h .
s p r i n g and suamer i n o r d e r t o a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e p e r i o d i c , s e a s o n a l changes of c o l o r a;ld b r i g h t n e s s of some p a r t s of i t s s u r f a c e . Khat equipment i s needed t o d e t e c t l i f e ? must it r e g i s t e r ? What p a r a m e t e r s 1157 -
S c i e n t i s t s and e x o b i o l o g i s t s b e l i e v e t h a t impor-
For
relatively simple to detect, especially if one takes into consideration the ability to living microorganisms to produce carbon dioxide.
It is not easy to produce, especially in specific
quantities and during certain stages of development. The orderly nature of a formation and dynamics of its changes ; e important along those signs of life shown above. r Special micro-
scopes working "in tandem" with television devices are needed to obtain images of fine microstructures. The greater the magnifi-
cation of these instruments, the more reliable will be the results of observations. From this point of view, the electron microscope which can magnify tens and even hundreds of thousands o f times is beyond compare. But it is complex, unwieldy and capricious. Good results can It
alsg be obtained from the optical microscope, especially if one uses a "lighting" not only by visible but, for example, ultraviolet rays. Which is the best microscope to use?
It is believed that the
probability of detecting life (if, of course, it is present in samples taken for research) using an electron microscope is almost loo%, an optical microscope 10% and when using chemical analysis methods only 1%. There are strict requirements for sterilizing space equipment and instruments when conducting experiments for detecting life. Obviously, there is no sense in flying to another planet to detect
323
We spoke above of the amazing abiliby for For example, it is impossible to heat This is why it
microorganisms to survive.
will be simpler to detect life than prove thpt it was not brought there by the equipment used for carrying out the experiment. Theseare by no meansall the difficulties which must be overcome to detect life on other planets. The successful solution of
--
on the
results of studying the physical and chemical conditions on the planet and surrounding space. This will not only enable the most
suitable areas to be chosen when searching for life on the planet, but will give an approximate estimation of what can be expected. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 are conducting such research at present.
Conversions of a Signal
V. Pokras, a Candidate of Technical Sciences and laboratory head at the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences o f the USSR
"Pravda", January 30, 1972. Launching a space vehicle and sending it into satellite orbit of the earth, moon or Mars is not an end in itself, but a means o f studying the world around us. We receive most information on earth Some of this information
-/158
gives the condition of the vehicle's mcillary systems and their modes of operation. This information is analyzed and used for
324
controlling space vehicles. Another large part shows the progress of scientific experiments and, in the final analysis, is the source of new knowledge on objects investigated. Normally, signals arriving from space stacions are repeatedly converted, until they are scientifically evaluated. The Mars-2,
Mars-3 and Luna-19 have many sensors measuring different physical values. Some of these change quickly, others slowly. The frequency For example,
if one is studying tlie change of temperature in a room using a normal thzrmometer, there is no need to look at the scale every half second or even every few seconds: the temperature in this
time will not change by an amount which a room thermometer can register. This is also true of space vehicles,where multi-stage
commutators interrogate some sensors tens of times per second, and others only once per minute. What happens if readings of a certain instrument change very slowly, but occasionally become more active? In this case, how
often does one interrogate it for information? Obviously, the interrogation device itself must allow for the "behavior" of the measured physical value by adapting itself to the speed of its change. A system such as this is successfully working in the Soviet-French "Stereo" experiment in the Mars-3. The use of multi-stage commutation and self-adapting systems uses the energy of space stations more effectively: the number of
transmitted to earth is becoming more complex, but present-day ground, processing systems are successfully analyzing measurement obtained from hundreds of sensors in this difficult sequence. During communication sessions with a space vehicle, millions
I
of measurements are transmitted to earth, received by ground stations, recorded on magnetic tape and fed into processing systems. These systems are a huge complex of all types of equipment, including several large, high-speed computers. Ground processing begins with a careful, comprehensive check of incoming signals. Interference in the path of radio waves, the
slightest malfunction of a complex on-board or ground collection complex, or a transmission or reception failure can result in some information being incorrectly interpreted. This phase is crucial, and although the responsibility is assumed by computers, it sometimes happens that they cannot cope in very difficult situations and "ask" specialists to intervene. Of course, it is simple to ignore these measurements which complicate life, however, the interests of science and the unique nature of experiments conducted forbid this. Everything must be deciphered and evaluated!
Information has been received and analyzed which casts some doubts on the measurements points.
mass of information from orbit into readings of individual sensors or groups. This operation, which required many months of work, is
done by a computer accuratelv in minutes. Another important factor is that information from equipment arrives o n earth in certain con-Centional units.
3 26
c -
/159
In some instances
--
only a
few arithmetical operations are required, however, in some cases one must examine the readings of tens of sensors together and use not only arithmetic but logical analysis. However, it is little When
to know that the measured temperature equals such a value. agd where in space was this information received?
In order to
"tie in" the measurement to time and space coordinates, the information of trajectory measurement and readings of special on-board clocks are used, which fix and transmit the accurate time of measurement in the form of electrical signals using a radiotelemetry systen!. When investigating many physical processes and phenomena it is important to know in which direction the scientific instrument's sensor, at a certain point in space, was "looking". Therefore,
simultaneously with the processing of "radiotelemetry",orientation of the space vehicles is done, for example, relative to the surface of Mars. Now one can combine scientific measurement with trajectory and orientation information, and provide additional information relative to physical conditions, in which measurement was made, required for each scientific experiment.
of initial processing begins:
convenient for the experimenters. The machines draw graphs, print tables, and record information on punched tapes aiid magnetic tapes. All these stages, which are normal for "ordinary" earth satellites, become more complex for Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations. For 327
the first time, signals from satellites of another planet which were processed arrived not once during the experiment, but regularly.
The Earth Wheels of Martian Automatic Control Units Amos Aleksandrov, Doctor of Technical Sciences ("Novosti" Press Agency) "Moskovskaya pravda", February 6 , 1972. From the moment when the Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic scientific stations were launched in May 1971 until the present time they have been controlled by the Long-Range Space Communication Center. These new vehicles differ considerably from scientific stations produced earliei ior investigating far space. First of all, they are self-sufficient. Instruments were used for the first time for continuous solar-stellar orientation,as was an autonomous space navigation system. with on-board digital computers. The stations are equipped
328
But the 'tindependence*' the Mars stations does not simplify of the work of the controllers on the ground. The role of the command
and instrumentation complex is still significant i f only because of the extremely complicated conditions and problems of these flights. The work of all services and facilities participating in the flight control is combined and coordinated by the operational control group. Control of the Mars-2 and Mars-3 can be divided into three basic stages:
---
the flight from earth to Mars; the final flight to Mars, separation of the descent vehicle,
the s o f t landing, transmission of information from the planet's surface, injection of the stations into satellite orbit around Mars;
--
During the flight stage the planned trajectory was maintained, the necessary corrections were made, the load of operation of the on-board systems were checked, and scientific information was received. More than 230 communication sessions were held and 5,000 commands were issued. The duration of communication sessions varied from several minutes t o several hours. An important role in the long flight t o Mars was checking the condition of the scientific stations by telemetry information. Recommendations were compiled to maintain the serviceability of on-board units and systems.
329
It controlled the
f l i g h t p a t h , d e t e r m i n e d t h e time f o r c o r r e c t i o n s t o be made, c a l c u l a t e d t h e amount cf t h r u s t and t h e l e n g t h o f time which t h e v e r n i e r e n g i n e s s h o u l d work. B a l l i s t i c s forecast the motim of
t o control..
e x e c u t e d , towards
They had t o b e
t h i r d (approach f l i g h t ) c o r r e c t i o n i t was i m p o r t a n t , i n t h e s h o r t
330
time available, to carry out trajectory measurement, process this, and transmit to the station the final data which made more precise that already in its "memory1'. Then, the readiness of the autonomous systems to carry aut independently corrections and subsequent maneuvers was checked. After the maneuver, the descent vehicle was separated from the
+
This is
s o r i landing successfully.
After separating the capsule and the descent vehicle the retrofire rockets in the orbital stations were switched on dnd they went from flight trajectories into artificial Mars satellite orbits. The Mars-3 took up a posi+,ion relative to the vehicle approacning the surface of the planet, which allowed it, when possible, to receive from it information and record it on the on-board memory. /161 An additional radio channel was used for transmitting informs- tion from the descent vehicle to the Mars-3 orbital station. The
station's memory recorded the information, and afterwards transmitted it back to earth. Telemetering information was received continuously on the condition of the station's systems and on the Jperations they werc planned to conduct, As a result o f information rLcejved, if necessary, appropriate corrections could be made to which had been calculated.
le
program sessions
331
Another task was to specify quickly and reljably the landing area and determine the orbital parameters of the new Mars satellites. Control of the Mars satellites was additionally limited by the so-called "radio fading": when the stations went behind the planet
and could not be reached by the ground radio complex. The schedule for the interworking of all groups taking part in the work
--
the ground radio facilities group, computation centers and television and communication facilities of a minute. At the present time, the third stage of controlling the statim's flight, in near-Mars orbits is continuing. The control of each stat.ion is "individualized". This i s
--
because of the significant differences in their orbits and sum differences in equipment and modes of cperation of on-board systems.
A control plan is compiled for each station, dictated by the
tasks of the next research stage. Radio communication is maintained with the stations and all the commands given are accurately carried out. The stations have solar and stellar orientation and are working well.
The Mars-2 and Mars-3 in Flight "Pravda", February 1 9 . 1972. The Long-Range Space Communication Center, 1 8 ,
(TASS).
The
and the Mars-3 six revolutions around the planet. tion is held regularly with the stations.
Radio communica-
that, at the present time, the distance between the earth and Mars has increased to 244 million kilometers, communication with the automatic stations is reliable. Trajectory measurement is carried out during the radio communication sessions, telemetering information on the work of the on-board systems is received, as is scientific information obtained by the research equipment in the stations. From January 22 to February 18, 1972 the Mars-2 and Mars-3 space vehicles continued measuring the temperature of the surface and the subsurface layer of the planet, studied its relief and determined the characteristics o f the atmosphere of Mars and nearplanetary outer space. Information obtained at this time shows that the dust storm has ended, the temperature of the surface has increased to a level expected when the atmosphere is hjghly transmittent, and the contrast o f cr=cails of the surface has increased in the red and near infrared regions of the spectrum. Measurement of brightness of the temperature shohed that the temperature at the depth of several tens of centimeters from the surface has practically no bearing on the time of day. The lati-
tudinal distribution of temperature brightness s h o w s that seasonal changes of temperature at this depth are significantly reduced in comparison with the surface temperature. This indicates the low heat conductivity of Martian soil. /162 -
333
When the artificial satellite went behind the planet experiments were conducted into its atmosphere by using radio wave transillumination. The processing of signals obtained on earth determined the dependence of pressure on altitude in the atmosphere of Mars. It was shown that the pressure near the planet's surfacb, in
areas where measurement had been made, was in the rangss from 4-8 millibars. The boundaries of Mars' ionosphere were determined. boundary is at an altitude of 80-110 km. Its lower
tude the electron concentration increases sharply,and then gradually decreases. Measurement of ultraviolet radiation, scattered in the upper atmosphere of Mars, made it possible to determine the dependence of intensity of lines of atomic hydrogen and oxygen on altitude, and radiation in a line of hydrogen was recorded up to altitudes of approximately 2,000 km, where it exceeds the background level of the interplanetary medium. Radiation in the atomic oxygen line was Measurements made
determined the dependence of the concentration of hydrogen and oxygen atoms on the altitude above the surface of Mars. The artificial Mars satellites are continuing their scientific research.
334
Three Months in Orbit "Pravda", March 2, 1972. The Long-Range Communication Center, 1. (TASS). The Soviet
Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations are continuing their flight. On March 1 the Mars-2 completed 127,and the Mars-3 seven rovolutions around Mars. From FebruTry I! to March 1, Mars had moved another t
15 million kilometers away from earth, and at the present time, the distance between the planets is 259 million kilometers. Reliable, regular communication sessions are held with the Soviet artificial satellite. Research into the surface and atmosphere o f Mais in continuing from near-planetary orbit. Photographs are being taken. The nature
of outer space surrounding the planet is being studied. The Soviet automatic vehicles have been near the planet for three months, during which time much valuable, scientific information has been obtained on Mars and on near-planetary outer space. The proposed work program for the Mars 2 and Mars-3 artificial satellites orbiting the planet is nearing completion,
A Plasma Experiment in blars Orbit ("Novosti" Press Agencyj "Moskovskaya pravda", March 11, 1972. The Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations have been carrying out observations for three months in an orbit around Mars. Their instruments have investigated the planet and surraunding
335
space.
Vaysberg, a Candidate of Physical and Mathematical Scitnces, and a section head at the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, tc tell us of work of imtruments designed for studying charged particle fluxes, including one of the most interesting spare phenomena - - solar wind, and of some results obtained so far. /163 -
high temperatures. To somr extent, solar wind is a natural laboratory, where physicists can study processes occurring in extremely rarified plasma, that is, in conditions which, in many respects, cannot be reproduced on earth. in another question: In this experiment, we were more interested the solar wind which flows around Mars.
The fact is that the flow of solar wind around earth, when the plasma flow interacts with the magnetic field of earth, has been studied sufficiently. Since solar wind has a supersonic speed, and the obstacle itself, the magnetosphere, has relative conductance,
it influences the flow, and a shock wave is formed.
A
transition
A
plasma flcw, heated as a result of colliding with the magnetosphere, flcws around the magnetic field.
336
forming the earth's magnetic tail, rather similar to the tail o f a comet. Changes in solar wind cause magnetic storms on earth,
second variation of this flow, which has also been studied The moon is
well, is the interaction of solar wind with the moon. an obstacle of a completely different type.
It has no conductance
and, therefore, does not give a reverse reaction - - does not influence the flow o f plasma. its surface. Solar wind directly interacts with
bith a small concentration of particles, which the moon "selects" in the flow of solar wind: the so-called "corpuscular shadow".
Finally, the third class of interaction will take place when the solar wind flows around planets having an atmosphere, but not having their own magnetic field. Since the ionosphere o f any
planet has conductance, it must be expected that the progress o f the phenomena, to a certain extent, must be similar to the process of solar wind flowing around the earth's magnetosphere, but only in the sense of the general characteristics of the flow-around zone.
A
rent on the boundary of the ionosphere. A magnetic field of this current is also an obstacle for an oncoming solar wind. During the flight of Mariner-4,American scientists detected some features of an interplanetary field around Mars, which they interpreted as a shock wave when solar wind struck the planet.
337
However, later calculations showed that this effect was more likely
t o be linked with the change of the magnetic field with time.
The Mars-2 and Mars-3 are investigating solar wind by using equipment which, in particular, will determine its speed, temperature and composition of the basic components. were done during the flight to Mars. The measurements
possible to obtain information on the characteristics of the geomagnetic tail at distances of 20 million kilometers from earth. However, as I have already said, we are morc interested in studying particle fluxes in the direct vicinity of Mars. dently said that solar win2
It can be confi-
phere, must have a great effect on its strncture. Equipment on board the stations included an ion and electron spectrometer. This equipment measures the spectral distribution of j164
components of plasma, since ions give us the basic information on the hydrodynamic characteristics of the flow perature. During the first few days of the flight of the stations in orbit around Mars, we were able to pi.npoint very sharp changes in the ion composition in the direct vicinity of the planet. The sta-
--
wind.
338
Measurement has been carried out during six revolutions around the planet by the Mars-3. It showed that regularly, when the station approaches the planet, it enters a low-energy particle zone. The nature and the suddenness of the change of ion composition, and also the sudden changes in velocity of particle flow, which was observed at that time, gives basis to suppose that apparently, we are dealing with a shock wave.
the shape o f the boundary where the sudden change of velocity occurs, it appeared that the curve obtained approximately coincided with the theoretically calculated shape of the shock wave. Fur-
ther study of the flow-around zone, cornparism of results of recording the parameters of plasma flow before and after the shock wave, and analysis of magnetic measurement will allou us to make final conclusions.
