Josephine V Saliba EdD Assignment 5

Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates in Literacy and Education
Concentric Ideologies in Literacy Theory and Practice reflections on Foucault, Freire and Fairclough towards a comparison with professional practice
1. Defining Literacy: perspectives of a personal journey 'The meaning of 'literacy' as an object of enquiry and of action whether for research purposes or in practical programmes is () highly contested and () we cannot understand the term and its uses unless we penetrate these contested spaces.' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:34) Current perspectives about the various contested spaces of literacy filter through diverse philosophies. Reflecting the dominant prevalent ideologies, they sometimes converge as much as they diverge. Through literacy acquisition, consequences of literacy and literacy as social practice () we can begin to understand different approaches and their consequences (Street and Lefstein, 2007:34). This paper, whilst discussing these domains, nevertheless takes a more personal perspective. It not only reviews theories of literacy discussed of my in previous as assignments, a but also a traces the and development ideas practitioner, student
a writer in the educational field. This assignment departs from 'the most important ingredient in teaching and learning literacy, identity', how teachers bring their sense of identity into classrooms and how this infuses the overall sense of identity negotiated within (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005:98). This is my starting point as an educator. As a student and pre-service teacher, I was exposed to critical and reflective practices, further explored in subsequent sections. Prior, my early education and literacy experiences shaped my 'reflexive self' (Giddens, 1991; Ivanic, 1998) as has my exposure to narratives in both oral and written forms within
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family and schooling environments. Thus, my reflexive self has influenced my sense of identity which 'consists in the sustaining of coherent, yet continuously revised, biographical narratives' (Giddens, 1991:5), a 'reflexively organised endeavour' that 'takes place in the context of multiple choice as filtered through abstract systems' (ibid). This process has 'discursive features' (Giddens, 1991; Ivanic, 1998) that impinge on the construction of an individual's social identity 'constructed socio-culturally, discoursally and through the mechanisms of social interaction' (Ivanic, 1998:11-12). People interact within intermeshed,
undelineated spaces engaging in different discourse communities. Everyday literacies are therefore richer than traditional views limiting themselves to conventional reading and writing (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005; Barton, 2007). Identity is expressed through our social practices (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005:98), injecting layers of meaning through 'a culturally mediated and practice-infused activity that constantly pulls on the personality of the speaker, the writer or the reader' (ibid). However, positively or negatively viewed constructed identities depend on the dominant social practice the individual is engaging within, on the acknowledgement afforded to the individual's identity as a literate person. Identity is clearly yet complexly tied to theories of learning and literacy. Such recent theories have progressed from the 'empty vessels' traditional approach, shifting their focus from 'the individual mind and towards more social practices' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:36). Nevertheless, many theories retain their basis on 'deeper assumptions about cognition and in particular regarding the cognitive consequences of learning or acquiring literacy' (ibid:37). distinction A legacy of the 'great divide' theories has left an embedded between those we consider illiterate/literate and thus
underdeveloped/developed, a distinction that remains at the basis of many literacy programmes world-wide (Street and Lefstein, 2007:37). Many such
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programmes retain the Western bias in favour of reading/writing as the dominant modes of desired functional literacy.
Although many theories of literacy exist, the pressures of 'the economic cost of education, the requirements for a trained workforce, the effects of new technologies on our lives, the need for adult literacy provision' (Barton, 2007:2) prevail. Thus, 'school-based definitions of literacy' continue to Cognitive theorists associate the with key advances in societies where dominate although people's everyday literacy practices may incorporate other diverse experiences (ibid:4). development of writing
the ability to write distinguishes myth from history and thus oral culture from the development of a written logic and reasoning (Street and Lefstein, 2007:38). It is perhaps the ability to standardise, record and codify language in its written form that lends writing an ascendancy over speech. Most social rituals of passage, such as marriages, and transfer of power, like legal contracts, happen through written practices which reinforce if not replace formerly oral bonds. As a reflexive practitioner, aware of these intermingled identities and literacy practices, I cannot ignore the meaning-making processes I exhibit in class. My baggage of experience is part of the multi-layered narratives occurring within me and within the social contexts I inhabit. academic texts. I am part of the interwoven narrative fabric of the everyday personal, social, cultural and Language constructs 'an identity for ourselves within the different speech communities that we enter and we exit' (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005:98). Talk supports our identities and relationships in practice (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005), whereas writing often causes people to 'change their speech' (Ivanic, 1998:7) to alter their language and take on different identities (ibid) thus affecting the narrative created, multilayering the meanings constructed within the resultant text. Therefore, departing from the value of oral literacy is as good as any for this paper, but perhaps even more relevant would be
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placing
the
issue
within
the
whole
discourse
between
the
