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Shell Intensive Training Programme If rigs did not require mobility and quick rig-up and tear-down capability, they could be designed to require less power for hoisting, pumping and other jobs. Hydraulic rigs have been built, but they are heavy, slow, and troublesome to operate. The best means of hoisting drill pipe is the block-and-tackle arrangement that is generally employed.
hook load, pipe set in the derrick, and wind loads. The API has developed size classifications for the derrick shown in Fig 7.3. the specifications are summarized in Table - 7.1. In addition, table 7-1 contains data used in determining wind loading.
The derrick and substructure must be able to support the imposed by pipe weight on the block a portion of the drillstring standing in the derrick. Due to the manner in which the hook load is distributed over the derrick, the effective load may exceed the actual. When heavy casing strings are run, it may be necessary to lay down some drillpipe initially so the derrick loading capacity is not exceeded. The derrick load resulting from a hook load can be evaluated with Fig 7-4. The force on the derrick ( FD ) includes the hook load, L; the tension in the fast line, TF; and the tension in the line, TD; FD = L + TF + TD Eq. 2.1
The tension in the fast line in a nonideal friction, is shown below: TF = __L__ NEB where EB = efficiency factor of block system L = hook load, lb N = number of lines strung over the block system TF = fast-line tension, lb Since the dead line does not move, the tension is shown in eq. 2.2 TD = L/N Eq. 2-2can be rewritten as follows; FD = L + _L__ + L NEB N = L(1 + EB + EBN) EB N
Eq. 2. 3
The total force on the derrick (FD) is not evenly distributed over each of the fourlegs (Fig 7-5). the fast-line tension is distributed evenly between legs C & D , since the drawworks is commonly positioned between the legs. The dead-line tension is near a leg. The force on each leg can be summarized as follows: Load Source Total Load A Hook Load fast line Dead Line Total L L__ EB N L N L 4 L 4 Load on Each Derrick Leg
L N L(
___
N+ 4 ) 4N
L/4
The load on leg A is greater than any other leg if EB > 0.5. Therefore, the maximum derrick load can be defined as four times the strength of the weakest leg: FDE
N + 4 = 4L 4N N + 4 = L ; where FDE N
= effective derrick load
The derrick will be exposed to loads created by wind acting horizontally on pipe set back in the derrick. the Wind load (LW) is calculated from : LW = 0.004V2 Where Lw = wind load, lb/ft2 V = wind velocity, mph
The power system on a drilling rig usually consists of a prime mover as the source of raw power and some means to transmit the raw power to the end-use equipment. the prime movers used in the current drilling industry are diesel engines. Steam is no longer a source of rig power, since natural gas (which was used to fire the boilers) has increased dramatically in cost. Internal-combustion engines and electricity now power most drilling rigs. Large rigs and most wheel-mounted assemblies are generally powered by diesel engines. Diesel-electric motors for the different rig machines. Most prime movers are diesel engines, although engines that use natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) in the form of propane or butane drive some rigs. Drilling rig engines range from 250 to 2,000 horsepower (hp) each; total rig power may be 500 to 5,000 hp. In figure 7.6, a conventional arrangement of the engines, compound, and drawworks for a mechanical-drive-drilling rig is shown. In a diesel-electric system for rotary drilling (fig. 7.7), note the relative loads.
On a mechanical-drive rig, a means of transmitting the power from the engines to the drawworks, pumps, and rotary must be provided. This transmission is usually accomplished through an assembly known as the compound, which consists of clutches, couplings, shafts, chains and sprockets. The most widely used system on new rigs or large marine rigs is the AC-SCR system. The mechanical horsepower requirement for the prime movers must be determined from an evaluation of the loads and the overall system efficiency:
mechanical horsepower = ____load____ efficiency where the efficiency is less than 1.0. Although the above eqn is straightforward, it is difficult to implement due to problems in establishing the load and efficiency factor. The efficiency factor (E) describes the power losses from the prime movers to the end9
Shell Intensive Training Programme use equipment. It can be calculated from : E = energy output - energy input energy output
where output is from the prime mover and input is the amount remaining for actual usage after some losses. The system losses result from friction, gears, and belt line losses. The efficiency factors range from 0-1. Some drilling personnel assume that efficiency factors for oil-well drilling machinery are 0.98 per shaft and chains. If more than one engine is used, an average value is calculated. The mechanical horse power requirements must be modified for harsh temperature environments or altitudes. According to API Standard 7B-11c, approximate conversions for altitude temperature of naturally aspirated engines may be made as follows: deduct 3% of the standard brake horsepower for each 1000 ft rise in altitude above sea level. deduct 1% of the standard brake horsepower for each 100 rise in temperature above 850 F or add 1% fall below 850 F The engine manufacturer should be consulted for specific variances.
