DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF THE SCAVENGING SYSTEM OF A MULTI-CYLINDER TWO-STROKE SCOTCH-YOKE ENGINE

NG TEE NENG

UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MALAYSIA

BAHAGIAN A Pengesahan Kerjasama* Adalah disahkan bahawa projek penyelidikan tesis ini telah dilaksanakan melalui kerjasama antara _______________________ dengan _______________________ Disahkan oleh : Tandatangan Nama Jawatan (Cop rasmi) * Jika penyediaan tesis/projek melibatkan kerjasama. : : : Tarikh :

BAHAGIAN B Untuk Kegunaan Pejabat Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah Tesis ini telah diperiksa dan diakui oleh Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Luar : : Dr.Victor Selvaratnam Chelliah Special Projects Unit, CPDD Level 48, Tower One, PETRONAS Twin Towers, Kuala Lumpur City Centre, 50088 Kuala Lumpur.

Nama dan Alamat Pemeriksa Dalam

Prof.Madya Dr. Sanjayan A/L veelautham Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal UTM, Skudai.

Nama Penyelia Lain (jika ada)

Disahkan oleh Penolong Pendaftar di Sekolah Pengajian Siswazah : Tandatangan Nama : : GANESAN A/L ANDIMUTHU Tarikh :

DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF THE SCAVENGING SYSTEM OF A MULTI-CYLINDER TWO-STROKE SCOTCH-YOKE ENGINE

NG TEE NENG

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Engineering (Mechanical)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL 2006

iii

To my beloved mother and father

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and Foremost, I would wish to express my profound gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Ir. Dr. Azhar Bin Abdul Aziz for his precious guidance and encouragements during the whole course of this project. All his advices and ideas have eventually contributed to the success of this project. I am grateful and honored to have taken up this project as part of the ongoing research in UTM.

I would also like to wish my special thank to Prof. Madya Dr.Rosli Abu Bakar, Hj. Sairaji Suhadi, En Zulkarnain Abdul Latif, and other research officers at the Automotive Development Center (ADC) who have helped me throughout my research work. I also wish to thank my research-mate, Mr. Fong Kok Weng for his co-operation during this project.

Last but not least, my sincere thanks to Engineer, Mr. Tan as well as all the collaborators from IA Engineering Sdn.Bhd, in Johor Bahru for their help in the fabrication of the engine model rig.

ABSTRACT

A two-stroke engine complete with a scavenging system, operating with external pumping mechanism is being developed. The engine comprises of two pair of combustion chambers and a pair of piston pumps that are integrated onto the Scotch-Yoke crank mechanism. The Schnurle type loop scavenging arrangement was selected for the scavenging arrangement for the engine port design. The pump was to be driven by the engines pistons linkages. The significant advantages of this opposed piston-driven pump concept is the double action of air pumping at every 180 interval of crankshaft revolution. In addition, extensive work using Computational Fluid Dynamic code simulation tools were applied throughout the project to ensure that the scavenging port geometry is optimized. Also developed was a scavenging test rig specifically to verify the simulation results. The unfired tracer gas sampling method was developed for the scavenging measurement purposes. The experimental testing was carried out successfully with the use of instrumentations such as Dewetron High Speed Data Acquisition and crank encoder. Both the simulation results and experimental results showed good scavenging characteristic, where the scavenging efficiency is closed to the perfect mixing scavenging model. The development of the scavenging system will allow for the reduction of the pollutant emission, and the overcome short-circuiting problem of the two-stroke engine.

vi

ABSTRAK

Rekabentuk enjin dua lejang telah dibangunakan dengan sistem hapus-sisa lengkap, di mana ia beroperasi dengan pengepaman udara dari luar. Rekabentuk enjin ini adalah berpandukan mekanisme Scotch-Yoke yang beroperasi dengan dua pasang kebuk pembakaran dan sepasang pemampat piston. Susunan sistem hapussisa jenis Schnurle telah dipilih untuk mereka pembukaan udara dalam enjin. Pam ini dipandu secara terus oleh penyambungan omboh yang bersalingan. Kelebihan mekanisme yang ketara ialah ia dapat menghasilkan dua kali kerja pengepaman pada setiap 180 putaran aci engkol. Tambahan lagi, kajian yang mendalam pada bahagian penukaran udara telah dijalankan dengan kod program computer Computational Fluid Dynamic untuk memastikan rekabentuk pembukaan udara dalam keadaan yang memuaskan. Sementara itu, rangka uji-kaji sistem hapus-sisa telah dibangunkan untuk mengesahkan nilai keputusan daripada simulasi komputer. Teknik

pengambilan jenis gas dalam keadaan tanpa bakar, telah dijalankan dengan kelengkapan alat pengukuran seperti Dewetron High Speed Data Acquisition dan pengecod engkol. Kedua-dua keputusan daripada simulasi komputer dan ujikaji telah menunjukkan kecekapan hapus-sisa dalam keadaan yang baik, di mana nilainya adalah menghampiri model hapus-sisa yang sempurna. Pembangunan sistem hapussisa ini telah menjamin keberkesanannya dalam mengurangkan hasil kotoran daripadan pembakaran dalam enjin dan juga menyelesaikan masalah short-circuiting rekabentuk enjin jenis dua lejang.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER

CONTENT ABSTRACT ABSTRAK TABLE OF CONTENT LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES LIST OF APPENDICES

PAGE v vi vii xi xv xix

INTRODUCTION 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Preface Objectives Statement of Problem Hypotheses Scopes Methodology 1.6.1 1.6.2 1.6.3 1.6.4 1.6.5 Literature Review Design Concept Calculations and Analysis CFD Simulations Development of a Scavenging system Test Rig 1.7 The Gantt Chart 6 7 1 2 2 2 3 4 5 5 5 6

LITERATURE STUDY 2.1 Internal Combustion Engines 8

viii 2.2 2.3 Two Stroke Engine The Scotch-Yoke Mechanism 2.3.1 The Differences between Scotch-Yoke Engine and Conventional Engine 2.3.2 Advantages of Scotch-Yoke Engine 2.3.2.1 Size Reduction 2.3.2.2 Engine Balance 2.3.2.3 Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH) 2.3.2.4 Emission 2.3.2.5 Efficiency 2.3.2.6 Cost 2.4 Scavenging Process 2.4.1 2.4.2 2.4.3 2.5 2.6 2.7 Cross-Scavenged Loop-Scavenged Uniflow-Scavenged 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 26 28 31 33 13 15 15 17 10 12

Scavenging Parametric Scavenging Mathematical Models Scavenging Measurement Methods 2.7.1 The Global Parameters Measurement Method 2.7.2 The Running Engine Parameter Measurement Method 2.7.3 The Computer Simulation Method

34

35 36 38

2.8 2.9

Supercharger

Future Challenges of Two-Stroke Gasoline engine 39

ENGINE DESIGN CONCEPT 3.1 3.2 Introduction Scavenging System Design 3.2.1 3.2.2 Scavenging Arrangement External Pump Design 42 43 45 46

ix 4 CALCULATIONS AND ANALYSIS 4.1 Engine Component Design 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 Crankcase and Cylinder Block Cylinder Liner s Cylinder Head Chamber The Intake and Exhaust Manifold Reed Valves Piston Pump Design 50 51 53 56 56 58 59 60

4.2

The Scotch-Yoke Crank mechanism 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 Sliders C-plates Piston Heads Crankshaft

62 62 65 66 67

FLOW SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS 5.1 5.2 Introduction Flow Pattern Static Condition Analysis 5.2.1 The Main Port Design 5.2.1.1 The Simulation Results 5.2.1.2 Conclusion of the Main Port Design Simulation results 5.2.2 The Upsweep Design 5.2.2.1 The Simulation Results 5.2.2.2 Conclusion of the Upsweep Angle Design Simulation results 5.3 Analysis of the Simulated Scavenging Process 5.3.1 The Simulation Results 5.3.1.1. Velocity distribution 5.3.1.2. Species Transport Mass Fraction Distribution 5.3.2 Discussion on the Dynamic Simulation Results 117 112 100 100 107 107 88 88 90 71 73 75 78

x 6 FABRICATION OF A SCAVENGING SYSTEM TEST RIG 6.1 6.2 6.3 Introduction The Test Rig Components The Test Rig Set-Up 6.3.1 6.4 The Scavenging Measurement Results 121 122 129 134 140 141 147

The Pressure Inside Cylinder 6.4.1 Results of Pressure-In-Cylinder Analysis

6.5

Scavenging Performance Analysis

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK 7.1 7.2 Conclusions Recommendation for Further Works 149 151

REFERENCES

152

APPENDICES

156

xi

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

1.0 2.1 2.2

Flow chart of project implementation The different types of reciprocating engine The two-stroke SI engine operating cycle with crankcase compression

4 9

11

2.3

The gas exchanges process of the crankcase compression Two Stroke Engine 11 12 14

2.4 2.5 2.6

The crank mechanism of a Scotch-Yoke engine The application of the SYTech Engine The comparison of the Scotch-Yoke engine with the conventional horizontal opposed cylinder engine

17

2.7

The 2nd order noise level of the CMC 422 SYTech engine at WOT acceleration Cabin Noise 19

2.8

The results of SYTech Fuel consumption and NOx Emissions advantages compare to conventional engine 20

2.9

The comparison of mechanical losses of the CMC 422 Scotch-Yoke and the conventional boxer engine 21

2.10

The comparison percentage of total Engine costs between the CMC 422 SYTech and conventional engine 22 24

2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14

Scavenging arrangements

Various port plan layout of Schnurle type loop scavenging 26 Physical representation of isothermal scavenge model a) Perfect displacements scavenging; b) Perfect mixing scavenging 31 28

xii 2.15 2.16 Benson-Brandham model of trapping characteristic Schematic diagram of single-cycle scavenge rig with cylinder block for externally scavenged three cylinders engine in place 2.17 2.18 2.19 The PIV on the two-stroke engine The 3D mesh with inlet and exhaust ducts A supercharged and turbocharged fuel injected two-stroke engines 2.20 2.21 3.1 The Piston pumps The future development of a two-stroke engine Design of a Two-stroke Horizontal Opposed Scotch-Yoke Engine 3.2 3.3 3.4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 The Schnurle loop scavenging The Piston pump mechanism design The scavenging process The cylinders arrangement The main cylinder block design Cylinder liner design Port openings timing The height of the transfer ports and exhaust port The cylinder head design The detail of the hemi-spherical chamber design The intake manifold design The exhaust manifold design The overview of the reed valve assembly The two ways control by the reed valve design The piston pump liner design The volume A and B inside the piston pump The rotational motion of the slider The assembly of a pair of the slider and bearings The C-plate design The assembly of slider bearing with C-plate The piston head for combustion process The piston head for piston pump 44 46 48 49 52 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 60 61 63 64 64 65 66 67 67 38 39 40 35 36 37 33

xiii 4.20 4.21 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 The Crankshaft design The analysis of the crankshaft balancing Flowchart of the flow pattern static state analysis. Schnurle type loop scavenging design The simulation results of sample A The simulation results of sample B The simulation results of sample C The simulation results of sample D The simulation results of sample E The simulation results of sample F The sweep port design The design of the upsweep degree of the port The simulation results of the sample 1 The simulation results of the sample 2 The simulation results of the sample 3 The simulation results of the sample 4 The simulation results of the sample 5 The simulation results of the sample 6 Flow chart for flow simulation in Fluent v 6.1 The engine computational symmetrical domain The piston surface (moving wall) of the scavenging process 5.20 5.21 5.22 5.23 5.24 5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28 5.29 5.30 5.31 The convergence of the simulation Work Velocity contour at 111.6 ATDC and at 136.6 ATDC Velocity contour at 161.6 ATDC and at 186.6 ATDC Velocity contour at 211.6 ATDC and at 236.6 ATDC Velocity contour at 261.6 ATDC and at 271.6 ATDC Mass Fraction at 111.6 ATDC and at 136.6 ATDC Mass Fraction at 161.6 ATDC and at 1866 ATDC Mass Fraction at 211.6 ATDC and at 26.6 ATDC Mass Fraction at 261.6 ATDC and at 271.6 ATDC The Mass fraction gas O2 versus crank angle The Scavenging efficiency versus scavenging ratio The trapping ratio versus scavenging ratio 103 106 108 109 110 111 113 114 115 116 118 120 120 68 69 74 76 79 81 82 84 85 87 89 89 91 93 94 96 97 99 100 102