It is possible that new information will be
Mars before and after a Storm Professor V . Moroz, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, L. Ksanfocaliti, Candidate o f Physical and Mathematical Sciences ":zvestiya", March 21, 1972
lr The fourth month of work near ' a s is being completed by the Mars-2 and Mars-3 interplanetary statims. The first anxious days
are over, that unforgettable communication session when the first paper tapes with their complex, curved 3hape fell on our table 339
--
has arrived for painstaking processing, the analysis of measurement and preparation of the first scientifi; publication. Con-
clusims can be made shawing that the study of the material obtained is still far from complete.
As
with two sets of equipment, one of which we can call arbitrarily an astrophysical oiie, the other (still more arbitrarily) a zeophysical one. The first consists of instrument> 'esigned for
investigating the atmosphere and the SUi,.ce of Mars according ts its rddiation in different spectral regions, and was p.~duced, mainly, by astrophysicists. The second is f o i investigating the interplanetary medium and vicinity of Mars, and was produced by geophysicists. Experiments conducted with these t.' sets o f instru..? ments, - - are the basic ones in our station's program, and photography of the planet plays an auxiliary role. This is the nain difference between ours and the American program for the Mariner-9 artificial satellite, the main aim of which is television photography of the planet. We shall give the results of experiments carried out at the laboratory o f infrared astronomy at the Space Research Institute of the Academy o f Sciences of the USSR, in conjunction with the State Astronomical Institute im. Shternberg,and many other scientific and industrial organizations. These experiments studied the radiation o f the planet,
to
be
/165
340
The hu,..-
narrow lrterval frcn 0 . 4 - 0 . 7 pm, the wavelength here changes less than twice. Scientific instruments "saw" wavelengths differing a
hundred times.
7ne
field of vision of all these instruments is from 0.25-1' approaching clcse to the planet - - in the pericenter From earth,
and when
duricg astrophysical research into Mars, one normally isolates areas measuring n a t less than 500 km. Apart from this, research into the night side of Mars is practically impossible. Clouds in the atmospl:.re
Unlike Venus,
where the atmosphere is 10,000 times more powerful and a dense cloud layer completely obscures the surface. When the Mariner-9 and later the Mars-2 and Mars-3 went into orbit it seemed as if they had discovered some new, unknown planet. Mars was shrouded with a cloud layer, almost as impenetrable as that of Venus. It
was impossible to distinguish the dark regions from the light, and pho4:ography of the surface was practically impossible. What had happened on Mars? Observers already know that during
major oppositions, the planet's disc for some weeks is covered by a light veil, behind which the dark Martian regions ("seas") become hardly distinguishable. The brightness and color o f this veil is almost the same as in the bright regions of Mars - - "continents". The continents are covered with a layer of finelyApparently, there is dust on the surfaces
341
a fine, "continental" dust rises into the atmosphere and extends over the whole planet. Such a dust storm began during the first ten days o f October and lasted three months. During the present opposition, the dust
It hindered photography, but measure-
ment, carried out by our astrophysical instruments, gave much new information on the dust storm itself. In December and the beginning
measurement paths passed over the Mare Iapigya. Whereas on December 2 7 the Iapigya was discernible on a wavelength of 1.4 pm, and not seen at all on a wavelength of 0 . 7 pm, on February 16 Iapigya was half as bright as the neighboring continents in both wavelengths. The difference in contrast in the two wavelengths
between the continents and the maria during the storm allows us to estimate the size
0 :
between February 15 and 16 in one and the same region - - the thickness o f the dust cloud. According to a preliminary estimation, the average radius of particles on December 15 over the Iapigya region was rather less than a micron, and their number over 1 cm2 was approximately 342
100 million.
that during the investigation period there was no prolonged dust storm, in the true sense of the word, that is, constant wind. Winds which raise dust from the surface only occur in tl..e initial phase of the phenomenon, then the dust is suspende8 for a long time in the calm atmosphere. Hence, a dust storm consists of the formation of a cloud layer in the planet's atmosphere, hut as opposed tc Venus, it is temporary and not constant. What is the altitude of this layer? The first indications were provided by ground observations carried out by one of the authors in October 1971, during the initial phase of the dust storm. It seems that belts of carbon dioxide were con-
siderably reduced when the dust storm began. This means that the upper cloud boundary
J :
The whole o f Mars' spectrum was observed from earth averaged along its disc. The Mars-?,obtained similar observatims for indiIt appears that the altitude of clouds is
not identical, above high regions they are lower,and above low
343
regicns higher: during the dust storm, the Mariner-9 photographed some high regions protruding above the cloud level. On Venus the atmosphere and cloud layer are more transmissive
to solar radiation than to thermal radiation of the surface.
1
As
result, there is
significantly. Does the same happen on Mars during a dust storm? Apparently quite the reverse occurs. The cloud layer with the
Therefore,
transmissive in a radiometers sensitive infrared band, it "sees" the surface through the clouds and measures its temperature. During the dust s t o m the surface temperature fell by 20-30' in cmyarison with that which was expected from normal conditions (without dust clouds). When the storm ended, the temperature rose.
During the dust storm the surface was cooled, and the atmosphere itself heated up, since it absorbed a considerable amount of solar radiation. There was a very small content of water vapor in the atmosphere during the dust storm and after it.
It did not exceed 5 pm of
precipitated water - - 2,000 times less than in the earth's atmosphere. From previous ground observations we know that the content
of water vapor in the Martian atmosphere fluctuates considerably. Sometimes it reaches 50 pm of precipitated water, sometimes less than 10 pm - - this is the instrument limit of ground observatiuiis.
344
It is difficult to say whether the small amount of humidity in the Martian atmosphere during the dust storm and sfter it was a coincidence, or whether there is some connection. The existence of water on Mars is an extremely interesting problem.
indicate that until relatively recently the climate on Mars could have been completely different higher.
--
periodic nature.
--
/167
automatic interplanetary stations - - were equipped with many scientific instruments designed for investigating the planet's atmosphere and surface. They included a miniature radio telescope working on a wavelength o f 3.4 cm. This is the third time that a
radio telescope has been fi'.ted into a space vehicle. As opposed to its two "older brothers", which measured the intensity of radiofrequency radiation of the earth and Venus, the Mars-3 radio telescope is much more "intelligent".
It not only measured the
345
intensity but the polarization of the planet's radio-frequency radiation. The simultaneous measurement of the intensity and polarization of Mars' radio-frequency radiation made the processing of the radioastronomical experiment more difficult. How-
ever, the results justified these difficulties. Only the most complex resetrch could determine the temperature of the planet's surface layer to a depth of approxiiilately 0.5 m. Apart from the
thermodynamic temperature by using polarization measurement, the dielectric permeability of matter of Mars' upper cover, several tens of centimeters thick, was determined. The on-board radio telescope worked with a fixed anetnna system with a diameter of approximately 60 cm. The surface of the
planet was scpnned by the radio telescope when the Mars-3 artificial satellite moved in its orbit. At the same time, the radio telescope received the radio-frequency radiation from a section of the surface, the linear measurement of which was approximately
2 0 0 km.
can only measure radio-frequency radiation of the planet as a whole and not in detail.
radio-frequency radiation of Mars to the same degree as the onboard Mars-3 radio telescope, it would need an antenna diameter of more than 30 km. will have
a
size and accuracy required for meas'rrement of Mars is a dream which cannot be realized in the near future.
346
Its
minimum distance from the planet's surface (pericenter) is approximatel.y 1,500 km, the maximum approximately 200,000 km, and the orbital period around the planet is approximately 12 days. The
orbit was oriented relative to the surface of Mars so that the radio telescope can receive in sequence during each revolution the radio-frequency radiation of the surface from 6 ' south latitude 0 to 33' north latitude. The northern latitudes of Mars have been studied very little. Whereas we have information of radiation observations from earth for the area of the northern hemisphere from 3-22', by which we
can estimate the dielectric permeability o f matter on the upper cover, the southern hemisphere is a completely white spot. Temperature information on the planet's subsurface layer in specifjc regions of the southern hemisphere, obtained by the Mars-3 radio telescope, strictly speaking, will have nothing with which to be compared. The results of the radioastronomical experiment were very interesting. The theoretical calculations were confirmed, according to which there are never positive temperatures at a depth of 0.5 m, where the cold is lower than -40' C. Khen moving
towards regions in the southern latitudes, towards the 60th parallel, the temperature at this depth falls even more by approximately
3' 0. It was found that the temperature at a depth of 0.5 m at a
/168
347
Processing of polarization measurement of radio-frequency radiation showed that the density of matter of the upper cover varied for different regions of the southern hemisphere. The small dark region, Cerberus, was very interesting. It
was examined by the Mars-3 at night. The radio telescope recorded an increase in the dielectric permeability in this region, An increase in the dielectric permeability and night temperature of the surface are caused by denser soil. Processing of the radioastronomical experiment completely confirms this. Whereas in nearby regions the density of the upper cover is approximately
1.2 g/cm 3 , in the Cerberus region it is twice as great.
Since the radio telescope transmitted information from an area with a diameter of approximately 200 kn, this increai; in density can indicate rock on the surface in that region (with a density of approximately 3.5 g/cm3 ) . Processing of information collected by the on-board radio telescope, apparently, will give additional knowledge on thermal conditions and the electrical properties of substance of Mars' upper cover and, probably, determine in ;;hat way the dark and bright regions of the planet differ from each other.
348
tists would understand better the origin and evolution of life on earth. Successes in the development of technology have meant sending to Mars automatic interplanetary stations with scientific equiprnent
f o r directly measuring and obser-ring, checking theories and
attempting to answer the question on whether life exists there. The flights o f automatic stations to Mars have provided several surprises. For example, no one expected that the reliaf of the terrain shown on photographs would be so similar to tha+ on the moon. One can now say that the atmosphere of Mars almost
completely consists of carbon dioxide, and the temperature near the surface i s 5-10 millibars, which corresponds to a pressure
in
tke
The
temperature in the equatorial zone at noon i s 15-20' C , wheieas near the poles it can fall to 130-150' of frost.
34 9
Strong winds blow away dust f o l one place to another, and dust rrl storms occur.
It was noticed that they reached their greatest
intensity exring oppositions. According to present information, an exceptionally strong storm occurred during the last quarter of 1971. Radar observations show that on Mars the maximum difference in elevation is 12 km,with average inclination valLes of approximately 5 - 4 ' . A layer of perxafrost begins at a depth o f approxiduring the year
/169
mately 50 cm, where the temperature hardly c a . e h;:s and is from - 5 0 to -70' C.
photographs consist o f dry ic- crystals (solid carbon dioxide: and dust. In summer, the soilthern cap normally melts completely, and
the northern one is reduced but does not disapFzar completely. Martian ci-uds were observed through telescopes near the poles. Scientists believe that they are a mixture of Cry ice crystals, ordinary ice and dust.
It c3n be
not so as to completely exclude tne poszibility of the existence of life on the planet (microorganisms or even plants).
It seems a simple task to send an atitoiratic control unit to
In fact, this i s
ii+d
spheres. For example, it appears that it is quite difficult to produce a "life detector" - - an instrument for detecting life on
350
Mars.
exist) by their external appearance, since they could be different from those ori earth. One must find other signs which are more
inaninate nature there are many analogues of biochemical grocesses, and if they are examined in isolation, they can confuse the researcher. For example, an analogue in metabolism in inanimate
nature are the varied cxidatim-reduction processes, and cell division often makes it difficult to distinguish between some processes in crystals. These are not all the problems which must be solved in order
+o
more extensive, the more cnance of success. Therefore, science is attempting to study in more detail space around Mars, the gas composition, temperature, pressure and other characteristics of the atmosphere, and to obtaip, if possible, more detailed and complete maps and pictures of its surface, etc. Having this data, one can attempt to say where to look for life a . in what form it might exist. rd Since individual experiments do
not give a definite arswer on whether life exists, one must conduct a whole range of different experiments.
By comparing and generali-
zing these results, one can put lnore faitk, in their reliability. 351
A large space vehicle when approaching Mars goes into artificial satellite orbit of the planet (MAS). After this the descent
vehicle (DV) is separated, and makes a soft landing ir, the selected area. The DV has a scientific oase-laboratory and a self-propelled
device, a Mars vehicle, also equipped with scientific iiistrurrent~ and, of course, rtdio transmitters for communication with the base and the Mars satellite. The Nars vehicle will study the surface
of tLe planet in a radius of 300-500 km for 3-6 nonths, and afterwards return to the base.
It will carry out the majority of physio-
if it finds something interesting, it h-ill take samples. Puring investigations it will systematically t i e phocographic images of a. the area, and the film will be stored dnd sent back to earth together with :e samples. h Meanwhile, the base station will carefully study the landing area and carry out research requiring more time. The results are /170
The Mars satellite studies space near Mars, photographs the surface of the planet and works as a relay or, the radio link between Mars and earth. When the experiments end on the surface of
fars,part of the base station with soil samples collected by the Mars vehicle, and photographic and magnetic film, flies off, docks with the satellite and returns to earth.
352
This is only a general picture of one of the possible variations of a flight to liars.
It must be noted that in the first part
it resembles the space flight of Sogiet Mars-2 and Mars-3 space vehicles, and also the experiment when a descent vehicle made a soft lapding on the planet'. surface. This flight gave science
valuable information which, of course, can be successfully used for k t u r e Mars research. Let us try in more detail to show the flight schedule of wtich we spoke earlier.
It must be sti-essed that it will last
approximately 2-2.5 years and will require the use of various t e d nical aids which have been developed, based on new achievements in science and technology. The most important of these are radio engineering, el+?ctron;cs,television, cybernetics acd cDmmunic,tions. When carrying out a space flight such as this, we shall have to solve many unusual problems.
For example, the space communi-
ccticn links between the eartk. and the Mars satellite or the earth and the 'lars vehicle. h e shhll reckon that the distance between '
are propagated with a speed of approximately 300,000 kmjsec, the time for a signal to pass to both en2s is 2 4 - 3 5 min. Obviously,
this must be allowed for when controlling the space vehicle's systems, since it moved towards Mars a t great speed. Further dif-
ficulties await us when organizing communication with the scientific station on planet's surface or with the Mars vehicle.
353
1
I
Imagine that we have decided to maintain communication with the Mars vehicle directly, and not via the satellite operating as a relay.
space objects is only possible when there is direct visibility, a radio link of this type will give very poor results. There will
be few sessions - - once or twice a day (since the rotation period of Mars around its axis is approximately 25 hours), and they will only last a few minutes. Let us add that it is difficult and
unsuitable to install large antennas on the Mars vehicle: they must not only be set down on the planet but must be continually directed toward earth which is observing it. There is also the
satellite, since this must maintain communication with eartlA. This will make it possible to reduce the size and weight of the antenna on the Mars vehicle and broaden its directional patterns in order to keep track of the satellite. How can this complex scientific program be accomplished? The instruments must be controlled, and the need for setting up new experiments will be determined by the results o f previous ones. Must one wait for the next communication session with earth? Obviously, cybernetic facilities and special computers must be set /171 up to contcol the progress o f scieiitific research, decide independently what to do and when, evaluate the results obtained and, depending on these, decide and determine the further course o f the exper;qent and the work of the vehicle's systems.
354
used for controlling the movement of the Mars vehicle. are as follows.
Its tasks
ment can be chosen on earth and it is impossible to forecast accurately a concrete path and the vehicle's behavior in it. will appear in its path: cliffs. Obstacles
safe, and if there is something in its path it must approached and "examined" to see what it is. Depending on the result of the examination, it either continues moving, investigates the object in detail, or takes a sampie with it for further study at the base or on earth. These problems must be solved by using special, inde-
pendent control cDmplexes. The Mars vehicle can be equipped with an irradiator using an optical system which illuminates the area tens of meters ahead of
it with a vertical beam.
in such a way that the surface investigated, when viewed from above, forms a scanning field, the lines of which are in a fan shape and are intersected at a point where the irradiator is placed. The thickness of the beam and the distance between the lines determines its resolving power (Figs. 2 9 , 3 0 ) . Television cameras, forming a stereo system, are placed at both ends of the irradiator. These are the two eyes of the vehicle, positioned so that they only see the illuminated points through special light filters. Video signals from both "eyes" are
355
F i g . 29. The measurement of c h a r acteristics of t h e relief of the t e r r a i n i n f r o n t of a s e l f - p r o p e l l e d v e h i c l e . XYZ - The c o o r d i n a t e system o f t h e t e r r a i n ; (M)XYZ - A c e r t a i n p o i n t on t h e t e r r a i n ; Q - The s c a n n i n g [ r o t a t i n g around a x i s (OY)] p l a n e ; S - A l i g h t beam from t h e i r r a d i a t o r . a t p o i n t 0; r i g h t s c r e e n s of a s t e r e o p a i r .
