Wikipedia: Group Two or more persons perceived as related because of their interactions with each other over time,

, membership in the same social category, or common fate. A stereotype is a popular belief about specific social groups or types of individuals. The concepts of "stereotype" and "prejudice" are often confused with many other different meanings. Stereotypes are standardized and simplified conceptions of groups based on some prior assumptions. Dynamics In one perspective of the stereotyping process, there are the concepts of ingroups and outgroups. Ingroups are viewed as normal and superior, and are generally the group that one[clarification needed] associates with or aspires to join. An outgroup is simply all the other groups. They are seen as lesser than or inferior to the in-groups. An example of this would be: Asians are smarter than American. In this example Asians are looked at as being smarter because of their education systems are more strict than that of the Americans. A second perspective is that of automatic and explicit or subconscious and conscious. Automatic or subconscious stereotyping is that which everyone does without noticing. Automatic stereotyping is quickly preceded by an explicit or conscious check which permits time for any needed corrections. Automatic stereotyping is affected by explicit stereotyping because frequent conscious thoughts will quickly develop into subconscious stereotypes. A third method to categorizing stereotypes is general types and sub-types. Stereotypes consist of hierarchical systems consisting of broad and specific groups being the general types and sub-types respectively. A general type could be defined as a broad stereotype typically known among many people and usually widely accepted, whereas the sub-group would be one of the several groups making up the general group. These would be more specific, and opinions of these groups would vary according to differing perspectives. Certain circumstances can affect the way an individual stereotypes. Some theorists argue in favor of the conceptual connection and that one's own subjective thought about someone is sufficient information to make assumptions about that individual. Other theorists argue that at minimum there must be a casual connection between mental states and behavior to make assumptions or stereotypes. Thus results and opinions may vary according to circumstance and theory. An example of a common, incorrect assumption is that of assuming certain internal characteristics based on external appearance. The explanation for one's actions is his or her internal state (goals, feeling, personality, traits, motives, values, and impulses), not his or her appearance. Sociologist Charles E. Hurst, "One reason for stereotypes is the lack of personal, concrete familiarity that individuals have with persons in other racial or ethnic groups. Lack of familiarity encourages the lumping together of unknown individuals."[6] Stereotypes focus upon and thereby exaggerate differences between groups. Competition between groups minimizes similarities and magnifies differences.[7] This makes it seem as if groups are very different when in fact they may be more alike than different. For example, among African Americans,

identity as an American citizen is more salient than racial background; that is, African Americans are more American than African. Stereotypes - a belief that associates a group of people with certain traits. Stereotypes: How stereotypes form: Two processes: 1) categorization; we sort people into groups. 2) we perceive groups in which we belong ( ingroups ) as being different from groups in which we do not belong ( outgroups ). Processes are influenced by sociocultural and motivational factors, as well as by differences in individuals theories about groups. Social Categorization: ~ the classification of persons into groups on the basis of common attributes. Ingroups versus Outgroups: Ingroups groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity. Outgroups groups with which an individual does not feel a sense of membership belonging, or identity. Outgroup homogenity effect the tendency to assume that there is a greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups. Two reasons: 1) We often do not notice subtle differences among outgroups because we have little personal contact with them. 2) People often do not encounter a representative sample of outgroup members. Sociocultural and Motivational Factors: Cultures differ in what categorization they emphasize and how they make ingroup-outgroup distinctions. Motivational factors also affect how people categorize others. Implicit Personality Theories About Groups: Entity theorists people who tend to see social groups as relatively fixed, static entities and the

borders between groups as relatively clear and rigid. Incremental theorists people who tend to see social groups as relatively dynamic and changeable, with less consistency within groups and more malleability between groups. Are Stereotypes Ever Accurate?: Page 139 140 How Stereotypes Survive and Self-Perpetuate: They offer us quick and convenient summaries of social groups. They often cause us to overlook the diversity within categories and form mistaken impressions of specific individuals. Illusory Correlations: ~ an overestimate of the association between variables that are only slightly or not at all correlated. Causes are the overestimation from correlations by: distinctive variables - e.g. in a small group is a negative behavior more outstanding and become faster connected to the hole group in contrast to big groups expected variables - e.g. by random word combination lion-tiger word combination are more reported than lion-egg combination although there are not more often Subtyping and Contras Effects: Subtyping - admitting exceptions make it possible to keep prejudgments