divergence/convergence of ideas about oral versus written literacy. Possibly, this apparent division between the oral and the written may nonetheless not be all-significant. Despite valid criticisms to Goffman's Within my academic Sometimes metaphor likening everyday behaviour to theatrical performances (1959, 1990), this analogy suits my professional practice. persona, different theories of literacy create a 'performance' which although not conflict-free create my social character/performer identity. the 'performance' is scripted, others it is an improvisation that departs from the 'text'. Often it is a blend that reflects the personal and the professional with whom students and colleagues interact in the narrative/discourse created (Goffman, 1969; 1990; Ivanic, 1998), a 'mix' of mutually applicable oral and literary textual conventions mirroring 'the reality of social uses of varying modes of communication' (Street, 1985:4). Considerable academic discussion revolves on what is actually meant by text, whether it is restricted to the written or whether other forms of communication may be thus called. Barton (2007:76) comments that most western societies prefer to describe speech and language as codified written text. Coulthard (1977) states that labeling text is difficult because its meaning is culturally defined. Synthesising this debate, Gonzalez (2004:1316) concludes that oral and written communication are both subject to discoursive narrative and so 'suprasentential analysis' is required. Gonzalez (ibid:14) also describes how her studies have indicated that 'there is a relationship between two methodological schools and two distinct research interests: text linguistics, that follows the written tradition, and discourse analysis, that follows the oral one'; however, the author's stance is to differentiate 'discourse-as-process from (ibid). text-as-product'
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This assignment tends to concur with this, viewing text as meaning, a semantic whole. Language in its many forms creates equally diverse genres of text, be it spoken, visual, written or in any other form used for communication purposes (Barton, 2007:76) and 'understanding literacy involves studying both texts and the practices surrounding the texts' (ibid). Instead of simply defining literacy, there is a need to examine the metaphors and theories we are starting from', countering myths surrounding aspects of literacy by focusing on an interdisciplinary approach that instead of struggling 'common over meanings and of widely words offers but different wrong views truths about myths accepted
about reading and writing' (Barton, 2007:6). Therefore, this assignment explores Street and Lefstein's (2007) strands of enquiry focusing on the trends emerging from my academic writing. literacies; discourses of truth and My identity as an academic writer is closely tied to the themes of oral/written power; bilingualism/multilingualism/translingualism; Critical Literacy and the New Literacy Studies; and Critical Discourse Analysis within ecological contexts. This paper does not purport to discuss the whole complex facets of these themes but rather discusses those educational experiences and theoretical influences that have shaped my stance vis a vis these themes both as a literate adult and a practitioner who is trying to help others express their literacies in whichever form these might exist. attempt to dissect, analyse or investigate This assignment does not how traditional literacy
deficiencies can be solved but rather explores the interactions between my thoughts on the theories of literacy that have influenced my practice within my discourse communities. 2. Established Theories of Literacy: traditional and social practice stances
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'No one practitioner necessarily adopts all of the characteristics of any one model but the use of the concept helps us to see what is entailed by adopting particular positions, to fill in gaps left by untheorised statements about literacy, and to adopt a broader perspective than is apparent in any one writer on literacy.' (Street, 1985:3) Education is part of the social experience of the majority of people, therefore perceptions, beliefs and opinions abound. In Westernised societies, traditional cognitive theories emphasise that the 'cognitive consequences' of learning and acquiring literacy are significant for 'a societys functioning, economic development and scientific 2007:37). potential' (Street and Lefstein, Such certainty leads various governments and education are superior refute some hypotheses
authorities to adopt 'scientific-based approaches that can provide sound evidence of which methods and approaches and that can claim to soundly in favour of others' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:35). This Cartesian belief that since 'I think therefore I am; I read and write therefore I am literate' drives traditional schooling systems and national development policies. It is so ingrained that in times of economic difficulties the media often highlight alleged 'literacy problems'. Often using sensationalist, simplistic terms that are divorced from educational research and based on popular assumptions, the media exert more pressure on policy makers to solve the problem and produce the statistics to prove it (Barton, 2007; Street and Lefstein, 2007). Autonomous models of literacy are thus trusted to transmit defined skills to various individuals across different contexts in value-free ways for the benefit of the individual and the nation - if this can be considered to be an actual value-free system (Street, 1985; Larson and Marsh, 2009).
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Although traditional theories of literacy focus on individual development, such systems have not devised fool-proof programmes that turn out 'happy well-educated people' (Barton, 2007:1). Autonomous models of literacy understanding and often contain keywords such as skills, knowledge,
outcomes to describe linear methods of teaching concepts related to reading and writing at specific ages during childhood, assuming that 'children progress in similar ways and acquire specific skills in sequence' (Larson and Marsh, 2009:4-5). Children and adults who miss out on any prescribed cognitive stages are variously labeled as being at risk, illiterate, deficient and similar terms defining their problem with normal traditional literacy acquisition (Barton, 2007; Street and Lefstein, 2007; Larson and Marsh, 2009). Models of visible corrective pedagogy such as proposed by Bernstein (1974) assume that teachers have explicit control to transmit 'the tastes and experiences of a specific section of society () which possesses sufficient cultural, economic and symbolic capital () to assert its authority' over the whole curriculum (Larson and Marsh, 2009:6-8). This transmitted indoctrination alienates, at worst violates, individuals' sense of identity and belonging. It also creates and reinforces misunderstandings about diverse literacy practices and the strategies practiced when interacting in different discourse communities (Gee, 2004). Ideological models of literacy contrast autonomous models (Street, 1985; Larson and Marsh, 2009). particular social, cultural, Such theories vary in how they are shaped by economic and political contexts They are
yet all acknowledge literacy as social practice.