xiv 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.16 6.17 6.18 6.19 The gasket sealing and leakage inspection Leakage inspection with soap bubble The machined items of the engine crank mechanism The perspex material representing the intake manifold The associated reed valves and cylinder head section The overview of the motorized scavenging test rig The gas analyzer probe and Oliver IGD gas analyzer The Dewetron signal display and crank angle sensor Digital manometer and Tachometer Schematic diagram of the scavenging test rig set up The scavenging measurement arrangement The gas analyzer probe on the outflow of the system The illustration of the scavenging measurement The pressure inlet, P1 versus Engine speed, (rpm) The Inlet velocity, V1 versus Engine Speed (rpm) The pumping manifold Pressure, P2 versus Engine Speed The pumping manifold velocity, V2 versus Engine Speed Schematic diagram of the pressure in-cylinder measurement 6.20 6.21 6.22 6.23 The location of the mounting of the pressure transducer Pressure Variation in chamber A versus crank Angle Pressure Variation in chamber B versus crank angle Pressure Variation in piston pump chamber versus crank angle 6.24 6.25 The scavenging efficiency versus scavenging ratio The trapping ratio versus scavenging ratio 146 148 148 140 141 143 145 122 123 125 125 126 126 128 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 136 137 138

The trapped volume ratio of Gas O2 versus Engine Speed 139

xv

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO.

TITLE

PAGE

1.1 2.1

The Gantt Chart The dynamic mechanism equation differences between Conventional and Scotch-Yoke engine

15

2.2

The Packing Advantages between SYTech and Conventional engine 16

2.3

Classification of different scavenging methods and their applications 27

2.4 2.5

The typical values for the scavenging performance 30 The fields of application of spark ignition two-stroke and four-stroke engine 41 43

3.1 3.2

Typical engine specifications Prediction performance for 4 cylinders 500cc Scotch-Yoke Engine

43

5.1

The several viscosity model application in the CFD simulations 72 74

5.2 5.3

The Engine Computation Domain Detail The Operation parameters for the Cosmos FloWork 2004

75 77

5.4 5.5

Several samples of the main ports design The study of the upsweep angle, () of the transfer port

90

5.6

Specification of the optimized Schnurle loop scavenging design. 100

xvi

5.7 5.8

The set up parameters when using Fluent v6.1 The simulation conditions for the scavenging process analysis

104

105 117 118

5.9 5.10 5.11

Results of mass fraction The dynamic results for the scavenging parameter The standard data for the perfect mixing and displacement scavenging model

119 124 127

6.1 6.2 6.3

Bill of Material for the engine model design Specification of the instrumentations The experimental results for volume A and volume B

147

xvii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

Yconv Ysy vconv vsy aconv asy r L SE TE CE SR Vi

d l,s Vet Vto Vtr tl

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
=

Piston replacement for conventional engine, m Piston replacement for Scotch-Yoke engine, m Piston Velocity for conventional engine, m Piston Velocity for Scotch-Yoke engine Piston acceleration for conventional engine, m/s2 Piston acceleration for Scotch-Yoke engine, m/s2 Crank radius, m Conrod length, m Crank angle after top dead center (TDC) Angular speed of the crankshaft, Scavenging Efficiency Trapping Efficiency Charging Efficiency Scavenging Ratio Intake velocity, m/s Cylinder bore, mm Stroke, mm Swept volume from TDC to exhaust opening, mm3 Total volume in the engine cylinder, mm3 Trapped volume during TDC, mm3 Liner thickness, mm Engine speed, rpm Permissible value of tension, 200 kgcm2, Cast Iron Maximum combustion pressure, 49.07 kg.cm2 Inner liner diameter, mm

= =
= =

c
Pm Dl

xviii n
Q

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

1 for two stroke engine Capacity/cylinder, mm3 Volumetric efficiency area, mm2 Height, mm Inertia Force, N Moment Inertia, Nm Unbalanced mass, g Radius of unbalanced mass from center, mm The distance from center, mm The distance of mass gravity of counterweight, mm The unbalance Moment Inertial System, Nm Angle for main port, Target point for main point, mm Upsweep angle of main port, Upsweep angle of rear port, Upsweep angle of side port, Downsweep angle of exhaust port, Density, g/ml Top Dead Center Bottom Dead Center After Top Dead Center, Specific heat ratio Turbulent Prandtl numbers Turbulent kinetic energy Dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy Pressure at atmosphere condition Crank angle,

v
A h Fi Mi mu rm Ld rb Mref AM MT UPM UPR UPS DPE

TDC BDC ATDC

atm CA

xix

LIST OF APPENDICES

APPENDIX

TITLE

PAGE

A B1 B2 B3.1 B3.2 B3.3 B3.4 B3.5 B3.6 B3.7 B3.8 B3.9 B3.10 B3.11 B3.12 B3.13 B3.14 B3.15 B3.16 B3.17 B3.18 B3.19 B3.20

Balance Shaft Design Orthographic view Exploded View of Engine Model Slider R Slider L Slider Bearing Slider Bearing 2 Crankshaft bearing with thrust Crank Bearing M Crankshaft Crankcase Exhaust Manifold Crankshaft Bearing Intake manifold C-platrigmodel1 C-platrigmodel2 Piston55K Compression rig2 Piston pump Sleeve test Reed main body Cylinder head Block

157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179

xx B3.21 B3.22 C D E F G Linearslide Adapter block Dynamic Mesh Option Set Up Scavenging Rig Experimental Data
Dewetron Signal Display Setting

180 181 182 184 188 189 194

Pressure In-cylinder Data Tube Adaptor Specifications

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Preface

The emphasis of the research project is to design a scavenging system for a newly conceptualized small capacity (500 cc), multi-cylinder, two-stroke engine based on the Scotch-Yoke mechanism. The research work on the Scotch-Yoke engine concept was attempted by CMC SYTECH Corp. of Australia [2] and was proven to have several advantages i.e. small size, perfect balance, reduction of the engine weight compare to the conventional reciprocating engine of a same displacement.

The scavenging process in the two-stroke cycle engine has direct influent on the performance of their combustion processes and remains one of the fundamental important strategies towards improvement of fuel utilization efficiency and the reduction of pollutant.

Several CFD simulation analyses have been done to characterize the scavenging process for the port geometry optimization. In addition, an unfired test rig for scavenging system measurement has been developed in conjunction with this research work.

2 1.2 Objectives

The objectives of the research project are:

i. To design an external scavenging system of a two stroke Scotch-Yoke multicylinder engine ii. To develop a scavenging system test rig to optimize the scavenging process. iii. To reduce fresh charge short-circuiting problem in the two-stroke engine.

1.3

Statement of Problem

Scavenging process is required in two-stroke engines in assuring the appropriateness of combustion. However it will also result in the short-circuiting of fresh charge (flow directly from the engines transfer to the exhaust port). The shortcircuiting phenomenon is responsible for the low fuel economy/efficiency and highunburned hydrocarbons emission.

1.4

Hypothesis

An external scavenging system is required to retrofit the small capacity multicylinder, two-stroke horizontally opposed Scotch-Yoke engine to improve its scavenging efficiency and overcome the mixture short-circuiting problem.

3 1.5 Scope

The scopes of work prescribed are as follows:

i.

Literature reviews on the two-stroke engine, scavenging systems and Scotch-Yoke engine concept

ii. iii.

Design of a scavenging system for the two-stroke Scotch-Yoke engine. Computational Fluid Dynamic(CFD) code simulation for the scavenging flow analysis

iv. v.

Development of an unfired scavenging system test rig Validation of the hypotheses

4 1.6 Methodology

The methodology applied in the implementation of this project was as follows:

Literature study Design Concept Calculations and Analyses

CAD Solid Drawings

CFD simulations

CFD Evaluation
Optimized

Results Database

Development of an unfired Scavenging system test rig Documentations and Reports

Figure 1.0: Flow chart of project implementation.

5 1.6.1 Literature Review

The review of recent works is important to provide the understanding of the advancements of two-stroke technologies such as the scavenging systems and Scotch-Yoke engine design itself. The previous technical references which are

published in the reputable journals such as Engineering Society for Advancing mobility Land Sea, Air and Space (SAE) Technical Paper Series, will assist the author in providing new research methods for the scavenging system development. Besides, there are several books and publications on two-stroke engines which will provide first hand knowledge on approaches to engine design and analysis.

1.6.2

Design Concept

With the knowledge obtained from literature study, a design concept of an external scavenging system which is suited to the design of Scotch-Yoke mechanism, as well as piston pumps design will be proposed. The loop scavenging arrangement, which is suitable for small capacity gasoline type two-stroke engine, will then be applied for the scavenging port geometry design work.

1.6.3

CAD Solid Drawings

It is in the opinion of the author that Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software, (e.g. SolidWorks 2004) is suitable tool to enable engine parts be designed and eventually developed. The specification of the engine parts will be shown in intricate details in finalizing engineering drawings.

6 1.6.4 CFD Simulations

The Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) simulation work is an important approach to predict the characteristic of the gas exchange processes particularly during the scavenging process. The design of the porting will be improved through the analysis of a series of simulation results.

1.6.5

Development of an Unfired Scavenging System Test Rig

The fabrication works of the unfired scavenging system test rig was done with the assistance of a local engineering company. Prior to this, the engine components detail drawings are prepared for the fabrication works. However, the assembly of the components into a complete unit was not made by the said company, but was made by the author in UTM, specifically at the Automotive Development Center (ADC).

After the engine model was completely assembled, it was simulated for motion analysis using a specially designed motorized control system. The instrumentations for the scavenging measurement were installed at the engine model. A technique call gas sampling method was applied to evaluate for the engines overall scavenging system efficiency.

1.7 Gantt Chart

Planning and execution of the project indicates the milestone of the progress of the design and development work within 5 semesters.

Table 1.1: The Gantt chart

Planning and Execution

1 1. Literature Review 2. Design Concept 3. Calculations and Analyses 4. CAD Solid Drawings 5. CFD simulations 6. Fabrication works 7. Test Rig Setting Up 8. Experimental data analysis 9. Documentations and Reports Study on the previous technical paper Develop the design concept 1. Engine geometry design 2. External pump design 3D model drawing for the system CFD code simulation for the design optimization Fabrication of the engine model 1. Setting up the test rig Investigation on the Scavenging efficiency Summary of the Project Extend For Execution 2

Semesters
3 4 5

Planned & Execution

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE STUDY

2.1

Internal Combustion Engines

The internal combustion (IC) engine is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in a fuel into mechanical energy. Chemical energy of the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within the engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating crankshaft, which is the output of the engine.

The most common internal-combustion engine is the piston-type gasoline engine used in most automobiles. The confined space in which combustion occurs is called a cylinder. In each cylinder a piston slides up and down. One end of a connecting rod is attached to the bottom of the piston by a joint; the other end of the rod clamps around a bearing on one of the throws, or convolutions, of a crankshaft; the reciprocating (up-and-down) motions of the piston rotate the crankshaft, which is connected by suitable gearing to the drive wheels of the automobile. Figure 2.1 shows the several type of cylinder arrangement which is in-line engine, V-engine, W-engine, radial and opposed piston.