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API Specification 8A recognizes the maximum load rating in tons (2000 lb units) as follows: 5 10 15 25 40 65 100 150 250 350 500 650 750
The maximum load rating may be based on either the tensile strength or the yield strength of the material at the manufacturer option. s The rig must be evaluated with respect to the block-and-tackle system to ensure that it meets the designed safety requirements.
Specifications for safety factors are as follows: Calculated Load Rating, tons 0-150 151 - 500 501 and over Tensile Strength Design Safety Factor 4.00 4.00 - ( R - 150) Eq. 5.1 350 3.00
where R is the calculated rating in 2000 lb tons for Eq. 5.1. The maximum load rating of the pipe must be calculated before applying the safety factor and evaluating the equipment rating. The travelling block is free to move and has hook, bails, and elevators attached to the bottom for latching to the pipe. Both blocks have 4-12 sheaves. The no. of lines strung vary with load, with fewer on shallow wells and maximum for heavy casing loads. The block system is not a frictionless system, i.e., its efficiency factor is less than 1.0. It is often assumed that the efficiency factor is computed from: EB = (0.98)n where n is the number of sheave pairs. the following table indicated EB for various pulley systems. No. of Lines 6 8 10 12 EB 0.886 0.850 0.817 0.785
Wire Rope. Drilling rigs have many applications for wire ropes. The more common uses for wire ropes are as drilling lines and guideline tensioners. The drilling line connects to the drawworks and the dead-line anchor. It is pulled through the crown and travelling block sheaves so that the travelling block can be raised or lowered as necessary. Wire rope is made from cold drawn carbon steel of various grades, depending on the strength required. The API classifies the various grades as follows:
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Shell Intensive Training Programme extra improved plow steel (EIPS) improved plow steel (IPS) plow steel (PS) mild plow steel (MPS)
Generally, the first two higher-strength grades, EIPS and IPS, are used currently for drilling lines due to the rugged service encountered. The primary element of wire rope is the individual wires. Wires are carefully selected, sized, and layered into strands. After stranding, the strands are layered together around a core to form wire rope. The core may be a fiber rope (either natural grown fibers or man-made fibers), a plastic core, a spring steel core, a multiple-wire strand, or an independent wire rope (IWRC). The independent wire rope is the most widely used because it resists crushing and distortion. The wire rope is usually described by type of core, the number of strands wrapped around the core, and the number of individual wires per strand (Fig 7.10). For example, a 6 x 19 with an independent IWRC is a typical type of rope used as drilling line. It contains one independent wire rope core, six strands, with nineteen separate wires per strand. Wire rope is usually furnished preformed but can be furnished non-preformed upon special request. A preformed rope has the strands shaped to the helical form they assume in the finished rope before the strands have been fabricated in to the rope. The strands of the preformed will not spring from the normal position when the sizing bands are removed. The lay of the rope describes the direction of the strand wrap around the core and the direction of the wire rope around within the strands. (Fig 7.11). The strands may be right or left lay. The individual wires can be regular or Lang lay. The length of the lay is usually 7.25-8 times the nominal diameter.