ideological models because they embody particular meaning and power relations (ibid). The most influential of the twenty-first century theories are arguably New Literacy Studies, Critical literacy, New technologies and literacy, and Socio-cultural -historical theory (Larson and Marsh, 2009:3-4). These approaches combined with increasing interdisciplinary research and 'the impact of multimodal studies and discourse analysis have broadened
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what counts as literacy and challenged claims for its consequences thus contributing towards recognises the strengths of perspectives (Street and Lefstein, 2007:34-35). Interdisciplinary studies progressively favour 'a more decontextualised account of the learning process' while others 'attempt to link cognitive processes with social practices' or 'locate the teaching of literacy within broader social and political contexts () rather than imposing a single standard on all' (ibid:34-35). Rapidly changing technologies are also acknowledged by theorists who focus on multimodalities or multiliteracies in a globalised world (Kress and Van Leeuwen, 2001). A common trait that such research has is the study of issues of power and and their outcomes for practice' (Street and Lefstein, 2007:34-35). More traditional theorists acknowledge that new globalised economies are changing educational contexts as 'the production, distribution and circulation of knowledge' is increasingly tied to market forces bringing about the 'secular concept of knowledge' (Bernstein, 2000:xviii). Bernstein (2000:xxiii), particularly, retains a highly political stance towards the education of the individual but acknowledges that traditional schooling creates a discourse 'which generates () horizontal solidarities whose object is to contain and ameliorate vertical (hierarchical) cleavages between social groups'. Bernsteins persistent view of traditional education as a means of upholding democracy and social justice within a stratified social class system nevertheless recognises the existence of a 'mythological discourse' between mutually reinforcing stances attempting to produce a unified common national consciousness for the common good whilst trying to 'disconnect hierarchies within the school from a causal relation with social hierarchies outside the school' (ibid). This symptomises 'policy technologies' in a social hierarchy as these forces, whether explicitly or implicitly, affect 'definitions a more balanced approach that different
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globalised
context
where
'one-size-fits-all'
model
aims
at
the
'transformation' and 'modernisation' of vocational education, mainly through traditional models of educational management intended to organise human skills and resources into (Ball, 2010:41-43). From another theoretical perspective, Barton (2007:6) declares the need to deconstruct the myths associated with aspects of literacy, especially those used to justify traditional literacy programmes. These myths and metaphors render literacy to simple psychological variables that can measure and assess the transferability of skills, (ibid:11). problematising individuals and labeling them as successes or failures according to dominant values When this view spills into the rest of society, social cleavages entrepreneurship, market forces, management and rather than individual identities are upheld and reinforced. Focus remains on employment, performativity (Ball, 2010:45-53). A critical analysis of these processes is 'functioning systems'
necessary as socially identified 'figured worlds', positional stances linked to power, status and rank and 'the space of authoring' orchestrate 'identifiable social discourses/practices that are one's resources' and 'voice' in a bid to reach 'social efficacy' (Holland et al, 2001:271-2). resources transmitted between individuals Instead of being the contextualised economy's task-masters, cultural and collective symbols, values and through and meaningful social practice should become the tools of self-management and identity formation (Holland et al, 2001). Actualising this necessitates 'more reflective' social sciences 'focusing on the particular, and () interdisciplinary' countering accepted 'truths' and building views representing multiple realities (Barton, 2007:6). Different literacy theories, models and research serving as 'ideal types' would 'help clarify the significant lines of cleavage in the field of literacy studies' thus providing 'a more explicit theoretical foundation for descriptions of literacy
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practice and for cross-cultural comparison' (Street, 1985:3).
For instance,
'critical discourse analysis explores how discourse in local sites and in larger social structures constructs and positions and is constructed and positioned by human subjects' (Larson and Marsh, 2009:12). Consequently rejecting specific definitions that create myths (Barton, 2007) and analysing contexts of D/discourse (Gee, 1999; Larson and Marsh, 2009) within educational practice can reveal social practices interconnecting public and private worlds. Hence my personal theory of literacy is based on a critical analysis of truths about interconnecting power, language and identity issues in public/private discourses. and contexts of identities. If these are manipulated, so are literacy spaces
3.
Constructing a Personal Theory/Theories of Literacy:
Foucault,
Freire and Fairclough 'People tell others who they are, but even more importantly, they tell themselves and then try to act as though they are who they say they are.' (Holland et al., 2001:3) Figured worlds are spaces and narratives where individuals create a portrayed identity within social encounters (Holland et al., 2001). Through retelling and re-narrating 'stories' to others, new personal and communal identities are created (ibid). Identities in practice within figured worlds are a result of 'the accumulation of history' (Pahl and Rowsell, 2005:110). People create different identities depending on context and discourse, the intertextuality actuated between narrative, identity and ideology (Fairclough,