Figure 2.1: The different types of reciprocating engine (a: single cylinder, b: inline,
c: V-design, d: opposed cylinder, e: W-design, f: opposed piston, g: radial.) [8].

Besides, there are two categories for the internal engine design, which are spark ignition (SI) engine and diesel engine. Spark ignition engine is an engine which the combustion process in each cycle is started by use of a spark plug. Diesel engine is also called as compression ignition (CI) engine which the combustion process starts when the air-mixture self ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high compression.

10 2.2 Two-Stroke Engine

Two-stroke engine is a reciprocating engine in which the piston takes over any valve functions in order to obtain a power stroke for each revolution of the crankshaft. This involves the use of ports in the cylinder walls which are covered and uncovered by the movements of the piston. As the piston moves down, it clears these ports so that the exhaust gasses can exit and fresh charge of mixture can enter at the same time.

In a crankcase-compression engine, the fresh charge is compressed in the crankcase by the underside of the working piston, prior to its admission to the cylinder through the scavenge ducts. The closing and opening of the inlet, scavenge, and exhaust ports are controlled by the piston itself, and thus in its simplest form, the present engine requires only three moving parts for each cylinder. This engine concept benefits greatly from this simplicity and has been used successfully as a spark-ignition prime mover for more applications than any other two-stroke engine type. The two-stroke SI engine operating cycle with crankcase compression is shown in Figure 2.2. In addition, Figure 2.3 shows the gas exchange process of a crankcase compression two-stroke engine.

In typical two-stroke engine, the air-fuel mixture enters the crankcase through a reed valve. When the piston is near the bottom of the cylinder, a port is uncovered. As prior movement of the piston has compressed the mixture in the crankcase, it flows into the cylinder. Further compression in the cylinder starts as soon as the piston reverses and covers the ports. At the same time compression is occurring in the cylinder, movement of the piston has created a vacuum in the crankcase which draws a fresh charge of mixture from the carburetor into the crankcase. The compressed charge is fired as the piston reaches top dead center. As the expansion of the burning charge forces the piston downward, the reed valve in the crankcase closes and the mixture in the crankcase is compressed. As the piston uncovers the ports at the bottom of the stroke, compressed mixture from the crankcase enters the cylinder again. This incoming fresh mixture then assists in pushing the burned gasses out of the cylinder and the cycle is repeated.

11

Figure 2.2: The two-stroke SI engine operating cycle with crankcase compression. (a: power stroke, b. exhaust blow down, c. scavenging process, d. compression stroke, e. combustion start) [8].

Figure 2.3: The gas exchanges process of the crankcase compression Two-stroke engine [32].

12 The exhaust process of a two-stroke cycle engine differs from that of a fourstroke cycle engine in that there is no exhaust stroke. Blow down is the same, occurring when the exhaust valve opens or when the exhaust slot is uncovered near the end of the power stroke. This is immediately followed with an intake process of compressed air or air-fuel mixture. As the air enters the cylinder at a pressure usually between 1.2 to 1.8 atm, it pushes the retaining lower pressure exhaust gas out the still-open exhaust port in a scavenging process.

2.3

The Scotch-Yoke Mechanism

Scotch-Yoke mechanism converts reciprocating motion to rotary motion. It was used in steam engines, air compressors and pumps. The horizontal-opposed Scotch-Yoke engine differs from conventional engines in the crank and connecting rod areas. The combustion process, fuel system, valve train, induction and ignition system are basically identical. It replaces the arrangement of connecting rods, gudgeon pins and pistons in conventional engines with a rigid assembly of two pistons and two connecting rods and a bearing block (Fig. 2.4).

Figure 2.4: The crank mechanism of a Scotch-Yoke engine [2].

13 The crankpin rotates within the bearing block, which slides up and down between the parallel surfaces formed by the bases of the two connecting rods. The crankshaft is conventional with two pistons connected to each crankpin. The connection of two opposing pistons determines the horizontally opposed layout of Scotch-Yoke engines. CMC Power Systems Ltd. Of Australia has developed a Scotch-Yoke engine technology, called SYTech, for very compact combustion engines with 2 to 12 cylinders. The SYTech engine can be applied to all normal types of combustion engines with reciprocating piston motion. Prototype engines have been built in two and four stroke version, also in spark ignition as well as compression ignition (Diesel). In two stroke engines the firing interval of 180 degrees between the combustion strokes of opposing pistons simplifies the crank arrangement, but increases the engine width, if the bottom side of the pistons is to be used for the gas exchange. The SYTech engine has shown its applications in the combustion engines (road, water, air) and mobile power units (electric power unit, compressors). Figure 2.5 shows the application of the SYTech engines.

2.3.1

The Differences between Scotch-Yoke Engine and Conventional Engine

The difference in piston motion of conventional (Conv) and of Scotch-Yoke (sy) engines can be described by the following equations for piston position, speed and acceleration. The dynamic mechanism differences between the conventional engine and Scotch-Yoke engine are shown in Table 2.1. The mechanism equations of the conventional engine are more complex than the Scotch-Yoke engine. The

complexity of the conventional engine is caused by the distance of piston is defined of the big end bearing rotational movement and the connecting rod length replacement. However, the Scotch-Yoke mechanism is simply defined in simple harmonically sinusoidal motion.

Piston engine Combustion engine Road Mobile Bikes Automotive Small City car Luxury vehicle Hybrid car Performance car Water Sport boat Air Mobile Power Unit Elec. Power Generator Small aircraft Compressors Engine Compressor Both

Figure 2.5: The application of the SYTech Engine [2].

14

15 Table 2.1: The dynamic mechanism equation differences between Conventional and Scotch-Yoke engine [2].

Descriptions Piston Replacement

Piston Velocity Piston Acceleration
v conv

Conventional Engine
Y = r cos ( L + r ) + conv 2 2 2 L r sin

Scotch-Yoke Engine
Ysy = r cos r

= r w sin +

r 2

2 2 2 L r sin
sin 2

v sy = r w (sin )

aconv = r w2 (cos + A2 cos2 + A4 cos4 + A6 cos6 + ...) A2 = k + k 3 15k 5 + + ... 4 128 k 3 3k 5 ... 4 16 r and k = L A4 =

asy = r w 2 cos

9k 5 A6 = + ... 128

2.3.2

Advantages of Scotch-Yoke Engine [3]

The CMC engine outperforms conventional engines in many areas. Some of the advantages result directly from adopting the CMC SYTech engine, while others are a secondary consequence of the reduction in weight and size of the CMC engine.

2.3.2.1 Size Reduction

The centre of gravity of the whole engine is close to the centre of the crankshaft, which improves vehicle stability in a horizontal layout. An additional

16 advantage of the layout with horizontally opposed cylinders is the very short and rigid crankshaft, which helps to reduce torsional crankshaft vibration, especially in engines with a large number of cylinders. Because there are no gudgeon pins in the CMC Scotch-Yoke engine, there is no need to prevent heat from the piston surface being transferred directly onto the conrod. This lifts many of the traditional constraints on piston design. Table 2.2 showed the comparison of the packing advantages between SYTech and conventional engines.

Table 2.2: The Packing Advantages between SYTech and Conventional engine [3].

The Packaging Advantages Conventional Type:

Bore, mm Stroke, mm No. of Cylinder Cylinder Dist, mm Bore/Stroke Conrod length, mm Capacity, dm3 Deck height, mm Length, mm Height, mm Width, mm L/R Ratio (geometry) L/R ratio(NVH) Box Volume, dm3

SYTech SY 420
86 86 4 93 1 113.7 1.998 187.7 297 475.4 667.8 2.64 Infinite 94

Differences

Opel 2.0L
86 86 4 93 1 143 1.998 219 559 627 532 3.33 3.33 186

-29 mm (-20%) -31 mm (-14%) -262 mm (-47%) -152 mm (-24%) 136 mm (26%) -21% -92dm3 (-49%)

The packaging volume of Scotch-Yoke engines using the advantages of the CMC design shows reduced dimensional (except width) and of significant for vehicle engine compartment packaging can have a boxed volume that ranges up to 35 per

17 cent less than conventional boxer engines, and close to 50 per cent less than in-line and V-configuration engines as shown in Figure 2.6 [3].

Figure 2.6: The comparison of the Scotch-Yoke engine with the conventional horizontal opposed cylinder engine [3].

2.3.2.2 Engine Balance

In CMC Scotch-Yoke engines, the horizontal opposed arrangement of the piston movement, only first order inertial is taking into the consideration. The higher order inertia influences is omitted because value cos2n is always equal to zero. The piston and conrod assembly moves in a perfectly sinusoidal motion along the cylinder axis, while the bearing block circles on the crank pit around the crankshaft axis.

18 To even achieve a compromise with balancing the second order inertia forces in conventional engines requires two balance shafts, both of which have to be driven at twice the engine speed. Every SYTech engine can be perfectly balanced with a maximum of one balance shaft that rotates at the same speed as the engine.

2.3.2.3 Noise, Vibration and Harshness (NVH)

Perfect balancing of the inertia forces, improved torque uniformity and minimal piston slap all contribute to the improvement of NVH. This is reflected in the test results for crankcase vibration, where the CMC Scotch-Yoke engine has much lower vibration amplitudes. It remains the case regardless of engine load and over the whole operating range. Noise analysis tests conducted on the CMC Scotch-Yoke engine proved that the linear bearing itself does not increase the overall noise emissions. Full balancing means the elimination of higher order influences, which together with improved torque uniformity and reduced piston slap, leads to the engines vibration-free running and reduced noise levels. Less vibration imply fewer secondary resonance problems. Vibration test results measured on an engine dynamometer with acceleration sensors mounted on the generator bracket of the conventional and the Scotch-Yoke engine demonstrate the smooth operation of the SYTech engine and support the subjective impression already the first CMC422 prototype engine made, when it was run for the first time. The reduction in vibration amplitudes is significant at all speeds and over the whole load range [3].

Figure 2.7 showed the significant of the lower secondary order noise level of a 2.2-liter 4-cylinder SYTech engine at the Wide-open Throttle (WOT) acceleration Cabin Noise compare to the conventional 4-cylinder engines.

19

Figure 2.7: The secondary order noise level of the CMC 422 SYTech engine at WOT acceleration Cabin Noise [3].

2.3.2.4 Emission

Reaction kinetics calculations for diesel engines indicate reduced NOx at high loads. Test results for spark ignition engines demonstrate significantly lower NOx under part load conditions.

The comparison of results for Lambda equal to one on the conventional CMC Scotch-Yoke engine showed an average reduction of 30 percent in the NOx emissions. The CMC Scotch-Yoke technology allows a 4-cylinder engine to run smoothly at idle speeds as low as 550 rpm. Therefore, the fuel consumption and emissions can be lower than with conventional engines, which idle at between 7 and 800 rpm. Figure 2.8 shows the comparison of fuel consumption and NOx emissions advantages between SYTech engine and the conventional engine of similar capacity [3].

20

Figure 2.8: The results of SYTech fuel consumption and NOx emissions advantages in relation to conventional engine [3].

2.3.2.5 Efficiency

The lower frictional losses not only reduce piston and cylinder wear, but also reduce engine fuel consumption. Combustion simulations by a German engine Research & Development Company, FEV, as well as testing by CMC Research at the University of Melbourne, show that improved fuel consumption can be achieved based on a lower possible idle speed, in addition to the savings caused by lower frictional losses. The frictional losses associated with CMCs additional linear bearings are more of an offset by the benefits from the reduced numbers of main and conrod bearings, the elimination of gudgeon pins and the lower piston friction. In motoring tests the mechanical loss in the CMC engine was less than in the conventional boxer engine, especially at higher speeds. Even more substantial was the improvement in the mechanical efficiency in the CMC engine over the

21 conventional engine. Figure 2.9 shows the comparison of mechanical losses of the CMC 422 Scotch-Yoke and the conventional boxer engine.