o Gordon Allport: There is a common mental device that permits people to hold prejudgments even in the face of much contradictory evidence. Contrast effect - E xception is more extreme perceived than they are (e.g. business woman more ambitious/assertive than comparable man) Is Stereotyping Inevitable? Automatic Versus Intentional Processes: Factors to overcome stereotypes: 1. Amount personal information we have about someone than stereotypes 2. Cognitive ability to focus on an individual of stereotyped group (e.g. a drunken man is more individual information more important

influenced by stereotypes) 3. Motivation to form an accurate impression of someone Stereotypes are beliefs about people based on their membership in a particular group. Stereotypes can be positive, negative, or neutral. Stereotypes based on gender, ethnicity, or occupation are common in many societies. The Stability of Stereotypes Stereotypes are not easily changed, for the following reasons: When people encounter instances that disconfirm their stereotypes of a particular group, they tend to assume that those instances are atypical subtypes of the group. Example: Ben stereotypes gay men as being unathletic. When he meets Al, an athletic gay man, he assumes that Al is not a typical representative of gay people. People s perceptions are influenced by their expectations. Example: Liz has a stereotype of elderly people as mentally unstable. When she sees an elderly woman sitting on a park bench alone, talking out loud, she thinks that the woman is talking to herself because she is unstable. Liz fails to notice that the woman is actually talking on a cell phone. People selectively recall instances that confirm their stereotypes and forget about disconfirming instances. Example: Paul has a stereotype of Latin Americans as academically unmotivated. As evidence for his belief, he cites instances when some of his Latin American classmates failed to read required class material. He fails to recall all the times his Latin American classmates did complete their assignments. Functions Stereotypes have several important functions: They allow people to quickly process new information about an event or person. They organize people s past experiences. They help people to meaningfully assess differences between individuals and groups. They help people to make predictions about other people s behavior. Everyday Use of Stereotypes The word stereotype has developed strong negative connotations for very good reasons. Negative stereotypes of different groups of people can have a terrible influence on those people s lives. However, most people do rely on stereotypes nearly every day to help them function in society. For example, say a woman has to work late and finds herself walking home alone on a dark city street. Walking toward her is a group of five young men talking loudly and roughhousing. The woman crosses the street and enters

a convenience store until the young men pass, then continues on her way. Most people would say she acted prudently, even though she relied on a stereotype to guide her behavior. Dangers Stereotypes can lead to distortions of reality for several reasons: They cause people to exaggerate differences among groups. They lead people to focus selectively on information that agrees with the stereotype and ignore information that disagrees with it. They tend to make people see other groups as overly homogenous, even though people can easily see that the groups they belong to are heterogeneous. Evolutionary Perspectives Evolutionary psychologists have speculated that humans evolved the tendency to stereotype because it gave their ancestors an adaptive advantage. Being able to decide quickly which group a person belonged to may have had survival value, since this enabled people to distinguish between friends and enemies. Xenophobia Some evolutionary psychologists believe that xenophobia, the fear of strangers or people different from oneself, has genetic roots. They argue that humans are to some extent programmed by their genes to respond positively to genetically similar people and negatively to genetically different people. SEXISM Sexism: ~ prejudice and discrimination based on a persons gender. Sexism, also known as gender discrimination or sex discrimination, is the application of the belief or attitude that there are characteristics implicit to one's gender that indirectly affect one's abilities in unrelated areas. It is a form of discrimination or devaluation based on a person's sex, with such attitudes being based on beliefs in traditional stereotypes of gender roles. The term sexism is most often used in relation with discrimination against women,[1][2][3][4][5] within the context of patriarchy. Sexism involves hatred of, or prejudice towards a gender as a whole or the blind application of gender stereotypes. Sexism is often associated with gender-supremacy arguments.[6]a Why Do Gender Stereotypes Endure?: Gender stereotypes often based on a kernel of truth, but they tend to oversimplify and exaggerate that truth. Mechanisms: illusory correlations, biased attributions, confirmation biases, and self-fulfilling prophecies.