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1992, 1995) where 'discourse is the mediating mechanism in the social construction of identity' (Ivanic, 1998:17). The discoursal self or identity becomes, 'a culturally recognised way of representing a particular aspect of reality from a particular ideological perspective' (ibid). Ivanic's (1998) theory of 'writer identity' validly describes the development of authorhood in any kind of discoursal narrative. Distinguishing the autobiographical self, the discoursal self, the self as author and possibilities for self-hood, it links Bourdieu's (1977) notion of habitus within the autobiographical self and Goffman's theory (1959, 1990) of the creation of a character/performer within discourse. It also encompasses elements of Bakhtin's (1973) theory of social language and speech genres, Fairclough's (1992) theory of voice, identity and intertextuality and Kress's notion of multimodality of text construction (1989), amongst others (Ivanic, 1998:2355). It also can be used to illustrate the narrative text of personal/professional identities, the mix of oral and literary conventions described by Street (1985). Social and discoursal history shaped my autobiographical self, my root identity, as a creator of text through oral family history, narratives and literacy practices. This is my 'truth', communicated both orally and in writing. The voice I choose to convey my narrative is my discoursal self, socially constructed as I choose to adopt characters suiting particular contexts. My self as author is my discoursal self expressed in writing. The possibilities of selfhood, my personal/professional identity, is a result of this mix which although theoretically unlimited, is bound by social and discoursal contextual boundaries. Currently, my selfhood and the texts I create are highly influenced by my positionality as an academic writer and student of literacy theory as well as a practitioner within traditionalist educational structures. Subsuming certain aspects of identity, some professional 'subject
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positions' tend to be more privileged over others as the educational institution 'accords them more status (Ivanic, 1998:27). Nevertheless, as a literacy practitioner and student/researcher, 'it is not just a question of occupying one subject position or another, but rather of being multiply positioned by drawing on possibilities (...) on several dimensions (ibid:27-28). Consulting Larson and Marsh's model on the construction of the curriculum (2009:150) aided an identification of those dimensions that have determined which theories of literacy I consider fundamental to my own pedagogical practice and academic writing the internal and external influences, sociocultural and structural influences, and input of subjectknowledge/pedagogical content. These key beliefs are transversally referred to and evident in all domains of my identity discussed above and I believe they are based on the theories of three principal academics: Foucault, Freire and Fairclough. Applying Larson and Marsh's model reveals a socio-historical view of the development of philosophy. identity, a retrospective search for 'truth' influenced by Analysing the internal influences on issues of power, language and identity, issues central to Foucault's my personal theory of literacy highlights dilemmas questioned by Foucault. Family history and oral literacy practices are essential to my identity, awarding freedom to be but constraining my freedom to become because of the social conditioning that is part of the oral literacy process. It is arguable to what extent my beliefs and attitudes result from individuality of identity or family/social conditioning. This necessitates a re-evaluation of personal 'truths'. Foucault states it is 'not wrong to avoid identification, but wrong to seek to reinforce it' (Williams, 2005:109) as there is no final truth in genealogies.
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It is a challenge to 'not seek to know who you are, but work with and vary your pleasures' after understanding the necessary relation of the individual to historical structures (Williams, ibid). This in essence means that the within the It individual needs to 'find space for movement
inherited determinations of power' (ibid), to be aware of how structures have the power to determine identities, behaviours, values and norms. should be a pleasure to transgress this power.
Foucault provides 'new ways of thinking about our relation to the past, () in terms of times and social conditioning () a new, poststructuralist form of historical critique' (Williams, 2005:106). Foucault's poststructuralism looks at social structures and individuals to transform our idea of identity in terms of freedom and power, emphasising free will and how this is influenced by external social structures, language and time (ibid). influences, schooling. They influenced my subsequent These external language are mainly traditional theories of literacy and identity,
development/use and literacy practices, practices carried on throughout my university and pre-teaching service years which focused more on aspects of subject-knowledge, in my case History teaching. Pedagogically, the emphasis was on traditional teaching methods, with class control and assessment as prerogatives and functional literacy and 'the influence of normalizing factors' (Foucault, 1977) as standards indicatively, Pavlov's Theory of Behavioural Conditioning is my foremost pre-service training recollection. External inputs on my subject knowledge/pedagogical content were 'shaped by sociocultural discourses that influence what is considered to be appropriate or not within an educational domain' (Larson and Marsh, 2009:151). However, other external factors on my subject knowledge/pedagogical content challenged this behaviourist stance. Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1996), his approaches to theatre, critical thinking and education,
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combined personal interests in politics, orality and alternate literacy theory. To read the world besides the word (Freire, ibid) reinforces aspects of Foucault's theory, that 'every human being is capable of looking at the world critically in a dialogue to bring radical self-awareness of oppression' (Street and Lefstein, with others () to transform their world, to the forces 2007:243).
Critical literacy 'ensures taken-for-granted practices, authorized texts and commonsense knowledges are subject to question'; it 'creates dialogic spaces to interrogate, question and learn how other people think and live'; a process that is 'educative, rather than simply going through the motions and rehearsing familiar scripts' (Comber, in Larson and Marsh, 2009:63). Yet, the traditionalist influence persists. Freire has been criticised for
favouring autonomous literacy models, based on assumptions between cognition and literacy (Street, 1984:14). Hence many Freirian adaptations of adult and functional literacy programmes have been domesticated' by traditionalist, oppressive systems (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:12), especially in developing countries (Barton, 2007). partisan nation state. traditional, agendas in challenges. Indeed, as a literacy
practitioner, my context is intermeshed with the identity of a small biSplit between hybrid socialist and demo-christian education to system shifting education towards and European nationalistic socio-cultural historical traditions, I am working through a post-colonial response globalisation's employment
My personal theories of literacy are further affected by an
increasing shift from bilingual to multilingual contexts which further problematise literacy education, employment, economic and citizenship issues of families and students from designated disadvantaged sections of the local population. These socio-cultural influences have shaped my professional decision-making and the choice of theories on which to base my literacy practice and
