1 Prof.

Z Ghassemlooy
Optical Fibre Communication
Systems
Professor Z Ghassemlooy
Electronics & It Division
School of Engineering
Sheffield Hallam University
U.K.
www.shu.ac.uk/ocr
Lecture 2: Nature of Light and Light
Propagation
2 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Contents
Wave Nature of Light
Particle Nature of Light
Electromagnetic Wave
Reflection, Refraction, and Total Internal Reflection
Ray Properties in Fibre
Types of Fibre
Fibre Characteristics
Attenuation
Dispersion
Bandwidth Distance Product
Summary
3 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Wave Nature of Light
Newton believed in the particle theory of light. He explained the
straight-line casting of sharp shadows of objects placed in a light
beam. but he could not explain the textures of shadows
Wave theory: Explains the
interference where the light intensity
can be enhanced in some places and
diminished in other places behind a
screen with a slit or several slits. The
wave theory is also able to account for
the fact that the edges of a shadow are
not quite sharp.
This theory describes: Propagation,
reflection, refraction and attenuation
G Ekspong, Stockholm University,
Sweden, 1999.
4 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Wave Nature of Light - contd.
1864 James Clerk Maxwell
His mathematical theory of electromagnetism led to the view that
light is of electromagnetic nature, propagating as a wave from the
source to the receiver.
1880s Heinrich Hertz
Discovered experimentally the existence of electromagnetic waves at
radio-frequencies.
1900-20 Max Planck, Neils Bohr and Albert Einstein
Invoked the idea of light being emitted in tiny pulses of energy
Wave theory does not describe the absorption of light by a
photosensitive materials
5 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Particle Nature of Light
Light behaviour can be explained in terms of the amount of energy
imparted in an interaction with some other medium. In this case, a
beam of light is composed of a stream of small lumps or QUANTA of
energy, known as PHOTONS. Each photon carries with it a precisely
defined amount of energy defined as:
W
p
= h*f Joules (J)
where; h = Plank's constant = 6.626 x 10
-34
J.s, f = Frequency Hz
The convenient unit of energy is electron volt (eV), which is the kinetic energy
acquired by an electron when accelerated to 1 eV = 1.6 x 10
-19
J.
Even although a photon can be thought of as a particle of energy it still has a
fundamental wavelength, which is equivalent to that of the propagating wave as
described by the wave model.
This model of light is useful when the light source contains only a few photons.
6 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Electromagnetic Spectrum
7 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Electromagnetic Radiation
Carries energy through space (includes visible light, dental x-rays,
radio waves, heat radiation from a fireplace)
The wave is composed of a combination of mutually perpendicular
electric and magnetic fields the direction of propagation of the wave
is at right angles to both field directions, this is known as an
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
EM wave move through a vacuum at 3.0 x 10
8
m/s ("speed of light")
) (
) , (
z t j
e r E E


) (
) , (
z t j
e r H H


Speed of light
in a vacuum
f c
8 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
One Dimensional EM Wave
For most purposes, a travelling light wave can be presented as a
one-dimensional, scalar wave provided it has a direction of
propagation.
Such a wave is usually described in terms of the electric field E.
) sin( ) , ( z t E t z E
o

A plane wave propagating
in the direction of z is:
The propagation constant (or wave number)
Wavelength
E
o
Phase
z
p
v

2
Phase velocity
n c v
p
/
n = Propagation medium refractive index
9 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Group Velocity
A pure single frequency EM wave propagate through a wave guide
at a
Phase velocity n c v
p
/
However, non-monochromatic waves travelling
together will have a velocity known as Group Velocity:
g n c v
g
/

d
dn
n n
g
Where the fibre
group index is:
1.44
1.46
1.49
500 1700
1900
n
n
g
(nm)
R
e
f
.

i
n
d
e
x
10 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Reflection and Refraction of Light