Figure 2.9: The comparison of mechanical losses of the CMC 422 Scotch-Yoke and the conventional boxer engine [3].

2.3.2.6 Cost

Most of the manufacturing processes involved in building a SYTech engine are the same as those used in the manufacture of conventional engines. In most respects the engine work on the same principles as all other internal combustion engines. The major difference is the crank mechanism, which overcomes many disadvantages of the conventional crank mechanism, as well as being slightly cheaper to build. CMCs engineers have conducted a detailed cost analysis of building the CMC-422 (four cylinders, 2.2 liter) engine, taking into account all differences in material, machining and labor costs. Figure 2.10 shows the comparison percentage of total engine costs between the SYTech engine and conventional engine.

22

Figure 2.10: The comparison percentage of total Engine costs between CMC 422 SYTech and a conventional engine [3].

2.4

Scavenging Process

Scavenging process is the process where the cylinders burned gases are replaced with a fresh charge using both the high blow down pressure of the expanded combustion gases and the fluid dynamics of the incoming charges. This process requires only a fraction of the pistons stroke to complete, with the exhausting and recharging events occurring simultaneously, and is critical to ensure that the cylinder gases are adequately prepared for the next combustion cycle. Scavenging system is defined as a method used to accomplish the charge-changing process in a two-stroke engine. There are two general methods of putting air into the cylinders: through normal intake valves, and through intake slots in the cylinder walls. In a conventional crankcase-scavenged two-stroke engine, the combustion products from the previous

23 cycle are forced from the cylinder with a new air/fuel charge. This charge is compressed in the crankcase by the underside of the piston and then enters the cylinder when the piston uncovers the transfer port. Unfortunately, the exhaust port is opened during the entire time that caused the part of the air fuel mixture to short circuiting through the cylinder during the scavenging process. This is the major source of the high hydrocarbon emissions from crankcase-scavenged engines. When short-circuiting occurs, lower scavenging efficiencies result even though the volume occupied by the short-circuiting flow through the cylinder does displace an equal volume of the burned gases.

Another phenomenon which reduces scavenging efficiency is the formation of pockets or dead zones in the cylinder volume where burned gases can become trapped and escape displacement or entrainment by the fresh scavenging flow. These un-scavenged zones are most likely to occur in region of the cylinder that remains secluded from the main fresh mixture flow path. Several methods for charging the cylinder have been proposed. Scavenging arrangements are classified as illustrated in Figure 2.11.

2.4.1 Cross-scavenged

The transfer and exhaust ports are opposite one another. A deflector on the piston as shown in Figure 2.11(a) routes the fresh charge in the direction of the arrow and expels the residual gases from the previous stroke. However, the flow follows the direction of the wall at the first instant only. Proper piston head design is required to assure that the intake air deflects up without short-circuiting and leaving a stagnant pocket of exhaust gas at the head end of the cylinder. At piston bottom dead center, it pursues the shortest path, with the result that a considerable amount of fresh gas is expelled instead of the residual gas. Due to the very high charge losses, cross scavenging is used with inexpensive, light-duty engines only.

24

Figure 2.11: Scavenging arrangements [4].

2.4.2 Loop-scavenged

The difference between the loop-scavenged two-stroke cycle engine and the cross-scavenged is the design of the piston head. The loop-scavenged piston is flat because the intake parts are located directly across from each other and 90 from the exhaust port. The entering gas streams travel across the piston, up the far side of the barrel and curl over and down to complete the scavenging process. This resulting turbulence cleans the combustion chamber of all exhaust gases. The fresh gases

25 flowing into the cylinder from ports on either side of the exhaust port are directed upward in the direction of the opposite cylinder wall and expel the exhaust gases from the cylinder as shown in the center diagram. The scavenging losses are less than with cross scavenging; however, a small proportion of the fresh gases are expelled directly, in spite of the necessary diversion. A core of residual gas remains at the center of the cylinder. Loop scavenging is more favorable for gasoline injection, where in principle the exhaust and transfer ports are interchanged.

A different arrangement, where the exhaust ports are above the scavenge ports (MAN-type loop-scavenging system), is shown schematically in Figure 2.11 (b). In this design, the fresh charge stream is directed toward the unported wall, flows toward the cylinder head, changes its direction, and continues toward the exhaust port. The long path of the entering charge requires high momentum jets and one would expect, therefore, that this type of engine perform better at wide-open throttle (WOT). For this reason, this MAN-loop scavenging system is well suited to diesel engines where load is controlled by the amount of fuel injected rather than a throttle valve.

Another method that avoids the use of the troublesome deflector piston was developed by Schnurle in Germany about 1926. In this approach, the fresh charge is directed toward the opposite side of the cylinder to the exhaust port, across a piston with an essentially flat top. Instead of the single scavenge port placed diametrically opposite the exhaust port, a pair of scavenging ports were located symmetrically around the exhaust port on the same level as the exhaust port as shown in Fig 2.11(c). In this arrangement, the fresh charge path is shorter than in the MAN-type loop scavenging. The Schnurle loop-scavenging system is better at throttled conditions, and mixing between the fresh charge and burned gases is reduced. This type of scavenging system is widely used in small-bore SI engine. Figure 2.12 shows the various port plan layout of the Schnurle type loop scavenging.

26

Figure 2.12: Various port plan layout of Schnurle type loop scavenging [5].

2.4.3 Uniflow-scavenged

Intake ports are in the cylinder walls and exhaust valves in the head (or intake valves are in the head and exhaust ports are in the wall, which is less common). This is the most efficient system of scavenging but required the added cost of valves. The exhaust gases are expelled from the cylinder longitudinally, scavenging thus being improved still further. However, because of the high thermal loading, exhaust valves are rarely fitted into the cylinder head, except for instance, in two stroke diesel engines. The piston controlling the exhaust port is slightly in advance of the inlet port piston. The exhaust time is thus shortened and displaced with respect to the transfer time by such an amount that when the transfer port opens, the overpressure in the cylinder has already been eliminated and the exhaust port closes well ahead of the transfer port.

27 The classification of different scavenging methods and their applications is shown in the Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Classification of different scavenging methods [4].

Method

Advantages
Good scavenging at partial throttling and low speeds

Drawbacks

Applications

Cross

High bsfc at high throttle opening and Small outboard high speeds engines, and some other specific Low engine volume for High tendency to applications multi cylinder knock limits arrangements compression ratio Low manufacturing cost Good scavenging at Wide Open Throttle (WOT) Low surface to volume ratio combustion chamber Low manufacturing cost

Loop, MAN-type

Poor scavenging at part-throttle operation

Large-bore marine CI engines

Loop, Schnurletype

Good scavenging at WOT and medium engine speed Fair scavenging at part throttle and other than medium engine speeds Low manufacturing cost

High bsfc at part throttle operation

SI engines for a large variety of applications

Uniflow, exhaust valve

Very good scavenging Need for exhaust at WOT for high strokevalves; thus more to-bore ratio complex and higher manufacturing cost Excellent bsfc

Large-bore lowspeed CI marine and stationary engines

Uniflow, opposed piston

Very good scavenging Need for mechanical Sometimes used in at WOT for high stroke- coupling between large-bore low-speed to-bore ratio two crankshafts CI marine engines

28

2.5

Scavenging Parametric

For the same power generation, more air input is required in a two-stroke cycle engine than in four-stroke engine. This is because some of the air is lost in the overlap period of the scavenging process. A quantitative discussion of the two-stroke cycle scavenging process requires precise terminology and an appropriate set of parameters. The parameters are used to describe the progress of the gas exchange process are scavenging efficiency, trapping efficiency, charging efficiency and delivery ratio.

The simple theories of scavenging all postulate the ideal case of scavenging a cylinder which has a constant volume, Vcy, as shown in Figure 2.13, with a fresh air charge in an isothermal, isobaric process. In Figure 2.13, the basic elements of flow are presented. The incoming scavenge air can enter either a space call the displacement zone where it will be quite undiluted with exhaust gas, or mixing zone where it mixes with the exhaust gas, or it can be directly short circuited to the exhaust pipe providing the worst of all scavenging situations.

Figure 2.13: Physical representation of isothermal scavenge model [6].

29 The following parameters are used to describe the progress of the gas exchange process. [6]

i.

The scavenging efficiency (SEv), which indicates to what extent the burnt residuals have been replaced with fresh charge at any given instant.

SE v =

Mass of delivered air retained Mass of trapped cylinder charge a V ta = a V ta + a V ex V ta = V ta + V ex = V ta V cy

(2.1)

ii.

The trapping efficiency (TEv), which defines the amount of shortcircuiting of fresh charge to the exhaust
TEv = Mass of delivered air retained Mass of delivered air V = ta Vas

(2.2)

iii.

The charging efficiency (CEv), which represents the ability of the engine to fill the cylinder trapped volume

CEv =

Mass of delivered air retained trapped volume ambient density V = a ta aVcy = Vta Vcy

(2.3)

30 iv. The delivery (scavenging) ratio (SR), compares the actual mass of delivered fresh charge at any given instant to the total amount required in an ideal charging process, the reference mass.

SR = =

Mass of delivered air per cycle trapped volume x ambient density Vas Vcy (2.4)

In the ideal scavenging process (there is no short-circuiting of fresh charge occurring), it is clear from manipulation of the above equations that the charging efficiency and scavenging efficiency are identical:

CEv = SEv
TEv = SEv SRv

(2.5) (2.6)

Table 2.4: The typical values for the scavenging performance [8].

Typical scavenge performance results

1 2 3 4 Scavenging efficiency Trapping efficiency Charging efficiency Delivery ratio

Typical values

0.6 < se < 0.9 0.65 < te< 0.8 0.5 < ce < 0.75 0.5 < ce < 0.75

31

2.6 Scavenging Mathematical Models

There are two simple scavenge models suggested by Hopkinson, i.e. i.) Pure displacement scavenging, and ii.) Perfect mixing scavenging [4]. These models are used to predict realistic values for charging efficiency and the scavenging efficiency. Both of these are based on the constant volume, isothermal ideal. Pure displacement scavenging assumes that the fresh charge entering the cylinder displaces the residual exhaust gas without mixing with it and without any short-circuiting of the fresh charge until the cylinder is completely scavenged. [5] Figure 2.14 shows the scavenging model concept of the perfect displacement scavenging and perfect mixing scavenging.

Figure 2.14: a) Perfect displacement scavenging; b) Perfect mixing scavenging [4].

This process is also known as perfect scavenging and may be defined as [5]: SE = SR, when SR < 1; SE = 1, when SR > 1 (2.7)

Perfect mixing scavenging assumes that as each volume increment of fresh charge enters the cylinder, it is instantly and completely mixed with the rest of the cylinder contents. At the same time, an identical volume increment of the resultant mixture exits through the exhaust port. The perfect mixing process can be expressed as:
SE = 1 e SR (2.8)

32 Although neither model can be considered a true representation of the scavenge process in a firing engine they are useful for the assessment of experimentally attained scavenge data. It is, of course, impossible to better the scavenge efficiency of the pure displacement model. The perfect mixing model, on the other hand, does not represent a boundary to poor scavenging. Direct shortcircuiting will, in theory, allow the scavenging efficiency to be zero, irrespective of the scavenge ratio. Generally, at low scavenge ratios, well-designed cylinders have scavenging efficiencies that tend towards those calculated for pure displacement scavenging and at high scavenge ratios the scavenging efficiency fails between that predicted by the pure displacement and perfect mixing models.