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curriculum development. economically disadvantaged families and
Family literacy action with present in-class work with
traditionally-viewed lower ability learners with low traditional functional literacy skills has brought to the foreground my interest in ideologies and their link to power and language struggles of bilingualism/multilingualism in a country whose 'language problem' has always been linked to economic development (Mayo, 1994). Hence, my personal theory of literacy agrees with countering 'ideology as common sense' (Fairclough, 2001), the power that regulates society and the individual (Foucault, 1977).
By looking at texts, or discourses, and the social forces that produce them 'linguistic and non-linguistic symbols which are regularly used to obtain particular ideological effects' can be identified (Fairclough, 2001:27). Most cultural contexts pressurise individuals 'to conform to dominant values, beliefs and practices, as they appear to be the means of achieving social, and often financial gain, although they usually reinforce the status and serve the interests of the privileged few' (Ivanic, 1998:42). A critical theory of literacy deconstructs those competing ideologies that use socially constructed language and resources media and knowledge-power technologies to shift such as the power relations
in specific linguistic interactions (Fairclough, 1992). Through the production and interpretation of texts, values, practices and beliefs are understood, reinforced, contested or changed, depending on the participants. Identifying texts of 'social reality' and 'social relations and social identities' combined with an analysis of those metaphors that reinforce modes of ideology (Fairclough, 1992, 2001) provides 'useful ways of thinking about the relation between symbolic forms and social effect' (Janks, 2009:37) especially where dominant societal discourses use symbols and processes to constitute them 'as knowledge, that is, as truth' (ibid:50).
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Thus my personal theory of literacy can be summarised as an investigation of 'truths' (Freire, 1996). (Foucault, 1980) to regain individual identities, Dialogic critical discourse processes such as text analysis, revolutionising these into agents who can transform their social situation processing analysis and social analysis help describe, analyse and explain these 'truths' (Fairclough, 1995). The thoughts of these three theorists focus on how language and literacy discourse processes 'produce truth, how they are produced by power and how they produce effects of power' (Janks, 2009:37). Together with an awareness of the structural influences on my habitus and the influence of Foucault and Freire on my thinking, this search for the ideology behind my personal theory of literacy and practice is an effort to denormalise dominant ideologies and social relations that problematise rather than liberate individual identities.
4.
Em/Powerment:
implications of Critical Literacy theories on
Functional Literacy 'The idea of empowerment often surfaces as a kind of magic bullet for fighting educational causes on behalf of disadvantaged groups () on the grounds of social justice, equity, and like ideals () or a principle for enabling learning to take place. theoretical attention by those who set most store by it.' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:104) A common theoretical thread throughout the works of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough is the link between identity, language and power and the need to But () empowerment is all too rarely given adequate conceptual or
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be critical of this relationship. Although the discussion in this assignment is by means exhaustive of their work, it confirms my personal and professional discourses and identity as being steeped in theories of critical and socio-cultural historical theory. Basing my work on Foucault, Freire and Fairclough's theories helps me facilitate my students' understanding of their positionality vis a vis texts and social practices whilst engaging with them as a co-learner in goal-oriented activities intended to transform them as equal participants in the learning process (Larson and Marsh, 2009:131-132). Nevertheless, although my literacy support practice may not run the risk of having too little theoretical basis regarding empowerment, my personal stance risks overloading the concept with significance. Also, the texts and discourses engaged in are part of wider secondary Discourses embedded within an institution imposing how to 'name the space where theoretical work is needed, rather than to fill that space' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:104) consequently making me an accessory to this process. Vocational literacy programmes for empowerment thus inadvertently run the risk of being associated with self-evident benefits or positive values that have little substantive meaning (ibid). Such typical associations often link empowerment with freedom and functional literacy or showing people 'how to work within a system from the perspective of people in power' (Delgado-Gaitan, 1990:2; in Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:105-106). Before engaging in critical literacy programmes, Knobel and Lankshear (2011:105) advise analysing the embedded political, social and economic ideals behind the notions and be clear about the subject of empowerment; the power structures hindering empowerment; the processes through which empowerment is to occur; and, the outcomes that are envisaged to follow empowerment. Gee's work on D/discourse, on how Discourses and literacies 'constitute us as persons and situate us in society' (1990:153), further explains how our words through speech and writing, our acts, attitudes,
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beliefs and identities identify individuals as members of socially meaningful groups practice, or players of meaningful social roles (Gee, 1990:142-143). Considering these implications upon the theories I incorporate into my it is valid to further elaborate this reasoning.
Gee (1990) states people participate in primary and secondary Discourses, where the former is based within oral language and its connotative use, how we first learn to communicate in our immediate social group. which we have access. Secondary Discourses refer to how we learn to communicate in other social groupings to This necessitates we learn their codes of communication in order to function in wider society, including the use of various writing genres (Gee, 1990). Participants need master a secondary language consisting of various communication modes enabling the individual access to those resources enjoyed by these often dominant Discourses which distribute 'social power and hierarchical structure in society 1990:4-5). (Gee, Functional literacy may thus be another entry into secondary