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The nominal strength of the wire rope depends on the material used in construction, the number of strands and wires, and the size of the rope. The API has published tables for breaking strengths of various wire ropes Fig 7.12. As an example, the nominal strength of 1 3/8, 6 x 37 drawn galvanized IWRC rope is 192,000 lb. The API has established minimum design factors for wire ropes operating under oilfield conditions. These design factors are specified in API Recommended Practice 9B. Type of Service Cable tool line Sand line Hoisting service other than rotary drilling Mast hoisting and lowering Rotary drilling line when setting casing Pulling on stuck pipe and similar infrequent operations Minimum Design Factor 3 3 3 2.5 2 2
When working near the minimum design factor, consideration should be given to the efficiencies of wire rope bent around sheaves, fittings, or drums. The primary function of the wire rope in conjunction with other components of the hoisting system is to provide a mechanical advantage (M) for raising or lowering the drillstring or casing. If the tension line in the fast line attached to the drawworks is defined as TF , then the mechanical advantage is as follows: M= L TF
where L = hook load, lb TF = fast-line tension, lb M = mechanical advantage The fast-line tension can be computed, if an ideal system is considered:
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where N = number of lines strung over the block system. Since block efficiency (EB) must be considered in a non-ideal case, the fast-line tension is as follows: TF = L NEB
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A 1 3/8, 6 x 37 galvanized IWRC rope is to be used when running a 425,000 lb casing string. The company intends to rig-up a 10 line system. Determine if the rope meets the design factor criteria of 2.0. Assume an efficiency of 0.98 per sheave. Use cols. 8 - 10 of Fig 7.12. Solution: 1. The efficiency factor (EB) for a 10 line system is: EB = (0.98)n EB = (0.98)10 EB = 0.817 2. The fast-line tension (TF ) is compute from : TF L NEB = 425, 000 lb (10) (0.817) = 52,019 lb 3. The load factor is: 192,000 lb 52,019 lb = 3.69 =
The horsepower required to lift a load, L, at some velocity is given by: HP = _LV__ 33,000 where V = Velocity, ft/min 33,000 = ft-lb/min/hp This equation is very useful in determining the amount of input horsepower requirements from the prime moves. Block system and draw works efficiency must be considered: HPE = HPB (33,000)(EB)(ED)
Wire rope requires lubrication to extend its useful life. The strands rub against one another as the rope flexes over sheaves in the traveling and crown blocks. Because wire rope eventually becomes too worn for use, it is an expensive, renewable item in the drilling process. A planned program of moving the wire rope allows longer service life. The usual practice is to evaluate the number of ton-miles of work performed by the wire rope. A ton-mile is defined as the amount of work needed to move a 1-ton load over a distance of 1 mile. After a rope has reached a specific ton-mile limit, it is removed from service. the limits vary for different operations and may range from about 500 for 1.0 rope to about 1,800 for 1 3/8 rope. Drilling line is cut ( a portion is retrieved) before any critically strenuous job. The major factors affecting ton-mile wear on the wire rope are round trips, setting casing, and drilling. The following equation computes ton-miles during a round trip: TR = where TR D LS WM M C
D(LS + D)WM D (M + 1 / 2 C ) + 10,560,000 2,640,000
= ton-miles during a trip = hole depth, ft = length of drill pipe stand, ft = effective weight per foot of drill pipe, lb/ft = total weight of travelling block-elevator assembly = effective weight of drill-collar assembly minus the effective weight of the same length of drillpipe, lb/ft
Similar equations are provided in API RP 9B for coring, drilling, and setting casing. M is the weight of the travelling block assembly. It includes the traveling block, hook, links and elevators. if the actual weight of the traveling block assembly is unknown, the following approximate values may be used:
Travelling Block Capacity, tons 100 150 250 350 500 650 750
In addition to fatigue wear from accumulated ton-miles of service, the wire rope will wear more at lap and pickup points. the pickup points are on the top side of the crown block when the weight of the drill string is lifted from the supports in the rotary table during tripping
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operations. the lap points on the draw works drum occur when the line begins to new wrap. Slip and cut programs are designed to avoid excessive wear at the lap and pickup points. Slipping involves loosening the deadline anchor and placing a few more feet of line into service from the storage reel. Cutting requires that the line on the draw works reels be loosened and a section cut and removed. Slipping changes the pickup points, and cutting changes the lap points. A line is usually slipped several times before it is cut.
Shell Intensive Training Programme the drive bushing while the rotary is turning it. (fig. 7.14). The swivel (fig. 7.15) hangs from a hook under the traveling bloc, and serves several vital functions. 1) It supports the weight of the drill stem. 2) It allows rotation of the drill stem. 3) It provides a passageway for drilling fluid to enter the drill stem. The rotary hose is connected to a gooseneck-fitting on the swivel; drilling fluid is pumped into the gooseneck, through the swivel, and down the kelly. This fluid may be under pressure exceeding 3,000 psi.