Gender stereotypes are distinct from virtually all other stereotypes in that they are predescriptive rather than merely descriptive; that is, they indicate what the majority of people in a given culture believe men and women should be. Stereotypic media images support remaining gender stereotypes. Social Role theory a theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by contrasting social roles occupied by men and women. Page 162 / Figure 5.9 Eaglys Social Role Theory of Gender Stereotypes Sex Discrimination: A Double Standard?: There are some striking sex differences in occupational choices. Men and Women are judged more favorably when they apply for jobs that are consistent with gender stereotypes. Women often face a difficult dilemma: If they behave consistently with gender stereotypes, they may be liked more but respect less. Ambivalent Sexism: ~ a form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs (hostile sexism) and feelings and affectionate, chivalrous, but potentially patronizing beliefs and feelings (benevolent sexism). RACISM ~ prejudice and discrimination based on a persons racial background. Racism exist at several different levels: At the individual level, any of us racist toward anyone else At the institutional and cultural levels, some people are privileged while others are discriminated against. Modern Racism: ~ a form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easy to rationalize. Many people are racially ambivalent.

Individuals differ in the degree to which they exhibit underlying racist tendencies. Implicit Racism: Racism and other forms of prejudice and discrimination can operate unconsciously and unintentionally. Interracial Perceptions and Interactions: White perceivers are more likely to perceive hostility in the facial expressions of a black person

than in a white person. Seeing a member of racial outgroup is associated with increased activation in the amygdala, a brain structure associated with emotion. Interracial interactions can feel threatening, anxiety-provoking, and cognitively draining, particularly among people relatively high in implicit racism. Racism refers to a belief system that humans can be separated into various groups based on physical attributes and that these groupings determine cultural or individual achievement and the value of human beings. This can lead to Racial discrimination against individuals based on a perceived or ascribed "race". This racist outlook in assuming that the human species can be hierarchically divided into races, is often bred of ignorance, fear, and prejudice. Racism often includes the belief that people of different races differ in aptitudes and abilities, such as intelligence, physical prowess, or virtue. Most individuals who use the concept of racial categories believe that different races can be placed on a ranked, hierarchical scale. By definition one who practices racism is known as a racist. A distinction can be made between racialism and racism. W.E.B. DuBois argued that racialism is the philosophical belief that differences between the races exist, be they biological, social, psychological, or in the realm of the soul. He then went on to argue that racism is using this belief to push forward the argument that one's particular race is superior to the others. Racism can more narrowly refer to a system of oppression, such as institutional racism that is based on ideas that one race is superior to other races. Organizations and institutions that practice racism discriminate against and marginalize a class of people who share a common racial designation. The term "racism" is usually applied to the dominant group in a society, because it is that group which has the means to oppress others, but readily applies to any individual or group(s), regardless of social status or dominance. Since the last quarter of the twentieth century, there have been few in developed nations who describe themselves as racist, which has become a pejorative term, so that identification of a group or person as racist is nearly always controversial. Racism is regarded by all but racists as an unacceptable affront to basic human dignity and a violation of human rights. A number of international treaties have sought to end racism. The United Nations uses a definition of racial discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and adopted in 1966:

...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.. The European Union has a wide definition on factors that can but must not be reasons for discrimination: "Article 21 of the charter prohibits discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, ethnic or social origin, genetic features, language, religion or belief, political or any other opinion, membership of a national minority, property, birth, disability, age or sexual orientation and also discrimination on the grounds of nationality." Types of Racism (psych wikia) Types of RacismRacism may be expressed individually and consciously, through explicit thoughts, feelings, or acts, or socially and unconsciously, through institutions that promote inequalities among "races", as in institutional racism. The concept of "Hate speech" has been created in order to prosecute discriminative discourse, which may be penalized in various countries (US, European countries such as France...). Individual racism, structural racism and ideological racismEdit Individual racism, structural racism and ideological racism sectionEdit Racism may be divided in three major subcategories: individual racism, structural racism, and ideological racism. Examples of individual racism include an employer not hiring a person, failing to promote or giving harsher duties or imposing harsher working conditions, or firing, someone, in whole or in part due to his race. Researchers at the University of Chicago (Marianne Bertrand) and Harvard University (Sendhil Mullainathan) found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black." These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. Results were stronger for higher quality rsums. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the country's long history of discrimination. This is an example of structural racism, because it shows a widespread established belief system. Another example is apartheid in South Africa, and the system of Jim Crow laws in the United States of America. Another source is lending inequities of banks, and so-called redlining. "Reverse racism", minority vs. majorityEdit "Reverse racism", minority vs. majority sectionEdit Racism is usually directed against a minority population, but may also be directed against a majority population. Examples include racial apartheid in South Africa, wherein whites (a minority) discriminated against blacks (a majority), in Latin America, where predominantly African-descended peoples are often marginalized; this form of racism also occurred during the former colonial rule of such countries as Vietnam (by France) and India (by the United Kingdom).