F i g . 3 0 . A f u n c t i o n a l diagram o f an autonomous movement c o n t r o l system. F - Light f i l ters; 0 3 F 3O p t i c a l objectives; S2 - T e l e v i s i o n sens o r s ; EM - An e l e c t r o n i c measurer f o r c o o r d i n a t e p o i n t s ; SC - A s i g n a l c o n d i t i o n i n g u n i t ; ODC - An on-board d i g i t a l comp u t e r ; SG - A synchronous g e n e r a t o r ; SI - A scanning i r r a d i a t o r ; M.C. - Movement c o n t r o l . 1 - Transmitter; 2 - Recei-er.
ii,~ i , ~ i i *
p r o c e s s e d by t h e on-board d i g i t a l computer.
As a r e s u l t , complete
d a t a on t h e r e l i e f o f t h e t e r r a i n a p p e a r s i n t h e machine.
The
1172 -
W have a l r e a d y s a i d t h a t e
356
scientific experiments in themselves are varied, numerous and very complex. As a result, when carrying them out much information will be obtained which must be transmitted to earth. where another difficulty arises. This is
satellite with the same transmitting equipment as an earth satellite, owing to the great distance, the transmission speec. will have to be reduced by approximately 100 billion times. Otherwise, the
Of
course, the special Long-Range Space Communication Center is developing special transmitters and increasing their power.
But
this cannot completely solve the problem,and there is only one solution - - process the results obtained before transmission, selec:: from them that which is valuable or new, and disregard what is not required. Specialists call this the compression of information. Here is an example. Suppose we have to transmit information on changes of temperature inside the Mars vehicle.
It can be simply measured from time
to time (every 5-10 min), recorded on a tape recorder ana later transmitted. Here, almost all the figures will be identical and the time for their transmission will have practically no value. This can be done another way: an additional electronic unit can be
installed which automatically shows whether there are great variations in the information and whether any critical values have been reached. In this case, the effectiveness of the transmission is
greatly increased.
357
Ax2demy ,'.
..
T h i s picti;-
o f earth sa
sild .
+as.
'ew,
..
A TASS Report:
"Pravda", August 2 3 , 1972. The preplanned complex research program of Mars, carried out by the L v i e t Mars-2 and Mars-3 automatic stations in orbit around it. b a s ended.
A
great deal
0:
tic;
-<
tht- surface
neaT ; t has been obtained. The Mars-2 an5 Mars-3 automatic interplanetary stations were sent into a flight path to Biars on May 19 and 2 8 , 1971, respectively. During the flight from the earth to Mars, lasting more than s i x months, the stations regularly transmitted scientific measurement on the physical characteristics c?f interplanetary space. On November 27 and December 2 , respectively, the Mars-2 and Mars-3 were sent into near-planetary orbit ard began to study the planet and space directly surromding it.
/173
3 58
An outstanding achievement during this space experiment was the first soft landing of a descent vehicle from the Mars-3 on the planet and the transmission of a radio signal from its surface to earth. of Mars.
To date, the Mars-2 has comp'.eted 362 revolutions, and the
Mars-3 20 revolutions around the planet. For more than eight months the stations orbited Mars and conducted complex research into the properties of the surface and atmosphere by the nature of radiation in t h e visible, infrared and ultraviolet ranges of the spectrum, and also in the radio wave Sand. This measurement showed the temperature of the surface o f the subsurface layer, and traced its changes depending on the aerographical latitude and the time of Martian days. Some thermal
anomalies were detected on the planet's surface. High-altitude profiles of the Martian surface along the satellite's path were obtained by information on the absorption of infrared radiatiori by carbon dioxide. Measurement of the water vapor content in various regions o f the planet showed that during the observation period it was approximately 5,000 times less than in the earth's atmosphere. Measurement of scattered ultraviolet radiation provided information on the structure of the planet's upper atmosphere
--
its
extent, composition and temperature. Study o f the refraction of radio waves when they passed through the atmosphere of Mars made
359
it possible to determine the pressure and temperature near its surface. Changes in the transmittance of the Martian atmosphere during an unusually strong dust storm which occurred during the first two months of the station's flight, gave information on the characteristics of this interesting phenomenon, and an evaluation was made on the content and average dust particle size in the planet's atmosphere. The dust storm hindered phot3graphy o f the pliizet and some scientific measurements. However, pictures of Mars' disc, taken
by photographic equipment on board the stations, gave useful scientific information on the planet. Photographs were taken of Mars Photographs on the sur-
for the first time in phases not observed frnm earth. transmitted from the stations added to the informa'ion
face, the structure of the atmosphere and the planet's shape. The flight program of the Mars-2 and Mars-3, which had quite different orbits, devoted much attention to the direct measurement
of characteristics of fields and particles of different energies
in space surrounding Mars. Measurements made by the satellites enabled studies to be made on the question of the existence of a magnetic field near the planet. Research into the regularity of a magnetic field is extremely important for understanding not o n l y the nclture of Mars, but the origin and evolution of planets in the solar system. Measurements made by the "Stereo" equipment, developed and produced by French specialists in accordance with the Soviet-French
360
program of cooperation into the research of outer space for friendly purposes, obtained adcLitional information on the structure
of the Sun's radio-frequency radiation.
Another stage has been completed in outer space research. Scientific establisi,iiients in the Soviet Union are continuing to process and analyze inforrr Lion ob?qicl-d by the Mars satellites. The results of this new space experi: Ait will give science valuable information on the nature of planets in the solar system. The outstanding success of Soviet astronautics opens new possibilities for conducting systematic, scientific research into heavenly bodies by using automatic vehicles.
/174
Soviet Automatic Control Units Investigate Mars CTASS) "Pravda", August 25, 1972. Soviet blars-2 and Mars-3 automatic interplanetary stations, which became Mars satellites more than eight months ago, have completed their scientific research program. Their instruments
carried out observations which told us many new things about the "red" planet. The complete processing of irformation obtained and
analysis will still take Some time, but the first results can be given. The American Mariner-9 satellite carried out measurement
361
s c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u m e n t s ; t h e y can o p e r a t e f o r long p e r i o d s and i n f o r m a t i o n can be exchanged between S o v i e t and American s c i e n t i s t s w h i l e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e s t i l l b e i n g c o n d u c t e d , which i s extremely u s e f u l when s t u d y i n g Mars. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 o r b i t a l s t a t i o n s were s e n t i n t o q u i t e d i f f e r e n t o r b i t s arounG Mars, which was d i c t a t e d by r e s e a r c h t a s k s b o t h o f t h e p l a n e t i t s e l f and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of s p a c e s u r rounding i t . Both s t a t i o n s approached M a r s t o a m i n i m u n , d i s t a n c e
When t h e Mars-2 approached Mars a c a p s u l e w i t h a pennant c a r r y i n g t h e image of t h e emblem of t h e S o v i e t Union was dropped onto t h e planet. The d e s c e n t v e h i c l e o f t h e Mars-3 made a s o f t l a n d i n g between t h e E l e c t r i s and P h a e t h o n t i s r e g i o n s . T e l e v i s i c n s i g n a l s from i t s
suddenly was n o t c l e a r .
of t h e l a n d i n g a r e a , which a r e c o m p l e t e l y unknown, o r w i t h t h e
s t r o n g dslst storm o c c u r r i n g on t h e p l a n e t a t t h e t i m e .
I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e d u s t s t o r m c o v e r e d d e t a i l s of t h e
362
The study of materials of this complex experiment continues. The successful soft landing on the surface o f Mars opens up new possibilities for re?earch,.ngthis planet by direct methods in the near future. The Soviet Mars satellites carried out 11 scientific experiments. Seven studied the planet itself; three measured the yaram-
eters o f the interplanetary medium;and one, carried out in conjunction with French scientists, investigated the Sun's radio-frequency radiation. During their flight t o Mars, the Mars-2 and Mars-3 stations regularly measured the f . w and energy o f solar plasma, and a l s o 'd the parameters of interplanetar:. vagnetic fields. Electron concentration in the interplanetary medium was determined by the nature of radio wave propagation in two coherent frequencies. The Mars-3 station conducted the joint Soviet-French "Stereo" experiment and investigated the three-dimensiozzl structure, directivity and mechanism o f solar radiation. Measurement of ion components o f plasma duri1.g the flight showed that disturbance of interplanetary plasma, occurring when it interacts wiih the earth's magnetic field, was observed in a direction away from the Sun at distances of up to 20 million kilometers. In the plasma disturbance zone, caused by a flow of "solar
/175
wind", both components of plasma - - electrons and ions - - underwent almost periodic31 fluctuations of velocity. As Mars was approached, when the distance from the Sun h a s s-,.iificantly increased, there was a simultaneous reduction in electron Concentration in the
363
inteqlanetary medium.
magnetometers showed that the value of the interplanetary magnetic field, on an average, was in ranges of 5 - 6 gammas (1 gamma
=
oersteds).
its temperature surface and soil were made, its relief, composition and atmospheri,: structure were examined. Scientists could observe
Mars closely and for a long period for the first time. The field of vision a f instruments on board the stations covered areas of the surface measuring from 6-50 km. From earth,
similar observations using optical telescopes distinguished areas with dimensions of 500-1,000 km and ground telescopes receive radiat;on from the whole disc at once. This is why Mars satellites
investigate the plane; in more detail th7n is possible from earth. Almost all the station's instruments were orientec so that when passing through the pericenter (the minimum distance from the center) they "looked at" the planet.
was moving at a speed of approximately 4 km/sec, and the instruments examined ths surface of Mars from edge to edge in approximately half an hour.
An infrareC radiometer, receivi-ig radiation fI,,? the planet
in
waveleqtn range of 3 - 4 0
pm,
The g a t h s began i n t h e s o u t h e r r hemisphere, where a t t h a t time, t h e M a r t i a n summer was e n d i n g , c r o s s e d t h e e q u a t o r and ended i n t h e n o r t h e r n hemisphere. The i n i t i a l p o i n t s o f t h e p a t h s were i n an
a r e a where i t was s t i l l morning, and t h e f i n a l ones where i t was a f t e r n o o n , evening and sometimes n i g h t t i m e . p e r a t u r e alcng t h e s e paths v a r i e d widely: Therefore, t h e t e m from + 1 3 O C ( f o r 1.4 hours
l o c a l solar t i m e o f t h e 1 1 t h d e g r e e s o u t h l a t i t u d e ) t c -93O ( l o c a l
time 19 h o u r s , 1 9 t h d e g r e e n o r t h l a t i t u d e ) .
I n t h e area o f t h e
c.
I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o know t h e t e m p e r a t u r e on t h e s u r f a c e o f
Mars ic v a r i o u s l a t i t u d e s a t a d i f f e r e n t time, f i r s t l y , b e c a u s e
i t i s one of t h e main c l i m a t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and s e c o n d l y , one
can j u d g e t h e t y p e o f m a t e r i a l , o f which t h e s o i l c o n s i s t s , by t h e changes o f t e m p e r a t u r e d u r i n g t h e day and from p l a c e t o p l a c 3 . I n F e b r u a r y , t h e meas-lrement p a t h s of t h e Mars-3 ended n e a I t h e n o r t h e r n p o l a r cap. An i n f l a r e 2 r a d i o m e t e r showed h e r e a t m -
'176
summer, t h e n o r t h e r n c a p e x i s t s t h r o u g h t o u t t h e y e a r a n d , p o s s i b l y , t h e o v e r a l l amount of s o l i d c a r b o n d i o x i d e and f r o z e n w a t e r i n i t c o n s i d e r a b l y exceeds t h e amount of t h e s e s u b s t a n c e s i n t h e gaseous atmosphere nf Mars. The on-baord zatior a d i o t e l e s c o p e measured t h e i n t e n s i t y and p o l a r i r a d i a l i o n on
3
:adio-frequency
t h e same p a t h .
As opposed t o an i n f r a r e d r a d i o m e t e r , measuring
365
the surface temperature, i t gave the soil temperature at a depth of 30-50 cm. The temperature below the surface at a certain depth
is not affested by daily fluctuations, and this indicates the great thermal lag and low heat conductivity o f the soil. Apart from temperature, the dielectric constant of the soil was also determined, the value o f which depends mainly on its density. Measurements showed tnat changes of soil temperature and the dielectric constant are linked, that is, higher temperature values o f different areas correspond to hiFher values of the dielectric constant. This shows that the soil density changed along the measurement path. Apparently, when there are large values of the
dielectric conatant, there is crushed soil. An infrared photometer in the carbon-dioAide absorption band with a wavelength o f 2.06 urn showed that there was a large amount of carbon dioxide in the vertical column of Mars' atmosphere at various points along the path.
It determined the pressure near
the surface, which varied in different regions, owing t o their different altitudes above the mesn surface level. On an average
level, the pressure on Mars is equal to 5.5-6 millibars (approximately 4 - 4 . 5 mm Hg) which i s approximately 200 times less than on earth.
By knowing how the pressure varies along the path, the
relative altitudes could be determined and the surface relief could be found. Observations from earth detected altitude differences o f up to 12-14 km in the equatorial region of Mars,extending over large
366
areas.
satellites.
above
series of wide peaks and vai-eys in the dark regions. gradually decreases to the north of Syrtis Major. are greater in some regions.
Height differences
A dust storm was raging over Mars when our stations went into orbit. For two months, the planet was covered by dense clouds of
dust which had risen from the surface. Measurement, made by an infrared photometer in December, showed that these clouds were approximately 10 ki above the mean surface level. r r The cloud layer
was thinner above the higher regions and thicker above the lower ones. Dust storms on Mars are a powerful and, a s yet, enigmatic phenomenon. For a few days, the normally transmissive atmosphere
of Mars becomes almost as radiopaque to visible radiation as the cloud atmosphere of Venus. But the transmittance increases, as
photometry measurement showed, as the wavelength increases. This indicates a considerable amount of very fine dust particles of approximately 1 um in the clouds. These particles settle very
367
slowly, and this agrees with the general length o f a dust storm. On the other hand, photographs from the Mariner-9 show there was a rapid increase of transmittance at the end of December. It was
not complete, but after ten days visibility significantly improved. /177
micron in size, :.hich sei-tle rapidly. A photometer repeatedly observed clouds visible in blue rays (a wavelength of 0 . 3 6 invisible in red rays (0.7 pm).
pm)
and
particles much smaller than a micr9n. Generally, particles of different size are contained in Martian clouds during a storm, and the r - i t i o of them changes over time. These clouds cool the surface and increase the atmospheric
Lcmerature, iihich in fact k-as observed. A type of "anti-greenhouse effect" was created, opposite to the situation on Venus, where the atmosphere is heated due to infrared opacity of the atmosphere.
A
with a wavelength of 1.4 urn, showed that the content of wziter vapor during the whole research period did not exceed 5 y m of precipitated water - - thousands of times l e s s than in the earth's atmos phere. bfars is a drier planet than expected: ground observations
LO
50 pm of precipitated
with thc dust storm or if there is some link between these events.
"Io
3C8
\I
i
I
gen and oxygen atoms in the upper atmosphere of Mars a*. altitudes from 100 to several tens oi thousands of kilometers.
h s
opposed to
the optical complex, a l l the instruments of which "looked" down, on the planet, the ultraviolet photometer was directed in the pericenter towards the "horizon", parallel to the surface o f Mars. The
instrument recorded radiation of atomic oxygen in three adjacent lines with a wavelength of 1,300 angstroms and a radiation o f
The density of scattered atoms and their temperature uere calculatLI: by observations o f intensity in these lines. Kear the sur-
face of Mars, the atmosphere consists basically of carbon dioxide, however, at an altitude of approximately 1 0 0 km solar ultraviolet radiation breaks it down into a molecule of carbonic oxide and oxygen atoms.
A
the atmosphere on Mars above 300-400 km becomes mainly atomichydrogenous. Traces of oxygen were registered on all orbital
revo utions ~9 to an altitude of 700-800 km, where its concentration was only 1 0 0 atrnos/cm 2 . The density of lighter hydrogen falls very slowly, decreasing from 10,000 atoms/cm2 near the planet t o 1 0 0 atoms arid even 1: es at a distance of 10,000 km. Measurement at
these great distances was made during special sessions by the Mars-3. The temperature of the upper atmosphere in the range o f altitudes fron 100-200 km increases,and absve this remains ionstant.