Another theoretical model is called Benson-Brandham model. BensonBrandham model has suggested combining the perfect displacement and perfect mixing model. That first part is to be perfect displacement until the air flow has reached a volumetric scavenging ratio value of SRpd, then the perfect scavenge volume is mixed together at that point, with include short-circuiting factor, . The Benson-Brandham process can be expressed as [6]:

i. when, 0 < SRv < (1-) SRpd; SE v = 1 (1 ) SRv (2.9)

ii. When, (1-)SRv > SRpd;

SEv = 1 (1 SR pd )e ( SRpd (1 ) SRv

(2.10)

Figure 2.15 showed the Benson-Brandham model compared to the perfect displacement and perfect mixing model of the trapping characteristics.

33

Figure 2.15: Benson-Brandham model of trapping characteristic [6].

2.7

The Scavenging Measurement Methods

There are several types of the measurement methods to study the scavenging flow in the cylinder chamber. We can classify these methods in three groups:

i. ii. iii.

The global parameters measurement method The running engine parameter measurement method The computer simulation method

34

2.7.1

The Global Parameters Measurement Method

The global methods mainly deal with the cylinder itself and the inlet and exhaust ports. The aim is firstly to characteristic the cylinder on a specific test bench and then to test quickly design modifications before building the final design. These methods are related to the wind tunnel, single cycle gas testing apparatus, single cycle hydraulic testing apparatus.

Extensive research has already been conducted into optimizing the porting layouts of two-stroke engine cylinders. One of the techniques developed at The Queens University of Belfast for evaluating scavenging is a unique experimental method described as the single cycle scavenge test. Although the test does not reflect the actual scavenge process in a firing engine, it is a sufficiently useful procedure to have become an industrial standard for scavenges evaluation [5]. Single cycle similarity tests are frequently used to modify port geometry in order to improve the engines scavenging characteristics. In configuring these tests similar geometric ratios, as well as Reynolds and Euler number are generally used.

Gas concentration sampling provides a convenient and reliable way of determining the scavenging and trapping efficiency of the operating engine. This method can only be performed on scavenging systems that have been designed and constructed, and therefore provides little direction during the design process [35].

Figure 2.16 shows the schematic diagram of single-cycle scavenge rig with cylinder block for externally scavenged three cylinder engine in place; testing the centre cylinder.

35

Figure 2.16: Schematic diagram of single-cycle scavenge rig with cylinder block for externally scavenged three cylinders engine in place [5].

2.7.2

The Running Engine Parameter Measurement Method

These methods take into account a real running engine. The engine is modified to let the tools for capture image and visualize the phenomena inside the engine. The tools include the complicated and expensive optical access instrumentations such as the endoscopy system, optical fibers system, Laser Doppler Anemometry (LDA) system, or Particles Imaging System (PIV) system. The advantages are possible visualization in several planes simultaneously, the characterization of the evolution of scavenging with time. The disadvantage is the measurement equipment, which allows the optical access to the engine is expensive and complex [7]. Figure 2.17 shows the PIV imaging system on a two-stroke engine to measure the scavenging and combustion process.

36

Figure 2.17: The PIV on the two-stroke engine [5].

2.7.3

The Computer Simulation Method

These methods are quite new, and still need complete experimental validation. However, their use can give plenty of information. The multi-dimensional computer simulation includes the one-dimensional, two-dimensional and threedimensional calculations. The one-dimensional is to calculate the acoustic behavior of the different areas of the engine through the burn and unburnt (air, fuel vapor, mixture) gases passed. These codes may also provide the boundary conditions for multi-dimensional.

37 The advantages are that it allows a quick description of the engine as a whole, and that acoustic waves are taken into account. It is a useful tool for parametric studies (engine speed, geometric modification). However, the numerous parameters have to be calibrated with the help of measurement.

The two-dimensional calculation is for the case of 3D geometries, which can be considered as 2D, because the geometry is axis symmetrical or the third dimension is large relative to the other two. The advantages are in the ability to solve turbulent fluid mechanics equations, taking into account interaction between gas, liquid, and model combustion development.

The three-dimensional is to calculate fully 3D geometries is terms of aerodynamics, injection and combustion. It involves solving fluid mechanics equations in three directions in space. The calculation being similar to that 2D, both the models and the method of solving the equations are the same. The advantage is that the 3D aspect of the flow is well addressed. This allows in particular the scavenging of the burnt gases by the fresh charge to be calculated, and thus scavenging ratio and efficiency. Figure 2.18 shows the advanced computing 3D mesh arrangement for engine cylinder.

Chamber mesh

Exhaust duct mesh

Transfer duct mesh

Figure 2.18: The 3D mesh with inlet and exhaust ducts [5].

38

2.8

Supercharger

Since the two-stroke cycle gas exchange process occurs when both the exhaust and the scavenge ports are open, the pressure inside the cylinder is normally above atmospheric pressure. This gas exchange or scavenging process requires the fresh charge be supplied to the engine cylinder at a high enough pressure to displace the burned gases from the cylinder. At the same time, the pressure should be low enough to minimize the scavenging air pumping work.

Superchargers may be mechanical driven or be driven by the engine exhaust. The supply of fresh air for the scavenging process is by a blower or turbocharger (Figure 2.19) directly to the scavenging ports without use of the crankcase as an air pumping system.

Figure 2.19: A blower and turbocharger in a fuel injected two stroke engines [6].

39 Another type of supercharger which could be applied is the displacement pump. The engine drives the piston pump, which draws air through the carburetor and delivers it through a pipe to the top of the combustion chamber. When the main piston approaches BDC, the piston moves upward to compress the fresh charge inside the pumping cylinder. When the exhaust ports are exposed, the cylinder pressure falls, the excess pressure above the top valve causes this valve to open, and fresh mixture is introduced into the main cylinder. One important purpose of such an auxiliary cylinder is to create asymmetrical port timing, relative to BC, and thus minimize any backflow through the scavenging ports [4]. Figure 2.20 shows the piston type pumps in the engine design.

Combustion chamber Pump Pump

Combustion chamber

Pump

Figure 2.20: The Piston pumps [11].

2.9

Future Challenges of Two-Stroke Gasoline Engine

The exhaust of internal combustion engines is one of the major contributions to the worlds air pollution problem. Recent research and development has made major reductions on engine emissions, but a growing population and a greater

40 number of automobiles mean that the problem will exist for many years to come. During the first half of the 1900s, automobiles emission was not recognize as a problem, mainly due to the lower number of vehicles. As the number of automobiles grew along with more power plants, home furnaces, and the population in general, air pollution became an ever-increasing problem.

In two-stroke engine, several approaches have been developed. One of the major breakthroughs has been use of the electronic fuel injector in place of the carburetor. Sophisticated electronics is beginning to be used in two-stroke engines for injection timing, engine management and emission control. Sensor and electronic control units are used in the Direct Fuel Injection (DFI) system to manage injection timing and minimize exhaust emission. The conventional carbureted two-stroke engine will probably survive in a transitory stage with the addition of an exhaust catalyst. Nevertheless, this solution has a limited potential in term of pollutant emissions reduction and presents thermal problems of the exhaust and catalyst, difficult to solve without any improvement in term of fuel economy. Therefore, the need of a new generation of two-stroke engine will extensively use direct injection technology to solve the problem of excessive unburned hydrocarbons emission due to fuel short-circuiting, and to take benefit of the two-stroke cycle principle advantages of low pumping and friction losses for high efficiency and low NOx emissions. Figure 2.21 shows the possible routes from the existing small carburetor two-stroke engine to clean long term future engine [43].

Figure 2.21: The future development of a two-stroke engine [37].

41 Table 2.5 showed two-stroke engines often used in non-road applications and in transportation are used for two or three wheeler transportation.

Table 2.5: The fields of application of spark ignition engine [37].

Type of Application

2-Stroke (%)

4-stroke (%)
-

1 2

Chainsaw Marine Outboards Industrial Engines 30 100 cm3 100 150 cm3 > 150 cm3

100 100

i. ii. iii.

100 50 100

50 100 -

Mopeds 50 cm3 Motorcycles and Scooters i. 125 cm3 125 349 cm3 350 449 cm3 450 749 cm 750 cm3
3

70 60 10 1 -

30 40 90 99 100 100

ii. iii. iv. v.

Automotive

CHAPTER 3

ENGINE DESIGN CONCEPT

3.1

Introduction

In conjunction with the conceptual design of small capacity two-stroke Scotch-Yoke engine, the project in which the author is involved, specifically aims to create a simple and efficient scavenging system to provide for the eventual feature of efficient gas exchange processes. The scavenging system requires not only high delivery ratio and raise the density of the air intake, but also considers the other factors such as size, weight reduction and low development cost.

The two-stroke Scotch-Yoke engine design concept with external scavenging system is definitely a new and unique engine development, due to recently the Scotch-Yoke Engine manufacturer, CMC Power System Ltd of Australia has much more focused on developing four-stroke cycle of Scotch-Yoke Engine.

The overall design of the Scotch-Yoke engine which has been conceptualize and is currently being developed at the Automotive Development Center (ADC) is shown in Figure 3.1. The engine concept is to incorporate several auxiliaries such as the Capacitive Discharge Ignition (CDi) System, Direct Injection (DI) fuel system,

43 oil sump lubrication system and the cooling system respectively. The general specifications of the engine design are shown in Table 3.1. Table 3.1: The general engine specifications.

No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Descriptions
Engine type Cylinder Arrangement Number of cylinders Total Displacement, cc Bore x Stroke, mm Dimension, Lx H x W mm Weight, kg

Detail
Two-stroke gasoline engine Horizontal Opposed 4 500 57.5 x 48.0 540.60 x 444.50 x 435.00 43.8

Besides, the prediction of this engine performance has been simulated by the researchers in Automotive Development Center, UTM with software GT-Power v6. Table 3.2 shows the simulation result of engine performance for 4 cylinder 500cc Scotch-Yoke Engine [51]

Table 3.2: Prediction performance for 4 cylinder 500cc Scotch-Yoke Engine [51].

No
1 2 3 4 5

Specification
Maximum Brake Power(kW) Maximum Brake Torque(Nm) Best Specific Fuel Consumption, BSFC, (g/kWh) Brake Mean Effective Pressure, bar Power to Weight ratio, (kg/kW)

Detail
37.8 (8000rpm) 51.6 (8000rpm) 445 (8000rpm) 6.49 1.16

Capacitive Discharge Ignition System

Intake System

Direct Injection System

Alternator

Cooling System Crankshaft Opposed Cylinder Block

Oil Sump

Figure 3.1: Design of a Two-stroke Horizontal Opposed Scotch-Yoke Engine. 44

45

3.2

Scavenging System Design

A good scavenging system is anticipated to produce better scavenging process inside the engine chamber. The methods which applied during the design process include two-stroke engine design considerations, scavenging system alternatives, as well as to run analysis and testing for prototype. In this designing scavenging system, the valve system is not omitted for the compact design of twostroke engine. In addition, an external pump is required to boost the air charge intake. The crankcase compression is not suitable for use, because it will increase the engine block length.

3.2.1 Scavenging Arrangement

There are several types of scavenging arrangements explored for example, i.) cross-scavenged, ii.) loop-scavenged and iii.)Uniflow-scavenged. From the literature study, Schnurle-type loop scavenging is more favorable for SI engine application, if compared to the MAN-type loop scavenged and Uniflow scavenged arrangement [4]. In addition, the manufacturing cost for the loop scavenging system is lower than the Uniflow scavenging system too. In addition, the loop-scavenged losses are less than that of cross-scavenged at the condition at the wide open throttle and high speed of the two-stroke engine.