Discourses through learning a secondary language or learning to read or write, or using information technology or attaining standardised outcomes of learning necessary to gain employment, thus embodying material as well as symbolic power. Through certain functional literacy programmes, dominant literacies 'empower certain groups (and depotentiate others), by making what they already have (or have privileged access to) into currency for acquiring social goods and benefits' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:111).
Political change frequently imposes versions of Freirian critical and functional literacy programmes on population groups deemed illiterate because (my emphasis) they are areas. poor or live is in economically my underprivileged, of local underdeveloped That certainly experience
family/vocational literacy programmes funded under the aegis of the
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European Union or the United Nations. support practitioner, I often need to similar labels.
Currently, as a vocational literacy re-evaluate my positionality on
'literacy', 'support', 'functional skills', 'empowerment and employability' and While it is my experience that numerous students display gaps in traditional literacy skills, it is the infrequent minority who are really illiterate by traditional standards, even those pertaining to emotional, oral and similar communicative skills. value different literacies. This, regardless of the need to Therefore, the discrepancy in touting vocational
courses as 'true' functional literacy programmes is real. Functional literacy has different meanings in diverse cultures, ranging from a passive, coping state of survival to acquiring the knowledge and skills in reading and writing necessary to engage effectively within prevailing dominant Discourses (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:7). Common to most institutionalised functional literacy programmes is a set of tangible outcomes to be reached to become ideal, employable citizens, logically assumed beneficiaries of intangible advantages such as heightened self-esteem and the like (ibid:10). However, viewing functional literacy 'as a rescuing savior is the height of naivety' (ibid:11) because the political and financial needs of dominant Discourses in ever-changing job markets, affecting projected better standards of living, render other intangible benefits relative to politico-economic situations. This functional literacy becomes another kind of dehumanising, domesticating ideology instead of what Freire intended to be the means for transforming people into critically informed and transformed individuals (ibid:11-15). Therefore, professional re-evaluation of critical literacy skills teaching in the Freirian sense is necessary, especially when critiquing and analysing texts and dominant discourses dealing with functional literacy and employability 'are my students responding to texts or to me?' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:64).
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Answering
this
question
involves
engaging
people
in
transformative
processes 'in dialogue facilitated by reading and writing' to enable 'intellectual access to their world and their place within that world, a conception of their unique human status and vocation, and the commitment to pursue their vocation' (Lankshear and Knobel, 2011:17-18). This ongoing 'radical alternative conception' should transform literacy theory into active practice creating critical, conscious relationships between all players where individuals build on their existant knowledge, skills and understanding to become 'ever more functionally literate' (ibid). Consequently, re-evaluating the theories of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough within this discussion, it is worth considering the applicability of these theories on the functional literacy programmes I work within to actually emphasise the really functional and revolutionary aspect of our relationship rather than the dehumanising aspect of traditional programmes. 5. Different Literacies, Different Ecological Contexts: A Critical
Analysis of Discourse 'Like other polarities in literacy, 'one literacy versus many' turns out to be too gross a simplification of the processes we are trying to understand.' (Hannon, 2000:38) Although the view that 'some literacies can be regarded as more valuable than others' (Hannon, 2000:33) persists, academics recognising literacy as Problematisation remains social practice conclude that one precise definition for the term literacy is an impossible myth (Hannon, 2000; Barton, 2007). not in the conflict between the different literacies but in drawing boundaries between different co-existing literacies. However, strict definition may not be necessary as the interaction between different literacies lead to 'the
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emergence of new patterns, features and structures, which are generated from the constitutive elements of the system but cannot be reduced to them' (Barton, 2007:31). The concept of concentric ideologies and theories might thus be preferable when discussing 'literacies' as 'it takes you further, it provides new insights and makes new connections' (Barton, 2007:18). Talking about the ecologic nature of literacy/literacies is another useful way of showing that 'skills and social practices are not opposite conceptions' (Hannon, 2000:38). An ecological approach does not isolate 'literacy activities from everything else in order to understand them' (Barton, 2007:32) and hence may also be an ideal way of observing the main theories discussed in this paper in actuation as it 'aims to understand how literacy is embedded in other human activity, its embeddedness in social life and in thought, and its position in history, in language and in learning' (Barton, ibid). Therefore, instead of trying to compare oral literacy with conventional reading and writing skills within the diverse contributions of unitary versus pluralist views of literacy, it would perhaps be preferable to study the 'social practices associated with particular symbol systems and their related technologies' (ibid). I find this approach particularly relevant to issues pertaining New Literacies and bilingualism/multilingualism practices during my in-class practice and interaction with my students given our local context. Such an ecological study could be paired with Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). As previously discussed in other papers, CDA has the potential for transformation by bringing further understanding to the intertextuality between language, utterance-type meanings, situated meanings and social practices (Freeman, 1998; Rogers, 2008), hence analysing the symbol systems and technologies associated with local bilingualism, taking up the issue beyond traditionalist arguments revolving around language skills. CDA focuses on the different ideological stances towards different literacies and