369
tl;prx-
and Ve~irs. The strange thing is that rhc upper atmosphere of Mars is more similar to that of Venus than earth.
A se:ond
require
This is extremely
important for investigating Mars' ionosphere which is 10 times less dense than that of the earth. The ionosphere on Mars is "pressed"
I _ _
to the surface: the maximum electron density is at an altitude of 140 km (for the earth this is 300 km). At altitudes of approxi-
/178
mately 110 km a second maximum is observed, the electron concentration of which is approximately three times less.
It is possible
b
that at altitudes of 6 5 - b O km tnere may be a third relative maximum, with an electron cc,ccentrationo f approxilnately 10,000 particies/d. The station had a set of three instruments designed for ingestigating the magnetic field and charged particles in the vicinity
of Mars.
structure Qf Y.ars ~ ' - 1 , mainly, if the planet has a metallic core or not. In 1965 the Mariner-4 did not detect a magnetic field near Mars. However, it flew at a distance of 9,100 km from the planet's
shrface. The Mars-2 and Mars-3 flew at a distance of only 1,500 kn. Measurement
0' ,
this distance by usinb a sensitive ferromagnetic probe magnetometer. Distinct changes in the magnetic field were observed which were 370
eight times greater than the level of the interplanetary background. The intensity of the field when approaching Mars increased according to all three components of the magnetometer. Mars has its own weak, dipole magnetic field.
It is possible that
However, additional
analysis of measurement data is required to answer this question more reliably,which is so important for understanding the nature
o f the planet.
According to measurements done by the Mars-3 using electron traps, there was
+ .
the electron temperature near the pericenter of the orbit as the satellite approached the planet. At the same time, there was also
an area with a hot electron gas,far from the pericenter at a distance of 180-200 thousand kilometers from the planet. This
interesting phenomenon, differing from tne normal concepts o f distribution and temperature of electrons in near-planetary space, is linked with features of space near Mars.
A charged particle
spectrometer, registering ions of solar wind in energy ranges smaller than 10 kiloelectron volts, showed there was an area of thermal ions near Mars. The shape of the external boundary c f this
area and the discontinuity in the velocity flow in solar wind shows there may be a shock wave when solar wind interacts with the uppei atmosphere of Mars. Photography o f the planet played an auxiliary role in exyeriments conducted by the Mars-2 and Mars-3 and was used f o r comparison with measurement results in other spectral intervals. At the sane time, photographs taken by t h e Mars-3 at a great distance
371
showed the optical compression of the planet (as opposed to the dynamic), built up a relief profile according to the image of the edge of the disc where there was large expansion, and obtained colored pictures of the disc of Mars by synthesizing photographs taken with different light filters. The photographs showed interesting twilight phenomena, especially luminescence o f the atmosphere at approximately 200 k beyond m the terminator line (boundary between day and night), and changes in the color of the surface near the terminator. The stratified structure of the Martian atmosphere can be traced on some photographs. Further analysis of information will provide much valuable information on the nature of Mars.
The Facz of the Red Planet Professor B. Rodionov, Doctor of Technical Sciences "Pravda", Se;)tember 8 , 1 9 7 2 . Photography played an auxiliary rcle in the exptriments conducted by Mars-2 and Mars-3. Nevertheless, those participating in the sciertific research program into Mars anxiously and impatiently awaited tlx first photographs. Thi- is quite understant/179
aLle. Pictures o f the Martian surface, taKen at close range, provide \ialuable inf rmation on the nature of the planet. However,
it was not easy to yhotograpl. the face o f Mars, since it was covered by a veil of dust clouds. In September last year, a prolonged dust
37 2
....
t e l e s c o p e s c o u l d n o t be s e e n .
But t h e
Some p h o t o g r a p h s t a k e n by t h e
I t i s known t h a t a s a t e l l i t e o r b i t i s a n e l l i p s e , and t h e
p l a n e t i s i n one of t h e f o c a l p o i n t s of t h i s . The p o i n t i n t h e
i s done from f u r t h e r p o i n t s o f t h e o r b i t , t h e a r e a o f
much h i g h e r t h a n t h e p e r i c e n t e r .
373
Photographs of dust clouds in some regions were taken during, photography near the pericenter. and blue light filters. They were done using red, green
photographs, investigate the physical and optical properties of Martian dust and, consequently, the composition of the planet's surface cover. The thickness of clouds and circulation of gaseous
masses in the atmosphere is determined according to the nature of clouds and their variability during observations near the Martian horizon, along the vertical and in the transition zone from day to night (in the terminator). Therefore, new information can be
obtained an the composition and structure of the atmosphere which will help to determine processes causing dust storms. Scientists were extremely interested in photographs which covered the whole plar,et. It is known that the shapes of planets are not accurata s p h e r e s . For example, when we call the earth the
terrestrial globe, t h i s is o n l y ar, approximtion of its shape. In fact, the surfaces c f plancrs have a complex shape, close to the so-called ellipsoids of revolut7.on. In other words, planets are somewhat flattened 2nd conpressed near the polar axis. This comIt is
matter, the structure of its 1:iyers and t h e fdrrnation o f its core, and also the gravitational f i e l d . Qlanctary matter does not fly
/180 into space ciur t o centrifugal forces s i n c e they are balanced by the -internal
~OTCL;
Com-
pression characterizes c o n d i t i o n s
: h i s equilibrium is
374
achieved and, in this way, allows one to determine indirectly the planet's internal structure.
ellipsoids and their compression gives some indication of the similarity or difference in the internal structure of planets. Apart from this, information on planetary ellipsoids is required for compiling a geodttic coordinate system - - the basis for mapping. The compression of planets is determined in two ways. One of
these is the so-calle3 dynamic and is based on observing the changes in the positions of natural satellite orbits in space. The orbits of satellites rotate (precess) relative to the stars due to the gravitational field of the planet. Ground observations have shown that the precession of Phobos and Deimos correspond to the compressioii o f Mars, expressed by the figure 1/192. The other method is the use o f optical observations. These determine the Leometric shape o f the ?lanet
--
visible to the observor. Once the optical "compression" of Mars was just over twice as great was a mystery.
3s
This difference
this means that the internal structure of the "red" :,laneti s s i g nificantly different from that of the earth. Observations from earth only give a rough estimation o f Mars' compression. Therefore, it is extremely importat to make this more accurate. The Mars-3 is helping to solve this problem.
processed to determine the optical compression. The American astronomer V. Wright noticed that on photographs
of Mars taken by ground telescopes using different light filters,
the visible diameter of the planet in violet and blue rays was significantly greater than in red ones. The theory was put forward
on the anomalous physical and optical formation of the Martian atmosphere, and especially the existence there of a certain violet layer at a 6re;lt altitude. This was not supported by Soviet astronomers V. G. Fesenkov, V . V. Sharonov, N . P. Barabashov and others,
0 1 the basis of their theoretical and laboratory research, the ~
phenomenon noticed by the American astronomer can be explained by purely photographic effects. Praessing of photographs transmitted by Mars-3 confirm that direct measurement, three from the photographic effects, agree well with evaluations made by academician V . G. Fesenkov. Instruments on Mars-3 allowed the planet to be examined, as
it were, from the side.
I t is shaped like a sickle.
The nature
of its tapered ends (or as specialists ssy, "horns") depends on the atmosphere. Spectral zonal photography o f Mars during the sickle phases, which are not observed on earth, allows research to be made into the transfer of light energy in ?he atmosphere, which
w i l l enable its composition and structiire to be determined.
Further processing of information in the photographs, and also information transmitted by other scientific instruments in
tte
Study of the f a c e o f
Mars w i l l a l l o w comparisons t o be made with e a r t h and, by t h e same token, g i v e more knowledge of our own p l a n e t .
V.
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
prospects for the wider use of the achievements of the scientific and technical revolution for developing the national economy of friendly countries and is one of the boundaries of socialist integration. The First Steps
It was wrong to believe that everything started at zero when,
in 1967, experts, representatives of nine socialist countries, gathered in Moscow to prepare the "Interkosmos" program. Coopera-
tion between these countries in the study of space began, in fact, in 1957, when the first artificial earth satellite was launched. At this time, our joiilt efforts were limited mainly to optical observations of artificial earth satellites (visua1,photographic and photometric). These observations, which are still important
today, allow study to be made of the density of the atmosphere at an altitude of the satellite's perigee, the irregularity of the 378
earth's field of gravity, t o set up geodetic links at great distances, carry out ephemeris survey which is required for forecasting the movement of satellites and controlling their scientific equipment. Special stations for photographic observations of satellites were built in cooperating countries at observatories or universities and equipped with Soviet cameras. These stations are success-
fully carrying out their work in eight countries. A laser range finder which will operate at these stations is being developed by specialists of socialist countries to increase the accuracy of satellite observations.
iskusstvenn'kh sputnikov Zemli" [Artificial earth satellite observations] was published which contains scientific articles, accounts or work at stations and a chronicle of scientific deliberations. The "Interkosmos" program opened a new stage in the development of cooperation in space - - a transfer from ground observations to joint development and launching o f satellites and research rockets. The aim of the cooperating countries is not only to study
space, but to put astronaut.ica1 achievements into practical use. Nine socialist countries (Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia) decided to cooperate in four basic areas: communications, meteorology and medicine. Work groups are permanently active in each of these areas. The joint work of each of the countries is coordinated by national bodies set up in all coopeTating countries. In the Soviet Union
379
space phvcics,
/182
these functions are carried out by a council for international cooperation in the field of research and use of outer space attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Financing of the joint work enables successful cooperation to be made: there is no general financial fuud or accounts linked
with this; each country pays for the work which its specialists carry out. In accordance with this principle, the Soviet Union
provides its partners with rocket and space technology serviced by the Soviet Union's command and instrumentation complex. The scien-
tific results are available for all those participating in the experiments
Whereas a few years ago we only spoke of plans of joint experiments in space, now international work has been done which has brought interesting scientific and practical results. International Satellites and Rockets The first joint satellite, the Interkosmos-1, was put into orbit on October 14, 1969. have already been launched. Satellites in the Interkosmos series are designed for studying heliophysical and geophysical processes taking place on the Sun, in the earth's atmosphere and in interplanetary space. The Intcrkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4 contained scientific equipment from the German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia for investigating the Sun's ultraviolet and X-ray radiation and its effect on the earth's atmosphere. This research To date, six international satellites
38 0
could only be done by satellites since this radiation does not penetrate the earth's atmosphere. As a result, scientists obtained new information on the origin and development of solar flares, with which many processes in the earth's atmosphere are linked (breakdown of radio communication, magnetic storms, etc.). Apart from this, it was shown that at an
altitude of approximately 100 km there is less oxygen than was thought previously. In the near future "solar. sa'ellites" will be launched in the
"Interkosmos" program with a wider selection of scientific equipment to use the 11-year cycle o f solar activity for greater study
carried out by the Interkosmos-2 gave scientists new information on the temperature distrioution of electrons on a global scale, and detected an equatorial anomaly in the ionosphere at altitudes above
900 km.
381
The Soviet and Czechoslovakian Interkosmos-3 and Interkosmos-5 were designed for studying the radiation situation in near space, the radiation belts of earth and electromagnetic processes in the ionosphere. These satellites carried out simultaneous geophysical /183 The information obtained extended our
knowledge of links between the Sun and earth and laws governing the propagation of low-frequency waves and so-called "whistling atmospherics" in the earth's ionosphere. The Interkosmos-6 launched on April 7, 1972 varies considerably in construction and scientific assignment. This was the first satel-
lite in the "Interkosmos" series which returned to earth. The experiments carried out by the "Interkosmos" satellites are o f a complex nature. with ground observations. Measurement by the satellites is combined Experience in the use of complex research
was acquired in 1968 when the Kosmos-261 was operating. When the Interkosmos-1 and Intei-kosmos-4were launched solar activity was studied simultaneously by instruments in the satellites and in ground observatories. quem Ionospheric research and study of low-fre-
Interkosmos-3 and Interkosmos-5, were also accompanied by measurement done by a vast network of ground ionospheric stations in many countries. Apart from satellite research, the "Interkosmos" program includes experiments using meteorological and geophysical rockets. These experiments provide information on the atmospheric cross section, including at altitudes not reached by satellites. At the 382
end of 1970 the Vertikall-1 geophysical rocket was launched with a lift of approximately 500 km. The scientific equipment for the
rocket was developed and produced by scientists of six socialist countries. The experiment included measurement of a number of structural parameters of the ionosphere, solar radiation and research into the physical and chemical properties of meteor particles. This research was continued by the Vertikall-2 rocket launched in August 1971. Simultaneous mearurement by ionospheric stations
in the German Democratic Republic and the USSR was done where the rockets were launched. Scientists and engineers from socialist countries take an active part in all stages of the work with satellites and rockets
--
tests and equipping the space vehicles. Satellites and geophysical rockets in the "Inte-kosmos" program will be launched in the future. Some of the experiments,
requiring statistical accumulation of material, will be repeated, and others conducted for the first time. The Soviet Union will
equip its partners with improved rocket and space technology. Joint work in space physics is not only limited to direct measurement from satellites and rockets. Above there was mention
in several socialist countries are analyzing samples of lunar soil brought back to earth by Soviet automatic vehicles.
To Serve Mankind
Space science and technology is increasingly used for the prac-/184 tical needs of the national economy. The development of astro-
nautics in socialist countries is closely linked with solving such problems. They occupy the first place in the activity of working
groups in space communication, space meteorology, and space biology and medicine,set up in accordance with the "Interkosmos" program.
in the system will have free use of satellite communication channels provided by the Soviet Union. commercially. In satellite meteorology, cooperating countries are now transferring from joirit development of methods for using information from meteorological satellites to the practical use of this information for weather forecasting.
384
problems, occupying an important place in world meteorologicsl science, require5 the joint effort of many countries. Joint work in rocket sounding of the atmosphere is a l s o devoted to studying processes taking place in the upper layers of the a t m s phere and have a practical meaning or the weather service. Much attention is being paid to developing and improving technical sounding facilities, and developing equipment and instruments. Hence, specialists in the meteorological sei-riceof the German Democratic Republic have produced milar casings and metallized refractors for measuring wind speed at altitudes iess than 90 km, which were successfully tested in November 1971 during the launches of Soviet meteorological rockets. In Volgograd, a group of Soviet
and German sciectists conducted an experiment at the rocket sounding station to measure the concentration of ions and electrons in the upper atmosphere,using Soviet rockets and instruments produced i i r the German Democratic Republic. The joint efforts of specialists of many countries are helping
t o develop a complex
from meteorological satellites during direct transmission; this allows the meteorological services of socialist countries to make better use o f information from satellites for weather forecasts.
An integral part of the "Interkosmos" program is the joint
effort in space biology and medicine, conducted on 21 selected subjects. This work includes problems of space physiology, radiation safety in space flights and pharrnocological and chemical protection from ionizing radiation. Interest in this work on an
38 5
international basis is explained by their value not only for the safety of astronauts, but to develop aviation medicine and normal "terrestrial" biology and medicine. Combining the resoarces of
different scientific establishments, each of which has its own specific character, experience and developed methods of research,
is extremely usefd.
results, scientific articles have been published jointly, and new research equipment has been produced. During the five years which have passed since the "Interkosmos" program was begun, cooperation between socialist countries in the research and use of space has occupied the main place in international programs for space research, and become an important factor in the scientific and technical progress of socialist countries. The Geography of Cooperation Cooperation in space goes beyond the boundaries of countries in the socialist countries. On almost every continent there are stations for carrying out optical observations of artificial earth satellites, equipped with high-precision Soviet cameras. Soviet meteorological rockets are sounding the atmosphere from the international research proving ground in India. Soviet and French high-altitude aerostats have repeatedly taken up scientific equipment for conducting geophysical research into the magnetic and associated points on earth from the Soviet Union and on the island of Kerguelen in the Indian Ocean.
38 6
/185
The launch of the French **SIS*' satellite with a Soviet launch vehicle in April this year was a new step in the successful development of Soviet-French cooperation in space, which already includes a great number of joint experiments conducted, using satellites and rockets. After an agreement was signed between the Academy o f Sciences of the USSR and NASA in the USA in January 1971, there was an increase of activity in space study between Soviet and American scientists. The conquest o f space is becoming truly international. The declaration, made during the 24th congress of our party on the readiness of the Soviet Union to increase the mutually beneficial cooperation with other countries in the research and conquest of space, is indeed being fulfilled.