The Schnurle type loop scavenging arrangement is selected for the ScotchYoke engine design. In general, the Schnurle type loop scavenging design is illustrated in Figure 3.2.

46

Figure 3.2: The Schnurle loop scavenging [4].

3.2.2

External Pump Design

The two-stroke Scotch-Yoke multi-cylinder engine is to be equipped with an external air boost pump. The pump is to be driven by the engines pistons linkages. It comprises of the compression piston and cylinder that would integrate with the Scotch-Yoke crank mechanism. The advantages of system are due its lighter material and of small size.

The piston pump is directly connected to the crank, therefore able to produce boost pressure at a very low rpm. The C-plate type piston linkage is able to produce double action pumping in each cylinder block at every 180 interval. The design for the piston-type pumping scavenging system is illustrated in Figure 3.3.

47 The multi-cylinder engine will have two pairs of opposed cylinders like any other boxer engine, and a pair of the opposed piston-driven cylinders for charging of mixture into the main combustion chamber. The piston-driven pump design results the double action of air pumping for the gas exchange into the cylinder every onehalf of crankshaft revolution. Each piston pump has two sealed volumes of compression. The compressed volume starts to pump the fresh air into the combustion chamber when the transfer ports are opened.

Figure 3.4 shows the double action of the piston pump design at one-half of crankshaft revolution. The fresh airflow will be split into two halves of the opposed cylinders. The reed valves are used to control the airflow exchange. When route A is at compression stage, route B will be at fresh charge induction stage. The piston pumps will induce the fresh air into the combustion chamber as soon as the transfer ports are opened. Route A and B will always switch their function for every 180 CA interval.

Fuel Injection System Piston Pump

Crankshaft

Fuel Injection System

Figure 3.3: The Piston pump mechanism design.

48

Figure 3.4: The scavenging process. 49

CHAPTER 4

CALCULATIONS AND ANALYSES

4.1

Engine Components Design

Several engine components were designed in conjunction with the small capacity Scotch-Yoke engine such as cylinder block, cylinder head, piston, liners, port openings, and intake and exhaust manifold and reed valves. To start the design process, the typical design parameter i.e. the range of the bore-to-stroke ratio of between 1.2 0.9 was given due to consideration [13]. In this case, the value of 1.2 was chosen due to larger bore size could reduce the overall length of engine.

Engine stroke length , l = d = 1.2l ;

Vd (4) d 2 125000(4) = (1.2l ) 2 = 48 mm

(4.1)

Therefore the cylinder diameter is equal to 57.5 mm. For the crank radius:
Crank radius, r = l 48 = = 24 mm 2 2 (4.2)

51 Piston replacement is calculated as:

Piston replacement , Y sy = r cos r (4.3) = 24 cos 24

The engines trapped compression ratio is determined as: Trapped Volume,Vtr =Vet + Vcv =

4 = 78632.81mm3

(57.5)2 (26.1) + 10858.35

(4.4)

Trapped Compression ratio, Ctr = =

Vtr Vcv

78632.81 10858.35 = 7.24

To determine the geometry compression ratio of the engine,

(4.5)

Geometry compression ratio, Cr = =

Vd + Vcv Vcv
(4.6)

125000 + 10858.35 10858.35 = 12.51

4.1.1

Crankcase and Cylinder block

The Scotch-Yoke engine configuration is of horizontal opposed cylinder arrangement. The engine external pumps are positioned at the middle of the engines cylinder arrangement. The firing order that suits the Scotch-Yoke engine is (1, 4) - (2, 3), where there will be double combustion processes occurring at every 180CA degree interval. Figure 4.1 illustrates this cylinders arrangement.

52

Figure 4.1: The cylinders arrangement.

For high-power-to-weight feature the cylinder block is usually made of cast iron or Aluminium Alloy. The same case is applied to this engine future development work, but the unfired test rig in this research project is only applied with Perspec material. The liners are force-pressed into the chamber slot. There are also passages, incorporated into the engine for the pumping and water coolant passages. Reed valve seats are located at the middle of the block for the induction and pumping process of the piston pump. The overall design of the cylinder block is shown in Figure.4.2.

Pumping duct opening

Reed valve seating Pumping duct opening

Piston pump chamber slot Coolant Passage Cylinder Chamber slot

Figure 4.2: The main cylinder block design.

53

4.1.2

Cylinder Liners

Most of the gasoline engines will use grey cast iron for liners. This material has the desired casting and machining qualities, and possesses adequate mechanical feature plus attractive mechanical properties such as strength, toughness and wear resistance [14]. For this work, the liner chosen is of wet-type, which is forced fitted into the cylinder chamber slot. The liner design is shown in Figure 4.3.

Exhaust port

Transfer Ports

Figure 4.3: Cylinder liner design.

The following is the calculation for the liner thickness, tt:

tl = =

Pm Dl 2 c (4.7)

49.07(5.75) 2(200) = 7 mm The intake velocity for a two stroke cycle engine is as below: Intake velocity, Vi = = nQNv 60 As

1 125 10 6 x 8000 x 0.9 (0.02 )2 60 4 1 = 47.75ms

(4.8)

54 For the minimum transfer port area, Atp:

Transfer port area , Atp =

Q Vi 125000 x
(4.9)

8000 60 = 47.7465 = 349.70mm 2

In two-stroke engines, the transfer port and exhaust port opening and closing are controlled by the piston movement. Similar feature is adopted here. The port openings and closing for this engine is shown in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4: Port openings timing.

55 Transfer port height, htp:

htp = 48 (24 24 cos ) = 48 24 + 24 cos125 = 10.20 mm (4.10)

Exhaust port opening height, hex:

hex = 48 (24 24 cos ) = 48 24 + 24 cos 95 = 21.90 mm

(4.11)

Figure 4.5 illustrates the height for the ports design. The exhaust port height is higher than the transfer ports because the exhaust port must always be open first before the transfer ports.

TDC

Transfer Ports

Exhaust Port 48 mm

10.2 mm

21.9 mm BDC

Figure 4.5: The height of the transfer and exhaust ports.

56

4.1.3

Cylinder Head

The cylinder head is assembled on top of the cylinder block. For this type of engine there is no provision for poppet valve. However it provides the housing for fuel injectors (direct fuel injection system) for future expansion. A gasket is sandwiched between the block and head to provide for tight sealing between these engine parts. There are provisions for reed valve mountings for the regulation of the air intake and pumping process. Also provided are the slots for water passages specifically for the cooling of the cylinder head. Figure 4.6 illustrates the cylinder head design.

Reed Valve seats Piston pump chamber Water Jacket

Hemisphere Chamber

Figure 4.6: The cylinder head design.

4.1.4

Chamber

In typical two-stroke engines, the hemispheric chamber geometry is the most commonly applied for loop-scavenged system [4]. The chamber is of symmetrical

57 design. It is also an open chamber due to the concavity of the cylinder head. The hemi (abridgement of hemispherical) chamber is very popular in high performance automobiles. This chamber geometry is applied for the reference engine.

When the piston approaches TDC (at the end of the compression stroke), the volume around the outer edges of the combustion chamber will be reduced to a small value. The gas mixture occupies the volume at the outer volume radius of the cylinder is forced radial inward as this outer volume is reduced to zero. This radial inward motion of the gas mixture is called squish. [8] During combustion, the expansion stroke begins and the volume of the combustion chamber increases. This reverse squish helps to spread the flame front during the latter part of combustion. Figure 4.7 shows the view of the hemisphere chamber shape design.

Squish Area

Figure 4.7: The detail of the hemi-spherical chamber design.

58

4.1.5

Intake and Exhaust Manifold

The engines intake manifold consists of a pair of intake duct and a pair of pumping ducts. The intake ducts are for the fresh charge induction purpose, while the pumping ducts are to pump in the fresh charge into the cylinder chamber. Figure 4.8 shows the intake manifold design for the double action pumping.

Pumping Duct 1

Intake Duct 2

Intake Duct 1

Pumping Duct 2

Route A Route B

Figure 4.8: The intake manifold design.

The other manifold is the exhaust manifold, which consists of a pair of steel exhaust ducts. The exhaust manifold is mounted to the exhaust opening of the cylinder block for the scavenging process. Figure 4.9 shows the exhaust manifold design.

59 Openings that mount to cylinder block

Figure 4.9: The exhaust manifold design.

4.1.6

Reed Valves

Four pairs of reed valves are incorporated specifically to control the mixture intake. Each pair has two-way controls of the air intake and outlet. It is designed specifically for the double pumping of the engines piston pump. During induction process, one side of the reed valve petal will lift to permit fresh charge to flow into the pumping chamber. Consequently, during the pumping process, another reed valve will lift to allow the fresh charge to flow into the engine cylinder. The reed petal thickness is set at 0.2-0.4 mm, where the material could be steel, or carbon fiber. In test rig development, the carbon fiber is applied for reed valve petals. Figure 4.10 shows the reed valve assembly, which consists of i.) Main body, ii.) limiter and iii.) petal design. Figure 4.11 fully explains the principle of operation of the reed valve.

60

Main body Limiter Petal

Figure 4.10: The overview of the reed valve assembly.

Induction

Pumping Lifting

Figure 4.11: The two ways control by the reed valve design.

4.1.7

Piston Pump Design

According to typical crankcase compressed two-stroke engines, the compress ratio for engine capacity above 500 cm3 the compression ratio always set above 1.55 [6]. In this exercise, each engine cylinders capacity is 125 cm3, therefore the compression ratio is reasonably set at 1.5.

61 Piston pump swept volume, Vpp = 1.5 x 125000 = 187500 mm3 (4.12)

187500 x 4 Piston pump bore diameter, d p = = 70 mm x 48

(4.13)

The liner thickness and material type are similar to the cylinder liner. However, the diameter size is larger than the cylinder liner because the piston pump liner is designed to adapt to the bore piston pump. The inner diameter is set at 70mm. It requires the openings for the reed valve seating that controls the intake and pumping of the air charge. Figure 4.12 illustrates the design of the piston pump liner.

Reed valve seats

Reed valve seats

Figure 4.12: The piston pump liner.

62

4.2

Scotch-Yoke Mechanism

The Scotch-Yoke mechanism consists of i.) Slider, ii.) C-plates, iii.) Piston heads and iv.) Crankshaft. The Scotch-Yoke mechanism converts the reciprocating motion of the piston to rotational sinusoidal motion, which allows the piston to repeat its movement in horizontal plane. The crank mechanism directly influences the size of the crankcase and cylinder block. The consideration of the clearance design for the component assemblies is important to allow the free motion of the slider and piston. The inner body of the crankshaft, slider and C-plate is drilled with a lubrication oil passage for reduction of wear friction.

When the piston moves from TDC to BDC, fresh charge will be induced into the chamber. Subsequently, when the piston moves from BDC toward TDC, the fresh charge is forced into the combustion chamber. Figure 4.13 shows the piston pump chamber which is a combination of volume A, pumping volume, and volume B. Volume A and volume B is required for the seating of the reed valve opening.

4.2.1

Sliders

The slider moves along the locus of the rotational that would convert the sinusoidal motion to the linear piston movement. The suitable material for slider is high carbon steel. Figure 4.14 shows the locus of the rotational of the slider. Figure 4.15 on the other hand shows a pair of journal bearings which is mounted inside the slider.

Piston

Volume B

C-Plate

Crankcase

Volume A

Slider

TDC

BDC

Figure 4.13: The volume A and B inside the piston pump chamber. 63

64 Locus of the rotational

Figure 4.14: The rotational motion of the slider.

Journal Bearing Slider

Figure 4.15: The assembly of a pair of the sliders and bearings.