1

1

2
n
1
n
2
n
1
< n
2
Using the Snell's law at the boundary we have:
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2

n
1
sin
1
= n
2
sin
2

or n
1
cos
1
= n
2
cos
2

n
1
cos
1
= n
2
cos
2

Medium 1
Medium 2
Boundary

1
= The angle of incident

1
n
2
n
1
n
1
> n
2

1

1
Reflected
ray
Refracted
ray
Incident
ray

2
11 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Total Internal Reflection
As
1
increases (or
1

decreases) then there is no reflection

c
n
2
n
1
n
1
> n
2

1
The incident angle

1
=
c
= Critical Angle
Beyond the critical angle, light ray
becomes totally internally reflected

1
>
c
n
2
n
1
n
1
> n
2

1
<
c

1
When
1
= 90
o
(or
c
= 0
o
)
n
1
sin
1
= n
2
Thus the critical angle

,
`

.
|


1
2
1
sin
n
n
c
12 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Ray Propagation in Fibre - Bound
Rays
1
2
3
4
5
Cladding n
2
Core n
1
Air (n
o
=1)

c
>
c
, >
max

From Snells Law:
n
0
sin = n
1
sin (90 - )
=
max
when =
c
Thus, n
0
sin
max
= n
1
sin
c
a
13 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Ray Propagation in Fibre - contd.

,
`

.
|


1
2
1
sin
n
n
c
Since
[ ]
5 . 0
2
2
2
1
5 . 0
2
1
2
1 max 0
1 sin n n
n
n
n n
]
]
]
]

,
`

.
|
Then
[ ] ) (
5 . 0
2
2
2
1
NA Aperture Numerical n n
NA determines the light
gathering
capabilities of the fibre
NA determines the light
gathering
capabilities of the fibre
n
0
sin
max
= n
1
(1 - sin
2

c
)
0.5
Or
14 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Ray Propagation in Fibre - contd.
Therefore n
0
sin
max
= NA
Fibre acceptance angle

,
`

.
|


0
1
max
sin
n
NA
Note

n
n n
2 1
Relative refractive index difference
Thus
5 . 0
1
) 2 ( n NA
0.14< NA < 1
15 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Modes in Fibre
iA fiber can support:
many modes (multi-mode fibre).
a single mode (single mode fiber).
iThe number of modes (V) supported in a fiber is
determined by the indices, operating wavelength and the
diameter of the core, given as.
2
cl
2
c
2
n n a V

iV<2.405 corresponds to a single mode fiber.

iBy reducing the radius of the fiber, V goes down, and it becomes
impossible to reach a point when only a single mode can be
supported.
NA
a
V

2
or
16 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Basic Fibre Properties
iCylindrical
iDielectric
iWaveguide
iLow loss
iUsually fused silica
iCore refractive index > cladding refractive index
iOperation is based on total internal reflection
Buffer coating Cladding
Core
17 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Types of Fibre
There are two main fibre types:
(1) Step index:
Multi-mode
Single mode
(2) Graded index multi-mode
Multi-mode SI Multi-mode GI
Total number of guided modes M for multi-mode fibres:
2
5 0 V M .
2
25 0 V M .
18 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Step-index Multi-mode Fibre
Advantages:
Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
Cost effective
Disadvantages:
Suffer from dispersion (i.e. low bandwidth (a few MHz)
High power loss
Output pulse
Input
pulse
n
2
= 1.46
50-200 m
120-400m
n
1
=1.48-1.5
dn=0.04,100 ns/km
19 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Graded-index Multi-mode Fibre
Output
pulse
Input
pulse
n
2
n
1
50-100 m
120-140m
Advantages:
Allows the use of non-coherent optical light source, e.g. LED's
Facilitates connecting together similar fibres
Imposes lower tolerance requirements on fibre connectors.
Reduced dispersion compared with STMMF
Disadvantages:
Lower bandwidth compared with STSMF
High power loss compared with the STSMF
dn = 0.04,1ns/km
20 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Step-index Single-mode Fibre
Output pulse
Input
pulse
Advantages:
Only one mode is allowed due to diffraction/interference effects.
Allows the use high power laser source
Facilitates fusion splicing similar fibres
Low dispersion, therefore high bandwidth (a few GHz).
Low loss (0.1 dB/km)
Disadvantages:
Cost
8-12 m
100-120m
n
2
= 1.46
n
1
=1.48-1.5
dn = 0.005, 5ps/km
21 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Single Mode Fiber - Power Distribution
Guided
Evanescent
Optical power
Intensity profile of the fundamental mode
22 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Fibre Characteristics
The most important characteristics that limit the
transmission capabilities are:
Attenuation (loss)
Dispersion (pulse spreading)
23 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Attenuation - Standard Fibre
600
800 1000
1200
1400 1600
1800
0.2
0.5
1.0
2.0
5
10
0.1
Wavelength (nm)
A
t
t
e
n
u
a
t
i
o
n