A TASS Report:
"Pravda", April 8, 1972. The Interkosmos-6 artificial earth satellite was launched in the Soviet Union on April 7, 1972 in accordance with a program of cooperation of socialist countries for the research and use of space for friendly purposes. The satellite was put into orbit with parameters:
--
---
2 0 3 km;
--
256 km;
38 7
-----
--
89 min;
--
5.' 18.
The Interkosmos-6 satellite is designed for studying: primary cosmic radiation particles with an energy of
101*-1013 electron volts; the chemical composition and electrical spectrum of cosmic
--
For conducting research into primary cosmic radiation the satellite is equipped with a photographic emulsion unit and an ionization calorimeter with an overall weight of 1,070 kg, produced in the Soviet Union according to the technical requirements, developed by specialists in Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. Apart from this, the satellite is installei-! with equipment
-i 1186 t
x
for investigating meteoric matter, designed and produced jointly by Hungary, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. According to telemetering information in the satellite, the equipment is working normally.
A New Envoy of Friendship "Moskovskaya pravda", April 8, 1972. The TASS correspondent asked academician S. N. Vernov, the director of the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University,to give a report on the task and features of this new space experiment. 388
"The most important task for the Interkosmos-6 is the complex study of cosmic rays beyond the earth's atmosphere. Cosmic rays
are nuclei of different chemical elements, moving in interstzllar space with velocities close to the speed of light. The majority of them are hydrogen nuclei (protons). The study of cosmic rays is of great interest for two fields
of science
--
Research in this direction has brought about important discoveries: the existence of a positron was detected - - the first antiparticle,
1.1
and
IT
Study of
the interaction of high-energy particles (more than 1,000 billion electron volts) nowadays is only possible in cosmic rays, since
"terrestria1"accelerators of particles of such energies have not
been produced. We know that this involves enormous expenditure of resources and requires much time.
It will not be an exaggeration if we say that hardly any astro-
physical phenomenon could be understood without knowing the nature of cosmic rays and their origin. Side by side with radio- and
gamma radiation there are rays which carry information on processes occurring deep in other galaxies. These are important when investigating the Sun. Physicists hove been using cosmic rays for a long time when studying the interaction of elementary particles with high and superhigh energies. type on earth. However, the atmosphere prevents experiments of this High-energy particle fluxts even in mountainous
regions (3-4 km above sea level) are extremely small. Apart from
389
this, "newcomers" from space, normally, move deep inside the atmosphere and are accompanied by secondary particles created when they interact with nuclei of the earth's gaseous envelope.
It is
extremely difficult to isolate cosmic (primary) particles from their "fellow-travelers". This can be overcome if equipment is sent beyond the atmosphere. The Soviet Uniop has produced powerful rockets arid launched scientific space stations in the Proton series, designed for recording cosmic particles with an energy from tens of billions to millions o f billions electron volts, and also for studying their energy spectrum and nuclear composition. In assignment, the new experiment is a logical development of research begun by the Proton stations. The Intezkcsmos-6 uqes improved equipment and a new method for recording particles. This
/I87
broadens the research and obtains more detailed characteristics of the interaction with proton matter of great energy.
A
countries took part in preparing this experiment: Hunzary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. The large number of countries participating in the experiment carried out by the Interkosmos-6 space scientific station shows that the problems o f t h e physics o f high-energy cosmic rays, examined beyond the earth's atmosghere,are attracting a wider circle of scientists, We hope that this cooperation will develop successfully in the future".
390
The Interkosmos-6 in Flight "Pravda", April 11, 1972. The Flight Control Center, 10.
(TASS).
The Interkosmos-6
satellite, launched in accordance with a cooperation program between socialist countries into space research, has been in orbit for four
days.
It completed 46 revolutions around the earth on April 10. The scientific equipment, developed by specialists from Hungary, Mongolia, Rumania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, designed for investigating primary cosmic radiation, is working normally. Several
communication sessions have already been held with the satellite. The information obtained shows that the pressure, temperature and energy consumption in the satellite corresponds to estimations. Work is being done to carry out the experiment's scientific program.
It began immediately after the Interkosmos-6 kas separated
from the final stage cf the launch vehicle and power was supplied
to its scientific equipment.
recorders registering the results of the interaction of primary cosmic particles with atomic nuciei, were switched on from earth. During the satellite's first revolution, orientatiJn was done so that the input "window" of the instrument was permanently directed towards the particle fluxes.
A check of the instrument's serviceability and correction to
equipment sensitivity to telemetering information caning from the satellite was done during the first days of the flight. Specialists
391
I
the satellite as a whole by the information arriving from it on its equipment and systems. The incoming information is being operationally processed.
According to the tfInterkosmosft Program "Pravda", April 21, 1972. The Interkosmos-6 satellite, launched on April 7, has returned to earth. The experimental material obtained has been sent to The
3
Q:
/188
designed for investigating the chemical composition and the energy spectrum of cosmic rays, and also the interaction of high-energy particles of primary cosmic radiation on atomic nuclei. Similar
research was conducted earlier by Soviet scientists using heavy artificial Proton satellites. However, this experiment by the Interkosmos-6 is being done by a new method, which will return the scientific equipment back to earth, including a nuclear Thotbgraphic emulsion unit. This contains a picture of the nuclear interaction
392
I
understanding the acceleration of elementary particles with high energies, and explaining the nature of cosmic rays.
the equipment in space any longer,since this can cause the photographic emulsion to darken and, consequently, mean a partial loss
of scientific information.
The orbital parameters and the flight features of the Inter-
Q:
to carry out this experiment several years ago when they met in
Moscow - - Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the
USSR and
Czechoslovakia. Later, the technical design of the scientific equipment was prepared and approved.
It was decided to produce
The electronic
1
I
'-'
part of the equipment and its tldjustncnt was done by workers at the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University. The experiment program was also the result of They
1
1
{
the collective work of scientists of six socialist countries. are now helping to process the material obtained. The emulsion unit is being taken to the Joint Institute of
Nuclear Research at Dubna, where initial processing of the nuclear photographic emulsion will be carried out by physicists from socialist countries. They will use material and equipment developed Later, it will be sent
.,i
1.
to all countries taking part in the experiment for further research by two methods, developed by Polish and Soviet scientists. This will allow the material obtained to be analyzed by many specialists, using the technical resources of various scientific laboratories. We believe that this cooperation will provide the best research results in the shortest time.
As a whole, experiments by the
J
Interkosmos-6 have allowed another important part of the international cooperation program between socialist countries into space research to be carried o u t .
Q:
tI
program?
A:
/189i
394
this program, over the past years the S w i e t Unior? has launched
countries are also conducting a wide program of coordinated ground observations. These experiments have provided several interesting scientific results in the study of ultraviolet and X-ray solar radiation, the properties of the ionosphere and magnetosphere, the earth's radiation belts and cosmic rays. On November 15, 1971, representatives from nine socialist countries signed an agreement in Moscowfor setting up an organization and a space communication system
--
"Intersputnik".
This joint research also includes the use of meteorological information obtained by Meteor satellites. The cooperation between socialist countries is also being successfully developed in space biology and medicine. Many large scientific establishments and manufacturers from socialist countries are taking part in joint space research. Their
workers have developed and produced complex instruments which have worked well in space. tributing much
to
of scientists from socialist countries for the friendly conquest of space will make it possible to use the combined resources of our countries for scientific and technical progress. Until now, we
395
"Interkoslrtos" program.
scientists from other countries. We are cooperating successfully with the French National Space Research Center. As is known, several joint experiments have already
been conducted. The Mars-3 automatic station was equipped with the French "Stereo" for investigating solar radio-frequency radiation in the meter wave band. produced in France. The laser reflector in the Lunokhod-1 was
"Arkad" project was carried out in studying the physical phenomena in the earth's upper atmosphere and investigating the nature of polar auroras. A number of joint experiments were made in Soviet and French meteorological rockets. On April 4, the Soviet launch
vehicle, which sent the Molniya-1 communication satellite into orbit, simultaneously launched the French small independent "SIS" satellite,
bean
set up in i 5 collaborating
countries, including several in Asia and Africa, for carrying out optical observations o f artificial earth satellites. In January
Recommendations,
developed in accordance with this agreement, envisaged the i q l e mentation of a series of coordinated investigations into near space, the moon and planets, the study of the natural medium surrotnding us from space, space meteorology, and also space biology and medicine.
396
Specialists from both countries are examining the technical resources for developing joint facilities for the approach and docking of Soviet and American spacecraft and stations. The Soviet Union is also cooperating with several other countries.
/190
The Interkosmos-6: The Flight Is Over, the ExDeriment Continues (TASS) "Sovetskaya Rossiya", April 21, 1972. The Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University has begun to process material brought back to earth by the Interkosmos-6 satellite, launched on April 7. The satellite was designed for studying primary cosmic rays with an energy of thousands of billions of electron volts, their energy spectrum and clielilical eompcsition, and also meteor particles in near space. The Interkosmos-6 scientific program was developed by a
team of scientists from six socialist countries: Hungary, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. At the request of the TASS correspondent, one of the directors, Professor N. 1.. Grigorov, of the Moscow University, reported on the unique experiment
--
"One can study the nature o f a cosmic ray particle and the result
0 :
there were accurate photorecorders of the coordinates of particle trajectories. Photographit material brought back to earth will help
to interpret the trajectory of each particle an3 explain its fate. This method combined the two most effective means of recording energy particles: electronic dcvices. Using an emulsion as a basic cosmic ray particle recorder also determined the features of the experiment in the Interkosmos-6, its orbit and flight duration. Calculations showed that the fourby their traces on thick photo emulsion and by
day stay of the emulsion unit in orbit was sufficient to obtain the necessary information.
to remain longer in space, since traces from particles of different energy begin to "superimpose" each other and can cause the photographic emulsion to darken. This would mean a loss of information.
Little time was required for preparing the equipment for the Interkosmos-6 flight. participated Specialists from all six countries actively
effective types of instruments. The research program was discussed, the t e c h n i c a l d c s i g n was examined and approved, and requirements were formulated for the scientific equipment.
It was produced by
the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Scientific Research Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Moscow State University, and a number of collectives.
A important stage of this experiment is the research into the n
photographic emulsion on earth after the Interkosmos-6 returns. The material obtained must be developed: there are traces o f the 399
interaction of high-energy particles with matter deep in the sensitive layer in cryptic form. The emulsion was developed in the high
energy laboratory at the Joint Institute of Nuclear Research in Dubna. The emulsion leaves will be glued to special slides, which
The slides with the emulsion glued on them are cut into very
thin scction:; !jy a special machine, produced by Polish specialists. Then, h d :.
Institute, :.here Polish scientists will investigate the traces of the interaction of heavy nuclei of cosmic rays on the photographic emulsion.
SDme of the material will be sent to Bucharest; here,
specislists from Hungary, Rumania, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Cilion will combine efforts and use a method suggested by Polish scientists.
After completing this part of the pogram, the emulsion
/192
materizl is divided among research teams of all the participating cocntries. During the following stage of the experiment a method will be used which was developed by the Soviet Union. The cooperation of scientists from socialist countries has made it possible to study this important scientific problem, effectively use various technical facilities, and carry out a rational "division of labor".
400
A TASS Report:
Interkosmos-7
"Pravda", July 1, 1972. On June 3 0 , 1972 the Soviet Union launched the artificial earth satellite Interkosmos-7 in accordance with the cooperation program between socialist countries in the research and use of outer space. The Interkosmos-7 is designed for continuing joint research, begun by the Interkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4,into solar ultraviolet and X-ray radiations and their effect on the earth's upper atmosphere. The Satellite contains scientific equipment developed and
produced by specialists in ^he German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia. The Interkosmos-7 satellite went into orbit with the following parameters:
- - 568 km;
- - initial orbital period - - 92.6 min;
--
orbital inclination
--
4.' 84.
Specialists from the German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia took part in the assembly and scientific equipment testing in the satellite when it was prepared for the launch. The satellite's flight was ccntrolled by an operational group, consis'i;ng of specialists from the c;:rman Czechoslovakia. 401 Democratic Republic, the USSR and
The satellite's scientific equipment is working normally. Ground stations in the instrumentation complex are receiving scientific information from the satellite. Simultaneously with measurement carried out by the Interkosmos-7, observatories in socialist countries are conducting radio astronomica1,ionospheric and optical observations according to a coordinated program.
"Sovetskaya Rossiya", July 1, 1972. On June 30 the Interkosmos-7 satellite began observations outside of the earth's atmosphere, using scientific instruments produced by scientists in the German Democratic Republic, the USSR and Czechoslovakia.
It is successfully continuing solar research
begun by the Interkosmos-1 and Interkosmos-4 automatic vehicles, according to an international space program for socialist countries. The aim of this work is to investigate the "pulse" of the Sun and study its effect on geophysical processes.
A TASS observer,
/193
402
in aim of the
The Interkosmos
t e r e s t t o researchers
c e , since they are a b
-?
33
Apart from this, scientists receive a double benefit, as it were, by installing such instruments into satellites. When an automatic vehicle is in the earth's shadow, it is possible to record the amount of molecular oxygen in the atmosphere by the intensity with which they are absorbed by solar rays. This work was begun by the Interkosmos-1. It was found that upper layers of the atmosphere contain half as many oxygen molecules as was assumed earlier. Subsequent experiments, in particular by the Interkosmos-4, showed that the amount of oxygen at altitudes of approximately 100 km changes, and depends on the time of day, the state of the atmosphere and many other factors. Naturally, this information must be repeatedly confirmed. The Interkosmos-7 will shed new light on this. All this is due mainly to development work carried out by scientists in the German Democratic Republic. In Cztchoslovakia specialists have produced original and highly sensitive instruments for a number of Interkosmos satellites, /194 which record hard X-ray solar radiation. This equipment car, detect rays which form when powerful solar flares occur.
It was interesting
to compare a picture of these natural phenomena with obse,.dtions from earth and froin space. X-rays do not reach the earth
--
the
atmosphere absorbs them. Therefore, ground observatories detect solar flares in rays of the optical band. Apparently, "X-ray flaxes"
on the Sun occur more often than normal ones observed from earth. Instruments in the Interkosmos-4 detected more than 100 such phenomena, some of w h x h were not seen oy astronomers.
404
to continue observations of its radiation in hard, ultrashort, X-rays. Judging by forecasts froa the solar survey, only individual Obtaining a detailed pic-
ture of the development of each of these, in order to understand the nature of the phenomena, is a tempting prospect for researchers.
An important contribution to international space experiments
is that of Soviet scientists producing a series of unique instruments for the "solar watch" in the Ixiterkosmos program.
All three
specialized satellites, the first, fourth and seventh, were equipped with Soviet X-ray polarimeters and spectrometers. They helped to determine that "X-ray flares" on the Sun occur as the rc-ilt oE the interaction of ions, drifting in the Sun's farthest layers, with powerful electron flows, rapidly "falling" from the external to the deeper layers of the Sun's atmosphere. Scientists
hope that this experiment by the Interkosmos-7 will obtain new information substantiating prewious deductions. Study of the spectrum of X-ray flares on the Sun, obtained
by equipment in the Interkosms satellite, gave interesting
results. flares.
ions of atoms of iron which, when affected by high temperatures, only retained one or two electrons. Matter can only exist in this state at a temperature o f approximately 20-30 million degrees. Many such examples could be given. Each new experiment in
405
the Sun, and of the close link of its activity with processes on earth. Observatories in Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia will conduct complex observations according to a special program while the Interkosmos-7 is in orbit".
The Scientific Watch of the Satellite of Friendship (TASS) "Pravda" , January 2 3 , 1972.