65

4.2.2

C-plates

A pair of C-plate provides the sliding plane for the slider. It is also used to thread joint with the piston head. The suitable material for the C-plate is Alloy Steel (Cr 0.5-1.1wt %). In test rig development, only Aluminium material is applied for Cplates assembly. Figure 4.16 shows the C-plate design for the proposed engine. In addition, the assembly of the slider with the C-plates is illustrated in Figure 4.16.

Sliding plane

Figure 4.16: The C-plate design.

66

A pair of C-plate

Slider bearing

Figure 4.17: The assembly of slider bearing with C-plates.

4.2.3

Piston Heads

There are two types of piston heads design, i.e. i.) Piston head for combustion chamber and ii.) Piston head for piston pump. The piston material should meet certain requirements such as high hot strength, good thermal expansion and good resistance to surface abrasion to reduce the skirt and ring groove wear. The material for the actual piston fabrication could be either Aluminium alloy or cast Iron. In unfired test rig, only Aluminium material is applied for piston fabrication. Figure 4.19 show the piston heads design for the engine.

67

Piston ring groove Doom Surface

Tap for C-plate assembly

Bore diameter

Piston skirt

Figure 4.18: The piston head for combustion process.

Piston ring groove Lubrication Oil Passage

Flat surface Tap for C-plate mounting

Figure 4.19: The piston head for piston pump.

68

4.2.4

Crankshaft

There are three crank journals on the crankshaft for the housing of the sliders. The journals are suited to 180 of rotation to adapt the horizontal opposed cylinder design. The journal radius distance from the origin of the crankshaft is equal to half of the stroke engine design. Figure 4.20 shows the crankshaft design.

The inertial force for crankshaft balancing is given as:

Inertial Force, Fi = primary Inertial + secondary Inertial = mu w 2 rm (Cos ) + mu w 2 rm (Cos 2 ) l

2

(4.14)

Crank Journal 1 Counter Weights

Crank Journal 2 Crank Journal 3

Figure 4.20: The Crankshaft design.

The moment inertial is given as:

Moment Inertial, M i = mw2 rLd

(4.15)

69

Figure 4.21: The analysis of the crankshaft balancing. (Where L1, L4, L6 = 23.5 mm, L2, L3 = 45 mm, and L5 = 59.5 mm respectively)

The secondary inertial force is neglected because the cos2 is equal to zero for this opposed cylinder engine. The total mass of crank mechanism for piston pump is assumed equal to total mass for piston combustion, mp to simplify the calculation. From the engine design, the total mass of the crank mechanism with high Carbon Steel material, m1 is 2463.11g. The calculation for the counterweight design:

Inertial Force, F = 0 (balance) Inertial Force, F = Fx = mw 2 r (Cos ) = w 2 r{[ 2m1 + m2 ) cos(0)] + [(2m2 + m1 ) cos(180)]} (4.16) = w 2 r{(2m1 + m2 ) (2m2 + m1 )} = w 2 r{m1 m2 } Therefore, w 2 r{m1 m2 } = 0, m1 = m2 = 2463.11g

70 For the calculation of the moment inertial at the reference plane: Moment Inertial, = 0(balance) Moment Inertial, = M ref + w 2 r[m2 ( L2 ) + m2 ( L3 ) + m2 ( L3 + L4 + L5 )] w 2 rb [m1 ( L1 + L2 ) + m1 ( L3 + L4 ) + m1 ( L3 + L4 + L5 + L6 )] = M ref + w 2 m2 (5232) w 2 m1 (5804.62)

Q m1 = m2 ;

= M ref 572.62 w 2 m1

(4.17)

M ref 572.62 w 2 m1 = 0 The unbalance Moment Inertial System = M ref = 572.62 w 2 m1

Q m1 = 2463.11g

= 1410426.048w 2

Moment Inertial for balance shaft , M bs = 2[mbs rbs Lbs ]w2 = 2[ 779.53(14.39)(62.8675)] 2 = 1410426.048
2

(4.18)

= unbalance moment Inertial System

Therefore, a balance shaft at the reverse speed is required to solve the unbalance moment Inertial. A pair of counter weight is designed with mbs=779.53g each and rbs = 14.39mm with Lbs = 62.87675mm respectively. The detail of the balance shaft design is illustrated in Appendix A.

CHAPTER 5

FLOW SIMULATIONS AND ANALYSES

5.1

Introduction

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a modeling technique which has been widely employed to describe and predict the processes that occur within IC engines. These fluid dynamic-based techniques solve partial differential equations for the conservation of mass, momentum, energy and species concentrations respectively. With the recent advances in meshing techniques, boundary treatments, and computer hardware, all have enabled more accurate computations of the gas flow process to be done with ease and precision. Utilizing the advantages of CFD codes, especially the ability to visualize the in-cylinder flow behavior in engine operation has provided valuable insight into the means of optimizing the scavenging system.

In spite of these advantages it is an unfortunate fact that no single turbulence model is universally accepted as being superior for all classes of problems. The choice of a turbulence model will depend on several considerations such as the physics encompassed in the flow process, the established practice for a specific class of problem, the level of accuracy required, the available computational resources, and the amount of time available for the simulation respectively [20].

72 Table 5.1 shows the strengths and the weaknesses of the several viscosity model applications in CFD codes.

Table 5.1: Several viscosity model application in CFD simulations [20].

In the engine cylinder, the flow will involve a complicated combination of turbulent shear layers, recirculation regions and wall boundary layer [4]. One approach to the solution of turbulent flow is often referred to as k-epsilon model which basically is to estimate the effect of the viscosity of the fluid [6]. The application of the standard k-epsilon model is applied in engine model simulation because of its robustness, economy, and reasonable accuracy for a wide range of turbulent flows explain its popularity in industrial flow and heat transfer simulations.

The advantages of the approaches are that they are able to solve turbulent fluid mechanics equations (Reynold Average Navier-Stokes (RAN) with K-epsilon model), which take into account the interaction between gas and liquid and subsequently model combustion development process. It is very useful for parametric

73 studies and is attractive due to reasonable cost implication [42]. Two equation models for Standard k- model are defined as follows:

i.) Turbulent Kinetic Energy:

(5.1)

ii.) Dissipation Rate:

(5.2)

5.2

Flow Pattern Static Condition Analysis

The scavenging system is to be incorporated into the 500cc two-stroke Scotch-Yoke engine. Therefore a computation domain engine model is drawn accordance with its geometry with the CAD software, SolidWorks 2004. Table 5.2 shows the engine computational domain detail.

The Cosmos FloWork 2004 is linked to the SolidWorks 2004 user interface as the third party software. The analysis of the flow pattern is under steady (static) condition, where the piston is hold in stationary and set to the Bottom Dead Center (BDC). This approach could provide a better understanding into the evaluation the effectiveness of scavenging port arrangement.

74 Table 5.2: The Engine Computation Domain Detail

Descriptions
1 2 3 4 5 6. Bore x Stroke, mm Cylinder capacity/cylinder Scavenging system Transfer port opening Exhaust port opening Trapping compression ratio

Detail
57.5 X 48.0 125 cc Schnurle loop, 5 ports 125 ATDC 95 ATDC 7.24

Several samples of the main port geometry design regarded to the Schnurle loop scavenging has been done with CFD simulation. The evaluation and selection of a high quality sample of the main port is done. The next step was the optimization of the selected main port design with analysis of the effect of the several upsweep degree design. The methodology for the simulation work is shown in Figure 5.1.

CFD simulation on several samples of main port geometry design

Comparison of a good flow pattern from several main port geometry samples

Optimize the selected main port geometry design from several upsweep degree samples analysis

Comparison of a good flow pattern from several upsweep degree samples

Final design

Figure 5.1: Flowchart of the flow pattern static state analysis.

75 With Cosmos FloWork 2004, the computational domain is automatically generated from the solid modeling. Every sample of the main ports design is defined in separate computation domain to run the simulation analysis. The operating parameters for each simulation works is shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: The Operation parameters for the Cosmos FloWork 2004

Specifications
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Flow type Viscosity Thermodynamic parameters Turbulence parameters Input parameters Mesh Solver

Detail
Gas (air) Laminar /Turbulent model Static Pressure: 101325 Pa Temperature: 293.2 K Turbulence intensity and length Intensity: 10 % Length: 0.002 m Total pressure Inlet = 1.2 atm, exhaust = 1 atm Automatic generation of mesh based on Solidwork CAD Standard Solution Adaptive mesh generation for improve accuracy

5.2.1

The Main Port Geometry Design

The port geometry design refers to the work on the main, the side and rear ports to generate for Schnurle loop-scavenging pattern as shown in Figure 5.2.

76

Figure 5.2: Schnurle type loop scavenging design [6].

The main port geometry is considered to be the main factor that influences the flow pattern. The port is located just beside the exhaust port, and it has become the first design priority. The empirical guidance provides a good starting point for this scavenging port geometry design to be carried out. There are some potential for empirical guidance for the author and they are as follows [6]:

i.) The upsweep angle for main port, UPM is rarely larger than 10 ii.) The value of Angle for Main port, AM2 is usually between 50 to 55 iii.) The target point for MT2 is at between 10 to 15% of the cylinder bore dimension. iv.) The target point for MT1 is approximately on the edge of the cylinder bore v.) The port is tapered to provide an accelerating flow through the port, for instances AM1 is greater than AM2, and AM1 is rarely larger than 70% vi.) The larger the angle, AM1, the more the target point, MT1, the farther outside the cylinder bore is the target point, MT1. The range of the values for AM1 is usually more than 50 but less than 70.

77 To understand the effectiveness of main port design, several sample design was simulated under the similar operating condition. However, the parameter in this main port design was the design of AM1, AM2 and MT1 and MT2 parameters. In order to narrow down the simulation works, some parameters are set default value with accordance to empirical guidance [6]. This includes the side and rear ports, where the side-side bar, (sbar) at 25 mm and length of side port, Lbar is set at 10mm, the exhaust port width is set at 55% of the bore diameter. On the other hand, the effect of the upsweep degree is the next important parameters that influence the main port design. The upsweep for main port is set initially at 15, while the rear port is set at 60. There are six samples for the main ports design has been successfully analyzed with CosmosFlowork 2004. The information of these samples is illustrated in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4: Several samples of the main ports design.

Sample
AM1 A B C D E F 65 65 60 65 60 65

Main port specifications, ()

AM2 55 50 55 50 50 50 MT1 21.2 20 22.6 22.6 22.6 20 MT2 7.2 10 8.6 12.3 8.6 12.3

78

5.2.1.1 Simulated Results

Figure 5.3 illustrates the simulated results of sample A. In Figure 5.3 (i), the result of the velocity vector distribution has indicated that the direction of flow will move towards the upper section of the cylinder. This phenomenon is widely

believed to scavenge the residual gas which is a by-product of the previous combustion process.

Figure 5.3 (ii) on the other hand shows the flow pattern at the top trajectories of the flow pattern has very disorder condition. This may due to the side flow which was restrained by the flow coming from the main port.

Figure 5.3 (iii) shows the trajectories as viewed from the side of sample A. The flow trajectories of the main and side ports show the flow to be towards the rear side of chamber wall, subsequently resulted in the formation of the looping flow. However, trajectories at the main port have relatively low lifting flow capability which may cause the short-circuiting of the mixture to occur.

The unsatisfactory flow trajectories which were described in Figure 5.3 (ii) and 5.3 (iii) have caused the fresh charge not being able to reach the upper side of chamber thus fail to flush the residual gases. The fresh charges did not lift up, and this may resulted in AMT 2 degree being too large. The upper flow design is important because it reflects the quantity of fresh charge to replacement the residual at the upper chamber.