(
d
B
/
k
m
)
1
s
t

w
i
n
d
o
w
2
n
d

w
i
n
d
o
w
3
r
d

w
i
n
d
o
w
1300 nm
1550 nm
80
nm
180
nm
4th window
@ 1650 nm
Bandwidth

2
c
f = 1.142 x 10
14
Hz |
1300 nm
+ 2.2475 10
14
Hz |
1550 nm
24 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Attenuation (Loss ) - contd.
P
o
(L)= P
i
(0).e
-
p
L
The output power
Fibre attenuation coefficient
(
p
=
scattering
+
absorption
+
bending
)

,
`

.
|

i
o
p
P
P
L
ln
1
Or in dB/km, fibre attenuation ) (km 343 . 4 log
1
1

,
`

.
|

p
i
o
P
P
L

Fibre
P
i
P
o
L
25 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Fibre Attenuation - contd.
In a typical system, the total loss could bas 20-30 dB, before it
needs amplification.
So, at 0.2 dB/km, this corresponds to a distance of 100-150 km.
Attenuation along the fibre link can be
measured using Optical Time Domain
Reflectometer
26 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Fibre Dispersion
Data carried in an optical fibre consists of pulses of light energy
consists of a large number of frequencies travelling at a given rate.
There is a limit to the highest data rate (frequency) that can be
sent down a fibre and be expected to emerge intact at the output.
This is because of a phenomenon known as Dispersion (pulse
spreading), which limits the "Bandwidth of the fibre.
L
s
i
(t)
T
s
o
(t)
Output
pulse

Cause of Dispersion:
Chromatic (Intramodal) Dispersion
Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion
Many modes
27 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Chromatic Dispersion
It is a result of group velocity being a function of wavelength.
In any given mode different spectral components of a pulse traveling
through the fibre at different speed.
It depends on the light
source spectral characteristics.
Laser
LED
(many modes)
wavelength

= 40 nm

= 1-2 nm

= R.M.S Spectral
width
May occur in all fibre, but is the dominant in single mode fibre
Main causes:
Material dispersion - different wavelengths => different speeds
Waveguide dispersion: different wavelengths => different angles
28 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Material Dispersion
Refractive index of silica is frequency dependent. Thus different
frequency (wavelength) components travel at different speed
km ns
d
n d
c
L
mat
/
2
2

RMS pulse broadening
2
2

d
n d
c
D
mat
Where material dispersion
coefficient:
km nm ps . /
Note: Negative sign, indicates that low
wavelength components arrives before
higher wavelength components.
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7
0
-100
100
175
D
mat

2nd window
29 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Waveguide Dispersion
This results from variation of the group velocity with wavelength for
a particular mode. Depends on the size of the fibre.
This can usually be ignored in multimode fibres, since it is very
small compared with material dispersion.
However it is significant in monomode fibres.
0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.7
0
-100
100
175
D
mat

Waveguide dispersion
Total dispersion
Material dispersion
30 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Modal (Intermodal) Dispersion
Lower order modes travel travelling almost parallel to the centre
line of the fibre cover the shortest distance, thus reaching the end of
fibre sooner.
The higher order modes (more zig-zag rays) take a longer route
as they pass along the fibre and so reach the end of the fibre later.
Mainly in multimode fibres
1
2
Cladding n
2
Core n
1
c