A meeting was held on January 21 in the presidium of the
Academy of Sciences of the USSR by the operational and technical group from the USSR and Czechoslovakia who controlled the InterI
kosmos-5 satellite, launched on December 2 , 1971. The scientific equipment and on-board systems in the satellite are working normally. By January 21, 1972 the Interkosmos-5 had Instruments in the
Interkosmos-5 recorded a number of interesting phenomena when studying charged particle fluxes in the lower boundary of radiation belts, and when observing low-frequency electromagnetic fluctuations in the ionosphere. Geophysical stations and observatories in the USSR, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic, France and New Zealand are taking part in ground observations, which are being conducted simultaneously with measurement in the Interkosmos-5. /195 -
406
The Interkosmos-8 Investigates the Ionos?here (TASS) "Pravda", December 2, 1972. The Interkosmos-8 artificial earth satellite was launched in the Soviet Union on Dec&mber 1, 1972 in accordance with a cooperation program between socialist countries in the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes. The satellite is designed for continuing research into the earth's ionosphere: the concentration of electrons and positively charged ions near the satellite, and the temperature of electrons and their integral concentration between the satellite and the earth's surface. Apart from this, electron flows with an energy greater than 40 kiloelectron volts,and protons with an energy of greater than 1 megaelectron volt will be recorded. The Interkosmos-8 was sent into orbit with the following parameters :
---
214 km;
----
-7' 1.
93.2 min;
--
407
!
/-
---
Langmuir probe,
developed and produced by specialists in Bulgaria; a Mayak radio transmitter and a signal conditioning unit
for recording readings from the Langmuir probe onto the satellite's memory, developed and produced in the German Democratic Republic;
--
--
radio transmitter
Research in the "Interkosmos**Program "Pravda*', December 2 , 1972. In connection with the launch of the Interkosmos-8, the "Pravda" correspondent asked Academician B. N. Petrov, the chairman of the committee for international cooperation in the research and the use of outer space, Interkosmos, to answer a series of questions. Q: program?
A:
/196
particle and micrometeorites are constantly penetrating the earth's atmosphere. These phenomena affect the weather and climate, radio communication, many biological processes, and through them
--
manrs
practical activity. Therefore, there is a need for comprehensive research into complex processes occurring in space, and their uniformities must be explained. biowever, individual space experiments cannot give sufficient information on these processes. a long-term systematic program. They must be studied according to Scientists from socialist countries
space physics.
active regions on the Sun, and sources of shor-;-waveultraviolet and X-ray radiations have been made by Interkosmos-1, - 4 and -7 satellites. The Interkosmos-3 and Interkosmos-5 investigated
409
low-energy cosmic rays in the earth's radiation belts and lowfrequency radiation. Ionospheric and magnetospheric processes were
studied by the Interkosrtos-2 and the Vertika1'-1 and Vertikal'-Z geophysical rockets. Scientific equipment is being improved with each experiment, experience in cooperation between scientists of socialist countries is being developed, and our concepts of space and processes taking place there are being broadened.
Q:
ducted?
A:
begun by the Interkosmos-2 and geophysical rockets. The main feature of the Interkosmos-8 is that its orbit is more inclined towards the equator than previous satellites. Therefore, it will pass through regions of the ionosphere in high latitudes, and intersect polar aurora zones in the earth's geomagnetic poles. In these regions, the planet's magnetic field affords greater penetration to solar radiation particles. Therefore, the link between geophysical and geomagnetic processes can be traced here more accurately. Furthermore, the study o f polar auroras, geomag-
netic storms and other phenomena can be a more direct method for understanding the links between the Sun and earth.
The Interkosmos-8 has more scientific equipment than the Interkosmos-2,and it was produced by specialists from a number of socialist countries. Bulgaria produced an electronic part for an instrument for measuring the concentration of positive ions in the
410
upper atmosphere.
tronic unit in the equipment for measuring electron temperature. Sensor e1em:nts Union. for these experiments were produced in the Soviet
in the German Democratic Republic. This accelerates the recording process o f information on electron concentration and temperature in the ionosphere, and gives a more detailed picture of the process studied. The German Democratic Republic also produce a twofrequency Mayak radio transmitter, which can sound the ionosphere between the satellite and gromd receiving stations.
-
/I97
i
will continue scientific experiments from Satellites and geophysical rockets. At the moment, specialists from Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia are working to produce a unified telemetry system for receiving scientific information from satellites, launched in the Interkosmos program. The fact is, that at the mo,nent, information is received
m a i r l i y , ii t k s 5 : ~ i z : i
and recorded,
Union.
this can be done by all socialist countries. They will also take a greater part in the operational control of experiments, which is extremely important when investigating high-speed processes, for example, solar flares. A number of events will take place in 1973 to commemorate the 500th anniversary of the birth of Nicholas Copernicus. Scientists
from the German Democratic Republic, the Soviet Union and 411
Czechoslovakia are preparing another experiment to investigate the electromagnetic links between the magnetosphere and the ionosphere.
An Envoy of Friendshie
L. Vedeshin, a worker at the Interkosmos Council attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR
"Vechernaya Moskva", December 2 , 1972. The new Interkosmos-8 artificial earth satellite, launched on December 1, is continuing ionospheric research, begun by the Interkosmos-2 and the Vertikall-1 and -2 geophysical rockets. Scientists throughout the world are interested in experiments to study the processes taking place in the earth's ionosphere, since they occupy an important place among other research into the physical properties of outer space, conducted according to the Interkosmos program. The earth's conducting envelope, the ionosphere, consists of charged particles. It affects the propagation cf radio waves, i Short-wave
in altitude and in geographical position (latitude and longitude). Scientists have proved that its condition changes depending on solar activity, the time of the clay and time of year.
412
Calculation of radio wave propagation, and the theory of producing various ion sensors and micromotors, required for the orientation of spacecraft, requires detailed knowledge of the physical mechanism of processes taking place in the ionosphere. Here, scientists put great faith in space vehicles. Satellites can measure
the parameters of the ionosphere along their orbit. Experiments with rockets give a "vertical section" of the upper atmosphere, a distribution of its parameters according to altitude. The scientific program for the Interkosmos-8 is of a complex nature.
It includes on-board probe measurement of different param-
eters of ionospheric plasma, and ground observations of the propagation of radio signals from the Mayak transmitter in the satellite. Scientific instruments for the experiment were developed and produced in Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. Bulgarian and Czechoslovakian scientists produced electronic units, which control the Soviet instruments, measuring the concentration and temperati -e of charged particles. Specialists from the German Democratic Republic produced an intermediate memory for the Bulgarian instrument. This can obtain a more detailed picture of the distribution of concentration and temperature of electrons along the flight path. Apart from this, scientists from the German Democratic Republic produced the Mayak radio transmitter for probing the atmosphere between the satellite and numerous ground receiving stations. These stations, receiving signals from the transmitter zre in Bulgaria, /198 -
413
Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia. They are equipped with standard receivers. Scientis-cs are also interested since, for the first time in the Interkosmcs program, the experimest is conducted from near-polar orbit near the geomagnetic poles. In this o?%it, the earth's field
offers less resistance to solar p1.asma in the atmosphere, and the link betweeri geophysical a d heliophysical processes here is more clearly expressed. Study of such phenomena as polar auroras, and the earth's current system can be a more direct method for understanding links between the Sun and earth. Joint space experiments will bring about the progress of science in all countries taking part in them.
S. Petrunin, a worker at the Interkosmos Council attached to the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (TASS)
"Moskovskaya pravda", April
6,
1972.
The launch in the Soviet Union of a launch vehicle for the Molniya-1 communication satellite and the French SIS (small independent satellite)
is prcof of the increasing cooperation between
the Soviet Union and France in space research. Joint experiments by scientists of both countries include problems of space physics, satellite meteorology, rocket probing of the atmosphere, space communication, medicine and biology. 1 A TASS report on the SIS launch can be seen in section 2 (author's note).
414
1'
and engineering problems linked with the further improvement of scientific stations and observatories, operating in space. The French independent satellite is designed for studying the effect of space conditions on solar batteries: radiation and sharp changes of temperature. Of course, photoelectric cells can be protected from direct radiation, but this increases the satellite's weight. It is better
1199
i
to develop semi-conductor materials which hardly react to the radiation background of space. Sharp temperature gradients also affect photoelectric cells. When in orbit, the satellite is heated by solar rays, then cools when it enters the earth's shadow. The temperature of solar batteries varies, and for this reason they quickly become unserviceable. The SIS is testing the elements of solar batteries
developed by French scientists. The satellite has thin cadmium-sulfide and cadmium-telluride batteries. There are also standard silicon batteries providing Specially-made individual silicon elements ar.!
fitted on the same planes as the exF5rimental batteries. The comparative information obtained will determine the rate of deterioration of different elements and their protective coatings. The two satellites were sent into orbit, using one launch vehicle, in sequence. At first, the Soviet Molniya-1 communication satellite was separated from the rocket and went into independent flight, followed by the French satellite, To remove the second vehicle from the launch vehicle and to prevent the satellites from 416
, .
colliding, the French satellite was given an acceleration of approxi-/200 mately 1 m/sec from a special pyrotechnic system, and went into its
own orbit.
France and in the Soviet Union to solve this extremely technical problem
.
i
At first, the experiments were conducted in France using stationary and mobile equipment. A space vacuum, solar radiation and space temperatures were produced artificially. Complex checks showed that all the systems worked perfectly. Sometime later, a cylindrical container with Russian and French inscriptions arrived from France at the Sheremet'yevo airport: it
.!
c
,i
was sent by the National Space Research Center (NSRC) in France, and was delivered to the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, Inside the container was the French satellite protected by spring shock absorbers. Afterwards, a special commission "examined" the small independent satellite according to the program. This check convinced the specialists
that the vehicle was ready for space flight. Scientific information will soon be received by a network of ground stations in France, and measurement results will be sent
to
the Soviet Union. Now, Soviet and French specialists are discussing the possi-
bility of using small independent satellites for future research. These space experiments can help designers in France and the Soviet Union to solve important technical problems, and increase the fruitful cooperation between scientists of both countries. 417
V o 1ar Morning"
(TASS j
interest since, according to one theory, the formation of theearth's weather begins at great altitudes near the North Pole. One important factor of the experiment was that it was conducted at the transition time between winter and summer and from polar night to polar day. As a result, information was obtained on the temperature of the atmosphere, the speed and direction of the wind, the cloud state, corpuscular radiation and solar activity. New research will enable us to discover the laws which are the basis of these mysterious natural phenomena." 418
(TASS).
/201
Academy of Sciences of the USSR sent to the French National Space Research Center samples of lunar soil brought back to earth by the Soviet Luna-20 automatic station.
t
"These samples," said Jean-Fancois Denise, the president of the National Space Research Center, in a conversation with t k e TASS correspondent, "have been distributed among eight French laboratories, which have already analyzed lunar soil samples brought back by the Luna-16. Work on the new samples is a conBy studying samples, collected
1
by the Luna-16 station, French scientists discovered much about the hisrory of the formation and age of the moon." The president of the National Space Resarch Center said that many contacts had been established between French and Soviet scientists, which will help to coordinate their work and, in this
way, improve the results obtained. There are now good prospects for the furthei cooperation in space research between French and Soviet scientists. This, to a
great extent, is the result of the 7th session of the permanent joint Soviet-French commission on scientific and technical and economic cooperation which took place recently in Paris.
419
Future Cooperation
ists, devoted to the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes, ended on September 27 in Tbilisi. The Soviet delegation
at the conference was headed by Academician B. N. Petrov, the chairman of the committee for international cooperation in the research and the use of outer space (Interkosmos) of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,and the French delegation was headed by Jean-Francois Denisse, the president of the French National Space Research Center. Summing up the joint work for the year since the previous conference, scientists concluded that cooperation was successfully developing in studying outer space, space meteorology, aeronomy, and communication. Research into polar aurora, carried out by the Oreol satellite in the Arkad project, the study of low-energy particles and g a m a rays of solar origin by the Prognoz-2 station !the Kalipso and Sneg experiments), were very fruitful. Launches of meteorlogical satel-
lites from the island of Hayes, giving new information on the xpper layer of the atmosphere in polar latitudes, carried out by specialists of both countries were well-known. The conference, which took place in a business-like and friendly atmosphere, discussed future projects in great detail. In particu-
420
meteorological rockets on the island of Kerguelen in the Indian Ocean. Possibilities were discussed for joint research into space
, December
20, 1975.
the Research and Use of Outer Space for Friendly Purposes "Pravda", May 31, 1972. The Union of Soviet Socialist's Republics and the United States of America,
by taking into account the role played by the USSR and the
USA in the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes, striving for further expansion of cooperation between the USSR and the USA in the conquest of outer space for friendly purposes, observing the positive experience of cooperation in this field acquired by the parties, 421
/203
implementing the appropriate cooperation program. Article 3 . The parties have agreed to work to produce joint facilities for the rendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft and statiuns tu increase the safety of Ran in space and enable further, joint scientific experiments. The first experimental
flight for testing these facilities, envisaging the docking of the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and the American Apollo spacecraft with mutual interchange of astronauts, is to be carried out during 1975. This will be done on the basis of principles and procedures to be developed in accordance with the "Final Document of the meeting between representatives of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the NASA in the USA on the question of producing joint facilities for therendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft" from April 6 , 1972. Article 4 . The parties will contribute by international efforts t o solve international legal problems of research and use of outer space for frieiidly purposes to establish law and order in space and the further development of internztional space law, and will cQoperate in this direction.
423
Article S. The parties may, by mutual consent, determine other areas for cooperation in the research and use of outer space for friendly purposes. Arricle 6 .
Space
--
B. N. Yetrov
Q:
/204
near space, the moon and planets of the solar system, the natural medium, space meteorology, biology and medicine.
It is proposed to
424
produce joint facilities for the rendezvous and docking of Soviet and American manned spacecraft in space. The agreement is
attempting to increase the safety of man in space, and to carry out joint scientific experiments in the future. As a result of talks, previously held by syecialists from the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the NASA, the technical aspects were discussed for producing joint facilities for rendezvous and docking in space. The solution of these problems requires joint efforts,and many technical difficulties must be overcome. It was
for testing these facilities, as was envisaged in the final agreement, should take place in 1975. It is intended to dock a Soviet
Soyuz spacecraft and an American Apollo spacecraft in space, with the mutual interchange of astronauts. Mucn work
must
Le &ne $7
Soviet and American specialists to prepare this unique experiment. Cooperation between Soviet and American scientists into space research has been taking p l a c e for several years. The present
effect understanding between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA on the cooperation into space research for friendly purposes, which was reached in January 1971. In accordance with the final document, accepted as the result of discussing questions of cooperation between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA, some work has already been done 425
into outer space research, and in space meteorology, biology and medicine. For example, there wa5 an exchange of information on the
results of scientific research, obtained during simultaneous experiments using Soviet Mars-2 and Mars-3 interplanetary stations and the American Mariner-9 interplanetary station. There was an exchange
of information of raclar investigation of Venus, carried out by the
USSR, and Mars, carried out by the USA.
of catalogues of lunar maps, photographs of the lunar surface, and lunar soil samples, brought back by the Soviet Luna-16 and Luna-20 automatic stations and by American astronauts in the Apollo spacecraft
research into the natural medium using space facilities. It is intended, in the future, to carry out a coordinated experiment into thermal sounding of the atmosphere using satellites from both
mnntries.
logical research using rockets and satellites. A joint SovietAmerican work is being produced "Fundamentals of space biology and
medicine
.I'
There is no doubt that the agreeincnt signed batween both governments on cooperating in the research and use of space for friendly purposes will bring about the development of joint work
by Soviet and American scientists and specialists in this important
field.
426
Q:
of new possibilities for csrrying out direct space research, the task of conquering outer space, investigating the moon and planets of the Folar system, the link between the Sun and the earth, and the study of the earth's resources from space, are becoming more complex and wide-spread. Scientists from various countries are proposing new ideas fcr organizing space experiments. Many of these ideas are of a global nature. In other words, space is becoming
an arena for wide international cooperation and reqslires the joint efforts of many countries and, of course, countries which have more experience in the research and development of outer space. The Soviet Union has been cooperating with a number of countries for many years. .A joint research program, Interkosmos, is being carried out by scxialist countries.
In accordance with
German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia, cooperation is being developed in space physics, meteorology and aeronomy, space communication, biology and medicine. Six satellites in the Interkosmos series
and two geophysical rockets for vertical sounding of the atmosphere have already been launched, a d wide research is being carried out in space meteorology. Many countries are participating in joint research, linked with the optical observation of artificial earth satellites. Last Novembe-*an agreement was signed
427
to set up sputnik"
an
.