7.9 Auxiliaries
Electric Generators: Modern rotary rigs provide power for auxiliaries with AC generators that are usually diesel-powered. Most of these generators have capacities of 50 to 100 kilowatts, although larger units are sometimes installed. The generators have enough capacity to carry the main power load of the rig (excluding hoisting, pumping, and rotating functions). A second engine and generator unit are held in ready reserve. AC electricity is used for rig lighting, shale shaker motors, mud pit stirrers, centrifugal pumps, rig instruments, enginecooling fans, air conditioning for bunkhouses and other purposes. Air Compressors A small compressor is usually mounted on the engine compound for supplying air to the pneumatic controls and clutches. The compressor has a volume tank to allow reserve storage of compressed air. Large rigs usually have another electrically powered compressor to furnish high-pressure air for other purposes, such as starting the main engines and operating air-powered hoists, air slips, BOP equipment, water wells and air-operated tools. Water Pumps Water supply is an important item for drilling rig operations. Water is usually obtained from a well, stream, lake, or pipeline from a remote source. A stored supply of several hundred barrels is maintained at the rig. This may be in a pit or tank(s) of sufficient capacity to maintain operations for a short time if the primary supply is interrupted. Low-pressure water pumps are usually provided for washdown and for cooling the brakes of the drawworks. Highcapacity pumps are generally used for mud and cement mixing and mud transfer. Other Equipment Drilling rigs also include such facilities as fuel storage tanks, a house for changing work clothes, a doghouse ( a small structure on the rig floor that serves as an office for the driller), a
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place to store parts for the pumps and other equipment, and other facilities. Most large rigs are provided with an office trailer where the supervisors can maintain communications with the head office.
rig floor. Using rig layouts with alternative designs may reduce substructure height. If the drawworks is on the derrick floor on a mechanical rig, the engines must be close to the same height to avoid long chain drives. Electric-drive rigs cut down on substructure size by eliminating engines on the derrick floor. They can be removed to ground level, since no alignment is necessary between the engines and the rig motors. When the drawworks is mounted at, or near, ground level, the substructure need be no larger than that needed for the derrick floor. Mast erection can also be simplified by hinging it near ground level. A rotary rig with either a derrick or a mast can be assembled with hoist, transmission, and engines on the ground. A cat-works with a drive arrangement for the rotary is placed on the rig floor. The drawworks brake lever is operated from the floor, using an extension linkage. Mechanical rigs that use this design, with a propeller shaft from the ground-mounted transmission to drive the cat-works and rotary, are available. Ground-mounted hoist assemblies not only eliminate unnecessary substructures but also lighten the main substructure and speed up erection and dismantling. Offshore Platforms Since offshore drilling rigs are so expensive to install, they are often designed for the use of multiple-well derricks. A multiplewell derrick consists of a standard derrick that has been widened to provide space to drill two, four, six, or even more than twenty wells without the necessity of moving the derrick. All the holes are drilled from the same platform. Only the crown block, the racking platform, and the rotary table must be moved for the different wells located within the one derrick (fig. 7.16). For drilling in deep water from a floating platform, rigs must be designed to withstand the side-to-side whipping action produced by the roll of the sea. Some method must be provided to prevent the traveling block from striking the side of the derrick during drilling under rough sea conditions. One means is a traveling block guide, which may be either a wire-line strung from the crown to the derrick floor or a rigid track-and-roller arrangement. Offshore derricks are also subject to loosening of bolts from sea action during drilling or trauma while mobile units are moved from place to place. Specially welded derricks have been designed to withstand such problems.
Rig Drive Systems The major power trains in a modern rotary drilling rig are1) drawworks and mechanical transmission from the engines or electric motors; 2) wire rope system, including crown block, travelling block, wire rope for hoisting; 3) mud pump drives; 4) rotary drives; and 5) power transmission devices.
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Today the efficiencies of the first four components are greatly influenced by the type of power transmission devices chosen. Rigs are referred to according to their method of power transmission, as follows:-a) mechanical drilling rig, b)DC/DC drilling rig; or c) SCR electrical drilling rig.
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