"Reverse racism" is a controversial concept. It is a perceived, reactionary, race-based hostility or antipathy of an oppressed and/or relatively powerless minority toward an oppressive and/or powerful majority group. In the United States, it is often used to refer to programs which attempt to correct the effects of previous instances of racism, such as affirmative action, but are perceived to simply be racism of a different form to a different group. The standard example is that if a policy is made to give AfricanAmericans more jobs, based on their racial status, then the policy is effectively discriminating against whites who apply for the same jobs. In Finland, Swedes are getting many privileges like free university studies for almost all even if they actually are the richest and healthiest ethnic group. This is called "positive" discrimination and it is the official policy of Finland. The concept of reverse racism, much less its application in any given situation, is highly contested. Racial discrimination as an official government policyEdit Racial discrimination as an official government policy sectionEdit Racial discrimination is and has been official government policy in many countries. In the 1970s, Uganda expelled tens of thousands of ethnic Indians. Until 2003, Malaysia enforced discriminatory policies limiting access to university education for ethnic Chinese and Indian students who are citizens by birth of Malaysia, and many other policies explicitly favoring bumiputras (Malays) remain in force. In the Russian Empire, official segregation of the Russian Jews in the Pale of Settlement was compounded by oppressive legislature against them. Waves of anti-Semitic pogroms, in many cases state-sponsored, were launched in the 1881-1884, 1902-1906 and 1914-1921. See History of the Jews in Russia and the Soviet Union. During the 1930s and 1940s, Jews fleeing the Holocaust were prevented from immigrating to the Land of Israel, then the British Mandate of Palestine and other locations. Following the creation of Israel, much state land was placed in the hands of the Jewish agency and became unavailable to private purchasers. Most of this land ultimately was used for the development of towns which had a Jewish majority. During this period Jews were expelled or fled Muslim countries. In 2003 the State of Israel passed a law preventing Palestinians married to Israelis from gaining Israeli citizenship [2]. In the summer of 2005 the State of Israel expelled all Jewish residents from Gaza, thus adding Gaza, like Jordan, to the areas of the former Mandate of Palestine that exclude Jews. Plans for further expulsions from areas in the West Bank are in the works. In Sweden, killing a Forest Finn was officially rewarded. Speaking Finnish at school was punished even in 1950s. Aland island (Finland) applies even today policy that officially [in Finnish Television by a top leader of Aland] was characterized as "kind discrimination" [against Finns]. In the United States, racial profiling of minorities by law enforcement officials is a controversial subject. Law enforcement looks for people who "fit the profile" to commit a crime according to experience and statistics. Some people consider this to be a form of racism. Some claim that profiling young Arab male fliers at airports will only lead to increased recruitment of older, non-Arab, and female terrorists, as well as Arab males who might be mistaken for white males. Some also state that this is unnecessary, as it brings the mistrust of many people. Many critics of racial profiling claim that it is an unconstitutional practice because it amounts to questioning individuals on the basis of what crimes they might commit or could possibly commit, instead of what crimes they have actually committed.