An angle reflector for laser location of the moon was
fitted into the Soviet Lunokhod-1. The Soviet Mars-3 interplanetary station, with French equipment, carried out a joint experiment in the Stereo project (investigating radio-frequency radiation of the Sun in the meter radio wave band).
Oreol satellite was launched with scientific equipment, developed by Soviet and French scientists. The French small independent
satellite and the Molniya-1 communication satellite were put into elliptical orbit simultaneously by a Soviet launch vehicle. Research has been carried out on magnetic and associated points on earth: the Arkhangle'sk region and the island of Kerguelen in the Omega project. Joint meteorological research into the atmos-
phere is being carried out regularly. There is active cooperation in space research between scientists from the Soviet Union and India. Joint work has been carried out for some time in probing o f the atmosphere Lsing Soviet meteorological rockets from the Indian international equatorial proving ground. Recently, an agreement was signed between both countries
for launching an Indian artificial earth satellite using a Soviet launch vehicle. There is an arrangement for the exchange of scientific information between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and the European Space Research Organization (ESRO).
428
USA
for
cooperation in research and the use of outer space for friendly purposes, and is a new important step in developing international cooperation in a sphere so clcsely linked with technical progress.
of the USSR and NASA, where technical and organizational questions on developing joint facilities for the rendevous and docking of the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft and the American Apollo spacecraft, and the flight preparation for them, were comprehensively discussed. During this meeting the basic technical requirements for the rendezvous and docking systems, the principle of building joirlt docking facilities and a project for carrying out the flight were agreed upon. The meeting took place in a business-like atmosphere, and many difficult problems were discussed for carrying out this complex space experiment and solutions acceptable for both parties. Some
429
questions need to be discussed and agreed upon during subsequent meetings of working groups of Soviet and American specialists. However, an understanding has already been reached which will mean the further development of joint facilities for rendezvous and docking, and preparing the joint spacecraft flight. What are the aims and the features of the flight? Equipping manned spacecraft and stations with joint rendezvous and docking facilities will increase the safety of manned flights in space. These facilities will allow any spacecraft or orbital
station, if necessary, to dock with any other spacecraft equipped with such facilities, irrespective of the country to which they belong. The main task of the experimental flight of the Soyuz and Apollo manned spacecrafts is to check the technical. decisions taken and test the joint rendezvous and docking facilities of the spacecraft, and tne systems for transferring astronauts from one spacecraft to another. The production of joint facilities does not envisage developing identical equipment. Each party will design and produce them independently, but they will be based on general principles and requirements agreed upon. Technical difficulties which arise are due to the fact that, until now, each country has developed rendezvous and docking facilities in accordance with its own program, therefore, in the future new design principles must be sought which are suitable for docking any two spacecraft which need to be docked. The joint work of
430
S o v i e t and American s p e c i a l i s t s have a l r e a d y found such p r i n c i p l e s , and ways have been d i s c o v e r e d t o overcome t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s , a l t h o u g h much i s s t i l l t o be done t o b r i n g t h e s e t e c h n i c a l d e c i s i o n s into reality.
A p e r i p h e r a l d e s i g n h a s been developed u s i n g a s o - c a l l e d
"androgynous1* docking d e v i c e .
I t i s c o m p l e t e l y new, h a s r , t been
A s t r o n a u t s p a s s from one
d e v i c e s , an a c t i v e and p a s s i v e , t o c a r r y o u t docking.
The main
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h i s new system i s t h a t , i n s t e a d o f t h e a c t i v e docking d e v i c e having a c e n t r a l s h a f t and t h e p a s s i v e one a docking cone, each of them h a s g u i d e "lobes1' around i t s c i r c u m f e r e n c e , c o u p l i n g d e v i c e s and l o c k s and h a t c h e s i n t h e c e n t r a l s e c t i o n f o r t h e t r a n s -
f e r of astronauts.
Another i n n o v a t i o n i s
d
t h e main s e c t i o n o f t h e Apollo s p a c e c r a f t and on i t s f r e e f a c e has a docking mechanism,compatible w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g mechanism of t h e Soyuz s p a c e c r a f t . T h i s compartment w i l l s e r v e a s an a i r l o c k The
f o r atmospheric a d a p t i o n when a s t r o n a u t s a r e t r a n s f e r r e d .
r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t t h e atmosphere i n t h e Soyuz s p a c e c r a f t i s normal a i r a t a p r e s s u r e o f 760 mm Hg, and t h e Ltmosphere i n t h e Apollo i s p u r e oxygen a t a p r e s s u r e of 260 mm Hg. Probakly, i n t h e
f u t u r e t h e atmosphere of a l l s p a c e c r a f t w i l l be c l o s e t o t h a t of 431
earth, then a special air lock, similar to that being produced for this flight, will not be required. Attention is also being paid to the compatablity of spacecraft docking facilities, and radio equipment for coK:munication between spacecraft and ground control centers, including direct voice transmission systems (radiotelephone from one crew to another during rendezvous and docking.
It was decided that the air crews should
be taught each other's language, to understand voice communications and learn the correct responses. The astronauts will familiarize themselves with the spacecraft of the other country, carry out joint training, and also joint tests of the newly developed rendezvous and docking systems. A sequence for the flight has been agreed upon.
It will take
place in the second half of 1975. The Soyuz spacecraft will be launched first from a Soviet cosmodrome. Approximately 7.5 hours later, the American Apollo will 5e launched. There is a possibility that the Apollo will be launched on the second, and on the third day after the Soyuz launch. The Apollo will carry o u t an inde2en-
dent flight for approximately a day and afterwards the spacecraft will rendezvous and dock. When docked, they will form a manned
space system, which will be controlled and stabilized as a single unit. The orbital flight will last approximately two days. During
this time, it is planned to transfer the astronauts from one craft to another and conduct scientific and technical experiments. Television pictures will be transmitted to earth. Then the astronauts will return to their own spacecraft and undocking will take place.
432
t h e i n t e r e s t s of s c i e n c e , and technology of a l l n a t i o n s .
"Pravda",
The working groups t a k i n g p a r t i n t h i s p r o j e c t i n c l u d e d t h e S o v i e t a s t r o n a u t A. S. Yeliseyev and t h e American a s t r o n a u t Thomas P. S t a f f o r d . S o v i e t s p e c i a l i s t s demonstrated a model of t h c docking d e v i c e , developed i n t h e S o v i e t I'nion i n accordance w i t h t h e c o o r d i n a t e d
433
principles
and
the
general
method o f
craft i n o r b i t .
The c o n f e r e n c e between t h e s e working groups w i l l l a s t t e n days.
SOYUZ - Apollo -
D. Dmitriyev, a TASS o b s e r v e r
"Trud", The J o i n t F l i g h t P r o j e c t I n Moscow a conferer.ce h a s ended between S o v i e t and American s p e c i a l i s t s , who have beer: d i s c u s s i n g t e c h n i c a l problems f o r c a r r y i n g o u t t h e j o i n t f l i g h t o f Sayuz and Apollo manned s p a c e c r a f t .
A t t h e r e q u e s t s o f , o u r n a l i s t s from t h e two c o u r i t r i e s , p a r t i -
October 2 2 , 1972.
c i p a n t s i n t h e conference
m e t w i t h r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e S o v i e t
and American p r e s s , t o l d them o f t h e p r o g r e s s made, and o f t h e j o i n t work e n v i s a g e d by t h e agreement between t h e USSR and t h e USA. The meeting, which took p l a c e i n t h e p r e s i d i u m o f t h e Academy
--
t h e j o i n t s p a c e experiment a r e c o n t i n u i n g s u c c e s s f u l l y .
An agreement has been reached on a number of t e c h n i c a l prob-
lems.
434
the stage when the participation of astronauts, Soviet and American, has become necessary and useful in working conferences. Then, Academician B. N. Petrov introduced members of the Soviet delegation: Professor K. D. Bushuyev, a cGrresponding member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR; A. S. Yeliseyev, and A. G. Nikolayev, space pilots of the USSR. The head of the delega-
tion of American specialists, Dr. Glenn Lanni*, introduced his colleagues to the journalists - - astronaut Thomas P. Stafford, and Ed Anderson, a worker from NASA. The press representatives asked
the astronauts to tell them of problems which were discussed in Moscow and of Thomas Stafford's opinions on "Zvezdnyy gorodok", where he was a guest of his Soviet colleagues. The American astronaut stressed, when answering this question, that the approach to preparation and training programs for the crews in the USSR and in the USA, in essence, are identical.
"In 'Zvesdnyy gorodok'," he said, **I 'piloted' a Russian Soyuz spacecraft using simulators. Practically all operations in con-
trolling this vehicle in space are done as we do them. Of course, the design of some assembly units and components is different, as are the control sticks. However, the methods and technique of 'piloting' and the sequence of many operations are the same." #e discussed with Aleksey Yeliseyev and Andriyan Nikolayev questions for training and selecting the crews, and training features for joint operations in space.
/209
* Translator's Note: Names, unless known, are transliterated directly from the Russian.
435
"During our meeting in MOSCOW, which preceded this one in Moscow, ne decided that the crews would begin joint training approximately two years before the flight. If I am a good mathematician,
this will take place during next sumner. Therefore, the selection
needed to be solved on this stage of preparation was solved." Andriyan Nikolayev, in his answer, dwelt on one important problem, upon which the success of the space operation depends: overcoming the "language barrier" between the Soyuz and Apollo crews. "Of course, scientists and specialists are doing all they can to simplify the astronaut's work in space. It has already been decided to prepare a Mork plan for the crews at all stages of the experiment: during take-off, the joint search and rendezvous of the vehicles in space, during docking, j o i n t flight, undocking and removal from each other. But this does not mean that this can be
done without a thorough knowledge of languages. At present, there are no astronauts among the Soviet or American crews capable o f
436
training of c r e w envisaged in the space experiment program." The heads of the Soviet and American delegations at the conference in Moscow were asked several questions during the meeting between scientists and journalists. Professor K. D. Bushuyev said: "It is impossible to imagine how Soyuz and Apcllo spacecraft could be prepared without difficulty for a flight using docking. These spacecraft were built in different countries and, naturally, are different in design and in on-board equipment. During their
development, specialists in the Soviet and Union and in the United States did not intend these vehicles to be docked in space. Therefore, both vehicles had to be greatly adapted for docking in space.
A
design of which was based on experience accumulated by the Soviet Union and tke United States. Of course, there will be a number of basic differences. The docking device will enable crews to transfer from one spacecraft to the other through an inner tunnel without going out into space.
It was decided to build it so that both the Soyuz
and Apollo could dock, and assume the role of an active or passive partner. In the Apollo, the a r t i f i c i a l atmosphere cozsists ~f pure
oxygen. Therefore, the pressure in the American vehicle is relatively low, in the order of 300 mm Hg. The Soyuz uses a mixture of
437
nitrogen and oxygen, and the baronetric pressure is almost the same
as
the earth's atmosphere at sea level - - 7 5 0 - 8 0 0 mm. This alone complicates the problem of the atmospheric "com/210 -
t i m compartment which would solve a number of important problems, including atmospheric "compatability". Soviet 2nd American specialAt the present time,
we are close to the final solution of this problem. we shall find the best version."
I believe that
Later, K. D. Bushuyev spoke of the changes which must be made to the Soviet spacecraft in order for the docking and joint flight with the Apollo to be made. "The Soyuz must have modifications made to its rendezvous equipment, special orientation signal lights and communication equipment must be installed, and antenna arrangements and on-board systems and instruments must be adapted for docking." Journalists were interested in the question:
astruiiauts be g u e s t s o f each other?"
the mutual transfer program had been previously discussed by specialists, but will be examined and finally confirmed during the
next iiteztifig.
We are attemFting
to
can stay in one vehicle. Dr, Glenn Lanni, the head of the American delegation, elaborated on the Soviet scientist's answer.
438
the changes which must be made to the Soviet and American spacecraft. It remains for me to say that we have arranged in principle
the manner in which the joint work on the Soyuz-Apollo project will be done. Beginning i n t h e middle of next year, and during the next 12 months, we shall carry out preliminary tests and experiments. Later, we shall start producing equipment for the flight. By this
time, the joint flight program will be worked out in detail and, in this way, in 1975 the equipment, crews and ground flight and control services will be ready for work." Press representatives were also interested in the effect the Soyuz-Apollo project would have on the development of manned space flights.
"AS
13.
lar, envisages the production of joint rendezvous and docking facilities for spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union and the
USA.
Producing these facilities and equipping spacecraft with them will be of value to crews who may need them for one reason or another. ?hey will be used by one spacecraft when it is ne2r In this way, this experimental flight is more
another in space.
wide and coiiiplcx than simply docking Soviet and American spacecraft.
As a
439
spacecraft belong.
A Joint Conference
"Pravda", November 25, 1972.
New k'ork, 2 4 . [TASS). A joint technical group confer2nce between American and Soviet experts on preparing the first joint
/211 -
Soviet-American space flight begac at the Manned Space Flight Center in Houston (Texas).
produce joint docking facilities for the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft,
L U U ~
p ? ~ c zi :
'*'
-ccw
--*
there was duscussion and agreement on technical questions, and tests on working scale models of the crafts' docking devices were made. They were the first of preplanned joint tests. Next year meetings between specialists and joint tests will be continued.
440
(TASS)
"Pravda", April 14, 1972. On April 13, representatives from NASA (USA) visited the presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Lunar soil
station, were distributed. At the same time, Soviet scientists were given a lunar soil sample brought back by the American Apollo-15 spacecraft. The exchange was made in accordance with the agreement between the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA, signed in January 1971.
A Search in Space
I . Shklovskiy, a corresponllng member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,
Sciences
Modern science is boldly attacking problems, the solution of which ten years ago would have seemed impossible owing to the great difficulties f o r carrying out large-scale experiments a m research. One way for overcoming these difficulties is the development of international cooperation between scientists, and the joint participation of scientific organizations from different countries in studying nature's mysteries.
An example of this is global research
of the weather and climate of the earth and the study of oceans.
441
Not only the earth, but far space will become the arena for world scientific cooperation. In particular, Soviet and American radio astronomers are conducting joint work in studying recently discovered space objects, many billions of light years from the solar system. The observations, which were conducted in observatories at great distances from each other, have provided new information for world science. This article shows the problems which are being studied by radio astronomers in the USSR and the USA. Among the many wonderful achievements in astronomy recently, possibly, the most important was the discovery of completely new types of space objects: quasi-stars or quasars in star formation
/212
and planetary systems. Analysis of radio astronomical and optical observations of quasars shows that they are at great distances from us,deep in the universe. These distances are
so
great that, on
account of the so-called red displacement, electromagnetic waves radiated by quasars are "lengthened" 2-5 times. This can only
occur if the distance to their source is approximately 10 billion light years. The radiation power of quasars is enormous
--
can be observed from extremely large distances. Moreover, one unexpected fact is that these objects are comparatively small less than one light y2ar.
stellar system, with more than 150 million stars) is a7proximately 100,000 light yehrs, but the radiation power is tens of times smaller than quasars. This means that quasars are very "compact" objects,
44 2
is produced
in a relatively small
Information on the small size of quasars was obtained by analyzing the astonishing fact that their radiation varies with time. Noticeable changes of brightness are observed over a few weeks or even days. However, to understand the nature o f processes
method,and measure their structure in detail and its change over time. No less interesting and mysterious objects were some cebulae in our Galaxy, w l - i - n have been known for Some time but have only recently been isolated. Apparently, they have small, individual regions radiating enormous power in narrow radio wave spectra corresponding to lines of the so-called hydroxyl and water vapor. These bright lines must be linked with very active processes differing from those already known. Radiation of these lines changes This indicates that
the size of the source is less than one astronomical unit and, consequently, smaller than our planetary system. Possibly, we
are observing regions where condensation of interstellar gas, and the formation of stars and planets from it occurs. Academicians N. Basov and A . Prokhorov,and the American scientist C. Towns were awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of a new mechanism for amplifying electromagnetic waves - - the
443
--
that something similar happexs in space. Study of the physical conditions for the formation of stars and planetary systems and processes which accompany them are of fundamental value. Until now, practically nothing is known on In order to do this, one needs
to carry out detailed research into the structure of regions where this star formation process occurs. meet great difficulties here. Radio astronomers expected to
dimensions, one must imagine the angle at hllich we "seettan astronaat on the moon. The accuracy of measurement with extremely good optical telescopes is only approximately 1 sec. This gives the so-called "resolving power" of the instrument small details on the object image.