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languages and the diverse social and cultural backgrounds which ultimately provide different people with different educational, and literacy goals (Freeman, 1998). Critical literacy practices combined with CDA challenges domesticated versions of functional literacy promoting utilitarian vocational meanings (Rassool, 1999:8). CDA supports Freire's (1996) arguments by encouraging people to co-read behind the literal text and reflect on their society and the struggles of power, engaging 'in a critical discussion of the positions a text supports (Papen, 2005:11). It can also throw more light on the multimodal entity of language 'both over new ways of using language, and over linguistic representations of change' (Fairclough, 2001:204). An ecological CDA study in the classroom enables critical reflection on political choices such as the language and texts used for instruction and the content that is included or excluded from the classroom, who imposes the curriculum and how, who decides what to teach, and the nature of student involvement in such decisions (Janks, 2009:23). It thus highlights the 'positioned and positioning' (Fairclough, 2001) within the participative research. CDA offers an explanation of why and how discourses, including 'political question () truth itself' Foucault, through 1980:133). It also marries theory and practice linguistic
bilingual/multilingual discourses, work.
It aids the understanding of Apart from its research practices in which
relationships between language, the economy, national policies, and educational practices (Gee, 2008; Rogers, 2008). aspects, it encourages active functional literacy
participants are confident of their literacy skills (Barton, 2007). Thus, CDA is not solely a theoretical exercise but complements theories of literacy through empirical means (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). Within a bilingual/multilingual ecological approach it counters a monocultural view of language and
Josephine V. Saliba
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encourages diversity where it 'is a source of strength, the roots of the possibilities of the future () maintaining diversity; () the range of variation in language' (Barton, 2007:31, 32). Ecological diversity of language is evolving fast through new information and communication technologies that have irrevocably changed views about and uses of literacy (Kress, 2003; Larson and Marsh, 2009). New communication technologies are changing the balance of languages and cultures through previously unconsidered and sudden, irreversible ways (Barton, 2007:32). The traditional dominance of writing is being transformed into literacies where 'the ability to decode, encode and make meaning using a range of modes of communication including print, still and moving image, sound and gesture' is mediated through new technologies (Larson and Marsh, 2009:69). This may include 'written, oral, visual and corporeal forms of making-meaning' (ibid), often used contemporaneously in various ways. meaning, thus arise. Ecological research into these new social practices paired with CDA can help give a glimpse of other literacies beyond school-based ones leading to reconsideration of traditional theories and practices as well as implications on the roles of education professionals at all hierarchical levels. Larson and Marsh (2009:75) discuss these implications, making a case for them as aiding meaningful situated learning that is 'responsive to the discursive worlds of learners' enabling them to 'bring their funds of knowledge' within classroom situated social and cultural practices that 'provide opportunities for learners to experience and respond critically to a range of discursive practices, identities, texts and so on' (ibid). Although there is diverse and often divided theory and research about teaching and learning literacy in a new media age (Larson and Marsh, 2009), New multiliteracies, or new multiple ways of making
Josephine V. Saliba
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a microecological approach
studies the linguistic, social,
political and pedagogical practices in the classroom (Jaffe, 2003) and opens up 'ideological and implementational space in the environment' (Hornberger, 2002) for as many languages and literacies as possible. ecological approach new' including the 'development of new languages Such a critical, alongside the 'considers the already established with the
development of existing languages' (Blackledge and Creese, 2009:201-202). Within this scenario, the interrelationship between teacher and learners develops a learners (ibid:202). Consequently, such an approach would appear to be a natural progression from taking my concept of my core theoretical base towards more practical literacy and identity, comparing them and empirical research into theories of literacy. This would seemingly involve with the theories of literacy discussed in this paper and through CDA and ecological approaches, work out how they translate into classroom practices taking into account the new stances posed by New Literacy Studies. Such research would provide 'rich and theorized accounts of them and Marsh, 2009:95), goals and outcomes' I believe in (ibid). Hence, with the thoughts of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough as the kernel of my concentric theoretical stance from which I departed at the beginning of this paper, I can use this theory as a base of informed judgement from which to move towards truly critical enquiry. Hence, I can endeavour to find my own voice within the multiplicity of interconnected theories of cultural practices' enabling me as participant-practitioner-researcher 'to experience from the inside' (Lankshear and Knobel, in Larson thus expanding my 'wide panoramic view of self', 'new identity for both teacher and positions' and new possibilities' of self-hood
'knowledge and theory relevant to teaching and learning, and the learning
Josephine V. Saliba
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literacies and by comparing them to my own values and experience I can engage in critical action. self-reflection leading me from theory to critical Departing from the vision of Foucault, Freire and Fairclough and
engaging my texts with theirs may also eventually lead me further afield than my current centred position to explore other interlinked or even opposing views that may ultimately challenge and transform my current ideology and theory of literacy.
References
Bakhtin, M.M. (1973) Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics. Trans. By R.W. Rotsel. Ann Arbor, MI: Ardis. In Ivanic, R. (1998) Writing and identity: The discoursal construction of identity in academic writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Ball, S. (2010) The Education Debate: Policy and Politics in the TwentyFirst Century. Policy and Politics in the Twenty First Century. Bristol: Policy Press. Barton, D. (Ed.) (1994) Sustaining Education for Development. Local Literacies. Reading:
Barton, D. (2007) Literacy: An Introduction to the Ecology of Written Language. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. Bernstein, B. (1974) Class, Codes and Control. Vol.1. 2nd ed. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Bernstein, B. (2000) Pedagogy, Symbolic Control and Identity: Theory, Research Critique. Revd. ed. London: Taylor and Francis. Blackledge, A. and Creese, A. (2009) Multilingualism: A Critical Perspective (Advances in Sociolinguistics). London: Continuum International Publishing Group Ltd. Bourdieu, P. (1977) Outline of a Theory of Practice. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge:
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Coulthard, M. (1977) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Longman.
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Delgado-Gaitan, C. (1990) Literacy for Empowerment: The Role of Parents in Children's Education. London: Falmer Press. In Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2011) Literacies: Social, Cultural and Historical Perspectives. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc. Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y S. (Eds.) (2008) . Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Materials. Los Angeles: Sage Publications Ltd. Fairclough, N. (1992) Discourse and social change. London: Polity. Fairclough, N. (1995) Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language (Language in Social Life). Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd. Fairclough, N. (2001) Language and Power (Language in Social Life). Harlow: Pearson Education Ltd. Fairclough, N. (2003) Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. New York, London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Ltd. Foucault, M (1977) Discipline and Punish, New York: Pantheon. Foucault, M (2003) Society Must Be Defended, (Trans. David Macey). Bertani, Mauro & Fontana, Alessandro (eds.).New York: Picador. Foucault, M (1980) Two Lectures, in Colin Gordon, Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews, New York: Pantheon. ed.,
Freeman, R. D. (1998) Bilingual Education and Social Change. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. Freire, P. (transl. by M. Bergman Ramos) (1996) Pedagogy of the Oppressed. London: Penguin Books. Gee, J. P. (1990). Social linguistics and literacies: Ideology in discourses. Critical perspectives on literacy and education. London: Falmer Press. Gee, J. P. (1999) An introduction to Discourse analysis: theory and method. London and New York: Routledge. Gee. J. P. (2004). Situated language and learning: A critique of traditional schooling. London: Routledge. Gee, J. P. (2008) Discourse Analysis: What Makes It Critical? In: Rogers, R. (Ed.) (2008) An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education. New York: Routledge. p. 19-50. Giddens, A. (1991) Modernity and Self-identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age. Palo Alto: Stanford University Press.
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Goffman, E. (1959, 1990) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Gonzalez, M. (2004) Pragmatic Markers in Oral Narrative: the Case of English and Catalan. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Hannon, P. (2000) Reflecting on Literacy in Education. RoutledgeFalmer. London:
Holland, D., Lachicotte, W. S., Skinner, D. and Cain, C. (2001) Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Hornberger, N. (2002), 'Multilingual language policies and the continua of biliteracy: An ecological approach'. Language Policy, 1, 27-51. Ivanic, R. (1998) Writing and identity: The discoursal construction of identity in academic writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Jaffe, A. (2003) Misrecognition Unmasked? 'Polynomic' language, expert statuses and orthographic practices in Corsican schools. International Pragmatics Association: Pragmatics, 13(4), 515-537. Janks, H. (2009) Literacy and Power (Language, Culture, and Teaching Series). New York, London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Ltd. Knobel, M. and Lankshear, C. (2009) Interview. In Larson, J. and Marsh, J. (2009) Making Literacy Real. London: Sage Publications Ltd. p.92-98. Kress, G. (1989) Linguistic Processes in Sociocultural Practice (Second Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kress, G. (2003) Literacy in the New Media Age. London: Routledge. Kress, G. and Leeuwen, T. van (2001) Multimodal Discourse: the modes and media of contemporary communication. London: Arnold. Lankshear, C. and Knobel, M. (2011) Literacies: Social, Cultural and Historical Perspectives. New York: Peter Lang Publishing Inc. Larson, J. and Marsh, J. (2009) Making Literacy Real. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Mayo, P. (1994) State Sponsored Adult Literacy Programmes in Malta: A Critical Review. In Barton, D. (Ed.) (1994) Sustaining Local Literacies. Reading: Education for Development. Pahl, K. and Rowsell, J. (2005) Literacy and Education: Understanding the New Literacy Studies in the Classroom. London: Sage Publications Ltd.
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Papen, U. (Ed.) (2005) Adult Literacy as Social Practice. Routledge.
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Street, B. V. (1985) Literacy in theory and practice. Cambridge: CUP. Street, B. V. and Lefstein A. (2007) Literacy: an advanced resource book. London: Routledge. Williams, J. (2005) Understanding Poststructuralism. Bucks: Acumen Publishing Ltd.
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Josephine V Saliba EdD Assignment 5

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Doctor of Education EdD Programme: Module 5 Perspectives and Debates in Literacy and Education

yet all acknowledge literacy as social practice.

practice and for cross-cultural comparison' (Street, 1985:3).

Constructing a Personal Theory/Theories of Literacy:

My personal theories of literacy are further affected by an

curriculum development. economically disadvantaged families and

Family literacy action with present in-class work with

implications of Critical Literacy theories on

family/vocational literacy programmes funded under the aegis of the

Currently, as a vocational literacy re-evaluate my positionality on

bilingual/multilingual discourses, work.

It aids the understanding of Apart from its research practices in which

studies the linguistic, social,

Comber, B. (2009) Interview. In Larson, J. and Marsh, J. (2009) Making

Literacy Real. London: Sage Publications Ltd. p.61-67.

Coulthard, M. (1977) An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Longman.

Papen, U. (Ed.) (2005) Adult Literacy as Social Practice. Routledge.

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