31 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Modal Dispersion - SIMMF
The time taken for ray 1 to propagate a length
of fibre L gives the minimum delay time:
c
Ln
t
1
min

The time taken for the ray to propagate a length

of fibre L gives the maximum delay time:
1
max
cos
n c
L
t

2
2
1
cn
Ln
T
s
Thus
1
2 1
) (
n
n n

Since relative refractive index
difference
Since
The delay difference
min max
t t T
s

cos sin
1
2
n
n
c
32 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Modal Dispersion - SIMMF
Total dispersion = chromatic dispersion + modal dispersion
For 1,
<<
5 . 0
1
) 2 ( n NA
2
2 1
) (
n
n n
and
1
2
2
) (
cn
NA L
T
s

For a rectangular input pulse, the RMS pulse broadening due to
modal dispersion at the output of the fibre is:
C n
NA L
c
Ln
al
1
2
1
mod
7
) (
5 . 3

2 / 1 2 2
] [
modal chrom T
+
33 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Modal Dispersion - GIMMF
iThe delay difference
ithe RMS pulse broadening
c
Ln
T
s
2
2
1

C
Ln
GI modal
6 34
2
1
.

34 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Dispersion - Consequences
1 0 1 0 0 1
L = L
1
Maximum frequency limitation of
signal, which can be sent along a fibre
Intersymbol interference (ISI), which
is unacceptable in digital systems which
depend on the precise sequence of pulses.
1 0 1 0 0 1
L = L
2
> L
1
Intersymbol interference
I- Frequency Limitation (Bandwidth)
L
1 0 1 0 0 1
T
B
II- Distance: A given length of fibre, has a maximum frequency
(bandwidth) which can be sent along it. To increase the bandwidth for
the same type of fibre one needs to decrease the length of the fibre.
35 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Bandwidth Limitations
Maximum channel bandwidth B:
For non-return-to-zero (NRZ) data format: B = B
T
/2
For return-to-zero (RZ) data format: B = B
T
Where the maximum bit rate B
T
= 1/T, and T = bit duration.
For zero pulse overlap at the output of the fibre B
T
<= 1/2
where is the pulse width.
For MMSF: B
T
(max) = 1/2T
s
For a Gaussian shape pulse:B
T
0.2/
rms
where
rms
is the RMS pulse width.
For MMSF: B
T
(max) =0.2/
modal
or
B
T
(max) =0.2/
T
Total dispersion
36 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Bandwidth Distance Product (BDP)
The BDP is the bandwidth of a kilometer of fibre and is a constant
for any particular type of fibre.
B
opt
* L = B
T
* L (MHzkm)
For example, A multimode fibre has a BDP of 20 MHz.km, then:-
- 1 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 20 MHz
- 2 km of the fibre would have a bandwidth of 10 MHz
Typical B.D.P. for different types of fibres are:
Multimode 6 - 25 MHz.km
Single Mode 500 - 1500 MHz.km
Graded Index 100 - 1000 MHZ.km
37 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Bandwidth Distance Product
B
i
t

r
a
t
e

B

(
G
b
p
s
)
0.1
1
10
100
1 10 100 1000 10,000
Source spectral width = 1 nm
Source spectral width < 1 nm
Distance L (km)
D
mat
= 17 ps/km.nm
38 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Controlling Dispersion
For single mode fibre:
Wavelength 1300:
- Dispersion is very small
- Loss is high compared to 1550 nm wavelength
Wavelength 1550:
- Dispersion is high compared with 1300 nm
- Loss is low
Limitation due to dispersion can be removed by moveing
zero-diepersion point from 1300 nm to 1550 nm. How?
By controlling the waveguide dispersion.
Fibre with this property are called Dispersion-Shifted Fibres
39 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Controlling Dispersion
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
-20
0
20
Standard
Dispersion
shifted
Dispersion
flattened
Wavelength (

m)
-10
10
40 Prof. Z Ghassemlooy
Summary
Nature of light : Particle and wave
Light is part of EM spectrum
Phase and group velocities
Reflection, refraction and total internal reflection etc.
Types of fibre
Attenuation and dispersion