--
mined by the ratio of the wavelength of the received radiation to the telescope diameter. The resolving power, even for very large radio telescopes, is low owing to the relatively large wavelength of radio-frequency radiation. More than 20 years ago, radio astronomers learned to overcome this difficulty by using an interference method. The
essence of this was that observations were done simultanemsly with two radio telescopes, at a considerable distance from each other,
444
this method of observation, the resolving power was determined not by the antenna diameter, but the distance between the radio telescopes. Since this could be considerable, the rescliing power was significantly increased in cornparsion with normal observations. However, the technical possibility for transmitting radio signals is no more than a few tens of kilometers. In 1963 Soviet scientists suggested a radio interference method to overcome this "barrier" and obtain whatever resolving power was required. Signals, received by radio telescopes, were rc.-ordedon
magnetic tapes which were afterwards taken to a computat. - n center and processed together. In 1969 and 1971 Soviet and American scientists from the Space Research Institute of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, the Physical Institute im, P. N. Lebedev, the California Technological Irstitute, the Cornel1 University, the Massachusetts Technological Institute, the Marine Research Laboratory, the National Radio Astronomical Observatory, the Smithsonian Observatory and the Haystack Observatory used this method for observing compact objects. The most sophisticated radio telescopes in the world were used in this experiment: the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory near Simeiz, the American National Radio Astromonical Observatory, the NASA Long-Range Space Communication Center and the Haystack Observatory. Areas where stars and
445
planetary systems are formec" were studied on a 1.35 cni wave, and quasars and nuclei of galaxies on 6 , 3.55 and 2 . 8 cm waves. The
antennas were at the greatest possible distance from each other which gave the maximum angular resolution, obtainable on earth, of several ten-thousandth fractions of a second. The high angular resolution made it possible to establish that quasars have a complex structure and, as a rule, coasist of several components. In a number of cases, these components had
such small angular dimensions that even the maxiinum resolution was insufficient to investigate them. In cases when the angular measure-
ments could be determined, it was found that their radio-frequency radiation was determined by electrons, moving in magnetic fields at a speed close to that of light. The mysterious regions in gas nebulae are also of a ccmplex structure, but consist of individual, very compact formations moving at different speeds.
It was not possible to measure
the
/214
angular dimensions of individual components, since one needs a higher angular resolution for this. In particular, one of the
components in the "W49" source has angular dimensions less than the doubled diameter of the ear*Lh's orbit, and its temperature was greater than lo1'
(
angular resolution is required for further research. Therefore, Soviet and American scientists are dsveloping an interferometer projecL by taking one of its elements into outer space.
446
Space Cartography "Krasnaya Zvezda", September 20, 1972. New York, SeptevSer 19. (TASS). The cooperation between the
USSR and the USA in the research and use o f outer space for
Specialists from
the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and NASA have exchanged documentation on lunar coordinate systems and mapping of the moon. They have agreed on the joint development of basic principles for making lunar maps, to compile a map of the moon on a scale of 1:5,000,000. They will also develop an overall base system of selenographic coordinates. Specialists of both countries have agreed to a periodic exchacge of information concerning new projects and proposals in this sphere.
An Agreement
Is Signed
(TASSj "Pravda", May 11, 1972. A Soviet-Indian agreement on the further development of cooperation in space research was signed on May 10 in the presidium of the Academy 9f Sciences of the USSR. The agreement was signed by the presi znt of the Academy of Sciences of thc USSR, E. .?demician V. Keldysh and Professor M.
M, G. K . Menon, the chairman o f the Indian Space Research Organization of the Indian government.
447
Krishnarao Shivarao Shelvankar, the Indian ambassador in the Soviet Union, was present at the signing ceremony. During their stay in the Soviet Union, the delegation of Iniian scientists, headed by M. G. K. Menon, had talks with the president of Academy omy of Sciences, M. V. Keldysh and other leading scientists, and questioiis for the further cooperation between scientists
launch its first satellite into near-earth orbit in 1974." said Professor M. G. K. Menon, the president of the Indian Commission for Electronics. Newspapers in Delhi printed this report on their front pages. Indian scientists and engineers have already produced
working drawings of a 250 kg satellite, which will be built completely from components mrde in India.
500
newspaper reports, the first Indian satellite will be launched from a Soviet cosmodrome,in accordance with the Soviet-Indian agreement on the further devclopment of cooperation in space research, signed in May o f this year in Moscow. Later, launches will
take place from the rocket firing station at Tkhumba, in the extreme south o f India,which is already in operation.
44 8
"Pravda", December 13, 1972. On December 12 in Moscow, Academician A. P. Vinogradov, the vice-president of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, handed over lunar soil samples, brought back by the Luna-16 and Luna-20 Soviet automatic stations, to a representative of the Indian Academy of Sciences.
Lunar -
"Krasnaya Zvezda", November 2 4 , 1972. Workers at the Czechoslovakian Academy of Sciences have completed the first stage of research into lunar rock samples, taken from the Mare Fecunditatis by the Soviet Luna-16. Research into the rock, a gift from the Academy of Sciences of the USSR,was conducted by four institutes and research laboratories o f the Higher School of Chemical Engineering in Prague, and also the Mining Institute in Ostrava. The sample of investii
gated rock was divided into 1,300 recorded particles. Various tests, including: so-called neutron aciive analysis methods. provided much interesting information which will be published in scientific journals and collections.
449
A.
P. Vinogradov, the
vice-president of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, handed over to Professor James Lighthill, a representative of the Royal Society (London),lunar soil samples brought back by the Luna-16 and Luna-20.
Laboratories in England will carry out research into the samples. John Killick, the British ambassador in the USSR, was present at the ceremony.
from the USSR and the German Democratic Republic, to examine plans for the furtl;er development of cooperation in the Interkosmos program. During the mceting the guests were given soil samples, brought back by the Soviet Luna-16, for research in laboratories throughout the German Democra?ic Republic,
(TASS)
"Pravda", December 26, 1972. In Moscow on December 2 5 an agreement was signed for scientific cooperation between the USSR and the Iraqi Republic. Academician
450
A n Agreement Is Ratified
t'Izvestija", April 1, 1972. On March 3 1 , D'yula Rapai, the Hungarian ambassador in the USSR, deposited with ihe government o f the Soviet Union credentials
451
(TASS)
"Izvestiya", April 21, 1972. On April 21, Stoyan Gyurov, the Bulgarian ambassador in the
USSR, and Nyamyn Luvsanchultem, the Mongolian ambassador in the
USSR, deposited with the government of the Soviet Union ratifica-
tion credentials of the Bulgarian and Mongolian agreements for setting up Intersputnik, an international system and space communication organization.
(TASS)
* t I ~ ~ e ~ t i y a t t , 21, 1972. October On October 20, Z. Novak, the Polish ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the government of the Soviet Union credentials on the ratification of the Polish agreement for setting up Intersputnik, an international system and space communication organization.
(TASS)
"Izvestiya", Kovember 3 0 , 1972. On November 29, Kaoul Garcia Pelaes, the Cdban ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the government of the Soviet Union credentials on the ratification of Cuban agreement f o r setting ~p
452
At an Intersputnik Session (TASS) "Sovetskaya Rossiya", November 30, 1972. The first session of Intersputnik, an international organization for space communication, finished its work in Moscow. Parti-
cipating members of the organization came from Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Cuba, Mongolia, Poland, Rumania, the USSR, and Czechoslovakia. The organization council examined questions for imp1ementir:g the Intersputnik space communication program, and organizational questions. The first session took place in an atmosphere o f cooperation and mutual understanding.
/217
A Convention Signing (TASS) "Izvestiya", April 1 , 1 9 7 2 . In Moscow on Mzrch 31, Fan'ya la Norind-, the Laotian ambassador in the USSR, signed a convention on behhlf of h i s govern-
objc c t s
.
(TASS) "Izvestiya", June 7 , 1 9 7 2 ,
453
space
ttIzvestiya't, June 23, 1972. In Moscow on June 22, John Killick, the British ambassador in the USSR, signed on behalf of the New Zealand government a convention on international responsibility for damage caused by space objects
.
Credentials Are Deposited
(TASS)
"Izvestiya", October 5, 1972. On October 4 , Salekh Mahdi Amash, the Iraqi ambassador in the
USSR, deposited with the Soviet government an instrument of ratifi-
cation of the convention on international responsibility for damage caused by space objects.
(TASS)
"Izvestiya", October 21, 1972. On October 2 0 , N. Luvsanchultem, the Mongolian ambassador in the USSR, deposited with the Soviet government an instrument of ratification of the convention on international responsibility f o r damage caused by space objects.
454
V. Rozen, a correspondent of "Novoe vremya", met Academician L. I . Sedov and asked for his opinions on the further development
o f research into the universe.
/218
I remembered the study which I had seen when the first Soviet satellite xas launched 15 years ago: the normal workroom of a scientist, piled with books, scientific journals, proofs and manuscripts
...
Its owner, Academician L. I . Sedov, as usual, is full He h3s recently returned from Baku,
455
where he was occupied not only in scientific but organizational work. He is the chairman of the organization committee for the
future 24th Congress o f the International Aeronautical Federation, which will be held in the capital of Azerbaydzhan, Baku, in October 1973.
It was necessary to carry out there preliminary preparations,
...
the most important and promising factor is the development and extension of international cooperation in space.
I have in mind
the desire to work hand in hand and create joint projects. Of course, the "friendly approach" of the Soviet Union has much to do with the present general improvement of international relations.
A
Ancrease in the exchange of ideas, eliminates parallelism, and allows the most important and promising projects to be chosen. has another significant advantage: 456 the further we explore the
It
universe and the more our knowledge increases, the more complex and serious become new scientific problems. needed to solve these problems. Huge resources are
"astronomical" sum of 26 billion dollars on the Apollo Project. Therefore, it is more sensible, and even necessary, to combine the joint sources of two or more countries
...
intend to land on the moon again before the end o f the century. This was a very useful program from the point of view of improving space flight technique, developing spacecraft docking in a vacuum, landing and bringing back a manned module fror a heavenly body, men staying on the moon's surface, and from the point of view of studying the earth's natural satellite. Probably, data obtained by American astronauts will provide valuable information not only on the nature o f the moon's history, but on the age and origin of the earth and other planets. The moon research carried out by Soviet automatic statiom was also extremely fruitful. It showed the usefulness of studying heavenly bodies by automatic means.
It is even more important,
1219
since when investigating distant planets,such as Venus, Mars and Jupiter, the use of automatic vehicles will be the only practical useful research method for the next ten years or so.
4 57
Soviet and American research .:.nto Mars and Venus was also extremely fruitful, especially th:: landing of Soviet automatic stations on these planets. Doubtlessly, these experiments will conI would also like to wish our
American colleagues success in their launch of a space v e h i c l e for research into Jupiter. As for future plans, mainly there is the Soviet-American program, the first stage of which will be the docking of the Soyuz and Apollo spacecraft in near-earth orbit in 1975, and the transfer of crew members from one spacecraft to another. Much has already
been said on this project and I will not dwell on it. There is a great future for producing manned orbital stations, both from the scientific and national economic points o f view. As
a matter of fact, the docking and joint flight of Soviet Soyuz-4 and Soyuz-5 spacecraft in January 1969 with their crews of V. A. Shatalov, B. V. Volynov, A. S. Yeliseyev, and Ye. V. Khrunov, was the first experiment in creating an a i r b o r n e laboratory. An
important contribution to astronautics was the flight in 1971 of the Salyut, first Soviet manned space orbital station. Undoubtedly, in the future the production of artificial earth satellite, airborne laboratories, will be the hasis o f most programs. The USA
has a project for setting up a laboratory in space to be launched into eartn orbit in 1973. Astronautics is concentrating on solving many types of purely "terrestrial" problems, which are of great economical value and promise immense technical progress, The Vienna Astronautics
458
Coryress had as its motto "space for world development", and many applied problems were discussed there. The crew of manned stations will be periodically changed and consist of, apart from astronauts, scientists and specialists from different fields
--
astronomists,
meteorologists, geologists, oceanographers, physicists, chemists, physicians, engineers, agronomists and others. Soviet flights, the crews of which contain t'ground" scientists and the fact that Schmitt, an American geologist, landed on the moon, can be seen as the initial steps along this path. Orbital stations have various uses: tory free of
i n t e r f e r e n c e
phere; an observation point, from which one can see in amazing detail not only how to determine the harvest, but to forecast it for an area of only a few hectares; and to carry out geological and geophysical examination of almost inaccessible areas. Such a
method may sometimes show oil layers or underground lakes, and useful minerals. Americans, for whom this is a painful question, are planning to expose from space enterprises which are discharging harmful waste into risers and lakes,and even determine t h e chemical composition of this discharge. Orbital stations will also be used as laboratories and produc- /220 tion units. Laboratories could carry out various expLriments in weigh2lessness and, if necessary, a vacuum, and workshops could produce in vacuum conditions various new materials, high purity metals, and grow crystals, The first welding in space was done on the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft. Experiments of a productive nature
459
i;i weightlessness
In the
USA
their crews will consist of from 2 - 3 to several tens of pecple, and wherever one looks there will be space settlements forecast by K. E. Tsiolkovskiy. This may seem a dream today, but a great prophet expected peo2le on the mnon in the year 2017, and his pri?hecy came true almost 59 years before this. Therefore, such settlements are not pure fancy.
I f one looks back only 15 years, the progress made by
man in this short space of time seems fantastic. Of course, t h e pro8uetic.k o f manned stations r e q u i r e s more
developmeilt.
loads in both directions. This will be expensive. However, socalled shuttle flights in spacecraft which can be used many times are being suggested, real space aircraft which can land and take off froln less scphisticated cosmodromes than
;I-:
present.
Shuttle
flights will cut the cost of space transport considerably. Low can man live in weightlessness? Recent experience showed this is not an easy problem to solve. Probably, artificial weightlessness must be created - - this is iorrpletely possible technically. Space biology and medicine are studying other ways.
460
a quarter of a century ago, the first comp.iters weighed 30 tons a D d cccupied an area of several tens of square maters: 5,JOO computations ?er minute. they only ma&
Miniaturization of electronic
equipment, nct only for computing, but in radio, television and other spheyes, is taking place at terrific speed. One only needs
to mention t h e distances of hundreds of milliom of kilometers from which autonaiiL stations transmit information from Mars: thc Soviet
Union and the USA hare received messages from even greater distances. Further successes can be expected in this field, and
iI;
the
use o f meteorological, television and other comunicatinn sazellites which have become a part of modern techcolDgy. Scientists
from various countries are investigating the possibility :f using meteorological satellites P.ot only for forecasting westher, but or wher. z ? where precipitation rd controlling it, for example, reg~la?in~ occurs
Development is being nade in space cummunication to organize radio telephone communication and television transmissions nor only /221 through rela, ..+ations earth, but directly from satrllites in cn
sprce
~3
individual receivers.
aims and nature of such space television trarsmissions. Present satellites ao not have sufficient power to do this.
More powerful energy sources are needed in space. A more promising new method envisages the use of a laser beam as a transmission channel. In theory, a laser could broadcast millions of television
transmissions or billions of telephone conversations. With the nodern ground relay system, communication satellites are aore promising, fcr example, in teaching. Tnis is especially important for developing countries, where there is still a
o f textbooks, qualified teachers apd well-equipped schools.
shortage Next
year, Igdia wiil begin to use a satellite, above the equator, for transmitting agricultural and technical information to Inc?ian villages. The programs will be conpiled by an experimental station
in Akhnabsd and gradually, their content will be extended.
In
Brazil they are planning to organize educational television transmissions for 100,000 schools. Holography car. be mcst promising. Imagine how amazing it will
be to see pictures o f planets transmitted from space onto television screens. This story could be continued, since all this is not fantasy but could happen tomorrow or the day after. Much o f what has been
said is possible and was discussed scientifically at the congress in Vienna. The ma'? theme dealt with prolonged flights o f orbital
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stations and ccientific and technical problems linked with producing them, in particular, developing space "shuttles". In bioastronautics there
b.-qs discussion
...
It is believed that the next astronautical congress in Baku will provide much new information for this young but rapidly developing science.
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REFERENCES
1.
2.
"Priroda", No. 4 , 69 ( 1 9 7 2 ) .
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