(wiki) Racial discrimination refers to the separation of people through a process of social division into categories not necessarily related to races for purposes of differential treatment. Racial segregation policies may officialize it, but it is also often exerted without being legalized. Researchers, including Dean Karlan and Marianne Bertrand, at the MIT and the University of Chicago found in a 2003 study that there was widespread discrimination in the workplace against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black". These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews. In contrast, institutions and courts have upheld discrimination against whites when it is done to promote a diverse work or educational environment, even when it was shown to be to the detriment of qualified applicants.[24][25] The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the United States' long history of discrimination (i.e. Jim Crow laws, etc.) Institutional racism (also known as structural racism, state racism or systemic racism) is racial discrimination by governments, corporations, religions, or educational institutions or other large organizations with the power to influence the lives of many individuals. Stokely Carmichael is credited for coining the phrase institutional racism in the late 1960s. He defined the term as "the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin".[27] Maulana Karenga argued that racism constituted the destruction of culture, language, religion and human possibility, and that the effects of racism were "the morally monstrous destruction of human possibility involved redefining African humanity to the world, poisoning past, present and future relations with others who only know us through this stereotyping and thus damaging the truly human relations among peoples."

Economic Historical economic or social disparity is alleged to be a form of discrimination caused by past racism and historical reasons, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and kinds of preparation in previous generation, and through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. A hypothesis embraced by classical economists is that competition in a capitalist economy decreases the impact of discrimination. The thinking behind the hypothesis is that discrimination imposes a cost on the employer, and thus a profit-driven employer will avoid racist hiring policies. Although a capitalist economy would avoid discrimination in order to avoid extra cost, this can be avoided in other ways. A capitalist company, for example, may use racist hiring policies as it deviates towards the "cultural norm". For example, in a predominantly white society, hiring a person of colour into a position of management may then cause disputes, and damage communications between other employers. Thus, the company would be economically put in a deficit because of the discrimination of other companies, as they invoke discrimination and isolate that company. Although this may be a radical, over exaggerated point of view, it portrays how pervasive racism is and how company[who?] will some

time deviate towards racist hiring policies in order to henceforth be not isolated, thus preventing the company from going into an economic deficit. (Burton 2009:1) For decades, African American farmers said they were unjustly being denied farm loans or subjected to longer waits for loan approval because of racism,[29] and accused the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) of not responding to their complaints.[30] During the Spanish colonial period, Spaniards developed a complex caste system based on race, which was used for social control and which also determined a person's importance in society.[31] While many Latin American countries have long since rendered the system officially illegal through legislation, usually at the time of their independence, prejudice based on degrees of perceived racial distance from European ancestry combined with one's socioeconomic status remain, an echo of the colonial caste system. Almost uniformly, people who are darker-skinned and of indigenous descent make up the peasantry and working classes, while lighter-skinned, Spanish-descent Latin Americans are in the ruling elite. A Threat in the Air: Effects on Stigmatized Targets: stigmatized - individuals who, by virtue of their membership in a particular social group, or by possession of particular characteristics, are devalued in society. Perceiving Discrimination: When members of stigmatized groups perceive others reactions to them as discrimination, they

experience both benefits to their self-esteem and feelings of control. The frequency, and effects, of such perceptions depend in part on how and to what extent the target identifies with his or her stigmatized group. Stereotype Threat and Academic Achievement: Situations that activate stereotype threat cause individuals to worry that others will see them in

negative, stereotypic ways. Stereotype threat can impair the intellectual performance and identity of stereotyped group members. Research has documented a huge and growing list of groups whose members show underperformance and performance-impairing behaviors when a negative stereotype about their abilities is made relevant. Reducing stereotype threat through slight changes in a setting can dramatically improve the performance of stereotyped group members. Reducing Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination:

Intergroup Contact: Contact Hypothesis the theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under certain circumstances. According to the contact hypothesis, four conditions must exist for contact to succed See Page 178 / Table 5.7 The Contact Hypothesis: Critical Conditions. The Jigsaw Classroom: ~ a cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts. In this system, everyone regardless of race, ability, or self-confidence needs everyone if the group as a whole is to succeed. Decategorization and Recategorization: Decategorization leads people not only to pay less attention on categories and intergroup boundaries but also to perceive outgroup members as individuals. Recategorization leads people to change their conception of groups, allowing to develop a more inclusive sense of the diversity characterizing their own ingroup. Changing Cultures and Motivations: Changes in the kind of information perpetuated in one s culture can alter how we perceive social

groups. As the general culture, and local norms, change to promote values consistent with fairness and diversity and inconsistent with prejudice and discrimination, individuals motives can change accordingly.