Good Flow toward upper chamber

Good Looping flow trajectories

Flow pattern at disorder condition

Low lifting of flow iii. Trajectories (side view) of flow pattern

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories (top view) of the flow pattern

Figure 5.3: Simulated results of sample A.

79

80 In Figure 5.4 (i), the result shows the velocity vector distribution of the flow. It has illustrated the direction of flow toward upper part of the cylinder. The upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas due to the combustion process of the previous engine cycle.

Figure 5.4 (ii) shows the flow pattern at the top trajectories of the flow pattern which depicts quite symmetrical flow pattern condition. But, there is a reverse flow at the right main port which may contribute to the worse situation of the shortcircuiting phenomenon. The design of AMT1 for main port may be inadequate.

Besides, Figure 5.4 (iii) shows the trajectories from the side view of the sample B. The trajectories flowing in the main and side ports have vectored towards the rear side of chamber wall and generate looping flow. However, there is an unscavenged zone present in this chamber. This un-scavenged zone may cause a portion of the residual gas to trap, thus attributed to the decrease in the scavenging efficiency.

Figure 5.5 shows the simulation results of sample C. In Figure 5.5 (i), the results of velocity vector distribution have illustrated the direction of flow toward upper cylinder. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which was again due to the combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.5 (ii) shows a reverse flow at the right main port that has caused the slight short-circuiting problem. This is because by AMT 1 of the main port is not enough to create the upper flow toward the chamber.

On the other hand, Figure 5.5 (iii) shows the trajectories from side view of sample C. The looping flow towards the upper part of chamber reflects that the porting design is satisfactory.

Good Upper Flow toward chamber

Un-scavenged Zone

Reverse flow toward exhaust port i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane ii. The trajectories of the flow pattern iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.4: Simulated results of sample B.

81

Good Upper flow toward chamber

Good upper flow of blow down

Reverse flow toward exhaust i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane ii. The trajectories of the flow pattern iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.5: Simulated results of sample C.

82

83 Figure 5.6 shows the simulation results of sample D. In Figure 5.6 (i), the result of velocity vector distribution illustrates the direction of flow toward the upper part of the cylinder. The upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which was resulted from the combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.6 (ii) shows the flow pattern at the top trajectories of the flow pattern has very disorder condition. There is low flow lifting and reverse flow to exhaust port. The low lifting flow also has resulted insufficient fresh charge flow to upper chamber to scavenge the residual gas, thus the scavenging efficiency is decreased.

Figure 5.6 (iii) shows the trajectories at side view of the sample D. The trajectories flow of the main port and side port has flow towards the rear side of chamber wall and generated looping flow. The right side port has generated the good looping flow pattern. There is low lifting and reverse flow at the main port causes the short-circuiting problem and decreases the scavenging efficiency. Figure 5.7 shows the simulation results of sample E. In Figure 5.6 (i), the result of velocity vector distribution has illustrated the direction of flow toward upper cylinder. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which resulted from the combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.7 (ii) shows the flow pattern at the top trajectories of the flow pattern is at symmetrical condition. But, there is reverse flow at the right main port that has caused the worse situation of the short-circuiting.

Figure 5.7 (iii) shows the trajectories at side view of the sample E. The trajectories flow of the main port and side port has flow towards the rear side of chamber wall and generated looping flow. The looping flow trajectories have shown in satisfactory condition. But, the reverse flow generated by the main port has caused the short-circuiting problem.

Good flow toward upper chamber

Good upper flow toward chamber

Low flow lifting

Reverse flow to exhaust port

Figure 5.6: Simulated results of sample D.

84

Good Flow toward upper chamber

Good looping of scavenging flow

Symmetrical flow pattern

Reverse flow to exhaust port iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories (top)of the flow pattern

Figure 5.7: Simulated results of sample E.

85

86 Figure 5.8 shows the simulation results of sample F. In Figure 5.8 (i), the result of velocity vector distribution has illustrated the direction of flow toward upper cylinder. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which resulted from the combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.8 (ii) shows the flow pattern at the top trajectories of the flow pattern also have symmetrical condition. Besides, this sample has resulted with good lifting flow toward the upper part of chamber. This flow pattern helps to scavenge the residual gases which resulted from the combustion process.

Figure 5.8 (iii) shows the trajectories of the main port and side port has flow towards the rear side of chamber wall to generate a looping flow pattern. The looping flow trajectories have resulted the better scavenging process where the fresh charge scavenges the residual gas.

Good Flow toward upper chamber

Symmetrical Flow pattern

Good lifting flow toward upper chamber iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories (top)of the flow pattern

Figure 5.8: Simulated results of sample F.

87

88

5.2.1.2 Conclusion of the Simulated Main Port Design Results

From the samples results shown all sample A to E have encountered the same problem of the reverse flow, toward the exhaust port which caused the shortcircuiting problem to occur. Sample F (in Figure 5.8) has produced in good upper flow toward chamber, and upper flow for the blow down process. As such, the main and rear ports are hereby considered have achieved the adequate design of main port geometry to achieve the adequate scavenging flow pattern. The upper flow is important in this engine port design. This is because how well the flow toward the upper chamber, reflected that the fresh charge is going to replacement the residual at the upper chamber, and how much the fresh charge will remain at the upper chamber during the scavenging process has great influence to increase the scavenging efficiency. The upper flow will generate a swirl at the chamber, the flow thereby will then withdraw the residual at the upper chamber, and pass through to the exhaust port. Due to the higher degree of ATM2, the entry of the flow is thereby flow upper to chamber.

5.2.2

The Upsweep Angle Design

The next step is the optimization of the upsweep angle of sample F, which was obtained from the main port simulation results. The upsweep angle design is important to generate high lifting flow toward the upper chamber, and improve looping flow pattern. These will help to improve the overall engines scavenging efficiency. In the simulation work attempted, the upsweep degree of side port, (UPS) and downsweep degree of exhaust port, (DPE) were set at default values to minimize the operating parameters. Accordance to the empirical guidance [6], the UPS and DPE are usually set at 20. Therefore, only the Upsweep degree of main port, (UPM) and Rear port, (UPR) factors are analyzed for the port design optimization purpose. Figure 5.9 and 5.10 shows the upsweep port design in further details.

89

Figure 5.9: The sweep port design.

Main Port

Rear Port

i. Upsweep Degree of Main port, (UPM)

ii. Upsweep Degree of Rear Port, (UPS)

Figure 5.10: The design of the upsweep degree of the port.

Samples (as shown in Table 5.5) are studied for the optimization of the upsweep degree for the main port design. The range of the main port upsweep degree, (UPM) is varies from 10 to 20 while Rear port is varies from 55 to 60. The samples are set to vary at every 5 interval and are simulated by the Cosmos FloWork 2004 under the same operating parameters of main port simulation.

90 Table 5.5: The study of the upsweep angle, () of the transfer port.

Sample
1 2 3 4 5 6

Main port, UPM, ()

10 10 15 15 20 20

Rear port, UPR, ()

55 60 55 60 55 60

Side port, UPS, ()

20 20 20 20 20 20

Exhaust port, DPE, ()

20 20 20 20 20 20

5.2.2.1 The Simulation Results

In Figure 5.11 (i), the result of velocity vector distribution for sample 1 has illustrated the direction of flow toward upper cylinder. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which resulted from the combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.11 (ii) shows the flow pattern at the top trajectories of the flow pattern has quite symmetrical flow pattern condition. Besides, this sample has resulted with good lifting flow toward the chamber. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gases which resulted from the combustion process. Thus, this sample has successfully increased the scavenging efficiency.

Figure 5.11 (iii) shows the trajectories the main port and side port flow towards the rear side of chamber wall to create looping flow. The looping flow trajectories however, in this design sample, show the low lifting flow at the main port, that causes the short-circuiting problem.

Good flow toward upper chamber

Low lifting flow

Low flow lifting

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories(top) of the flow pattern

iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.11: Simulated results of sample 1. 91

92 Next, velocity vector distribution for sample 2 shows flow toward upper part of chamber in Figure 5.12(i). This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which resulted from the combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.12 (ii) shows the top trajectories of the flow pattern is at symmetrical condition. Besides, this sample has resulted with good lifting flow toward upper part of the chamber to scavenge the residual gases which resulted from the combustion process. Thus, this sample has successfully increased the scavenging efficiency.

Figure 5.12 (iii) shows the trajectories at side view of the sample 2. The trajectories flow of the main port and side port flow towards the rear side of chamber wall to generate the looping flow. The looping flow trajectories show the better scavenging process where the fresh charge will loop inside the chamber to scavenge the residual gas. In Figure 5.13 (i), the sample 3 has illustrated the direction of flow towards the upper portion of the cylinder. This upper flow is as similar to simulation in sample 2.

Besides, Figure 5.13 (ii) shows the top trajectories of the flow pattern is not at symmetrical condition. The left side flow trajectories show the low lifting that would cause the short-circuiting problem.

Figure 5.13 (iii) shows the trajectories flow of the main port and side port flow towards the rear side of chamber wall to generate looping flow. The looping flow pattern acceptably helps to scavenge the residual gases.

Good flow toward upper chamber

Good flow lifting

Low lifting flow i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane ii. The trajectories(top) of the flow pattern iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.12: Simulated results of sample 2.

93

Good flow toward upper chamber

Low flow lifting

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories(top) of the flow pattern

iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.13: Simulated results of sample 3. 94

95 Figure 5.14 shows the simulation results of sample 4. In Figure 5.14 (i), the result of velocity vector distribution illustrates the direction of flow toward upper cylinder. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gas which resulted from the previous combustion process.

Besides, Figure 5.14 (ii) shows the top trajectories is also having symmetrical flow pattern condition. Besides, this sample has resulted with good lifting flow toward the chamber. This upper flow helps to scavenge the residual gases which resulted from the combustion process.

Figure 5.14 (iii) shows the trajectories of the main port and side port has flow towards the rear side of chamber wall to generate looping flow. The looping flow trajectories have shown in satisfactory condition. The looping flow has resulted in improved scavenging process where the fresh charge will loop inside the chamber to scavenge the residual gases. In Figure 5.15 (i), sample 5 shows good upper flow toward upper part of chamber. But, Figure 5.15 (ii) shows the top trajectories of the flow pattern did not have symmetrical flow pattern condition. There is unsatisfied of the left side flow trajectories show the low lifting condition. This will cause the short-circuiting problem to happen.

Figure 5.15 (iii) shows the trajectories are in satisfactory condition. The looping flow has resulted the better scavenging process where the fresh charge will loop inside the chamber to scavenge the residual gas.

Good flow toward upper chamber

High lifting flow

High flow lifting

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories(top) of the flow pattern

iii. Trajectories(side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.14: Simulated results of sample 4.

96

Good Flow toward Upper Chamber

Low Flow lifting

Good flow looping

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories (top) of the flow pattern

iii. Trajectories (side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.15: Simulated results of sample 5. 97

98 Figure 5.16 (i), (ii) and (iii) show the computer simulated results of sample 6. Figure 5.16 (i) depicts the result of velocity vector distribution indicating the direction of flow towards the upper cylinder. The scavenging will help to flush out residual gases, which are by-products of the combustion process.

Figure 5.16 (ii) shows the flow pattern of the top trajectories. Here the flow pattern has been quite symmetrical in nature. Besides, it seems here that there is a slightly low lift in comparison to sample 4 and 5. The low lift feature will decrease the scavenging efficiency, where there will be insufficient intake fresh charge to replace the residual gases.

Figure 5.16 (iii) on the other hand shows the trajectories of the main port and side port has flow towards the rear side of chamber wall and generated looping flow. The looping flow has resulted the better scavenging process where the fresh charge will loop inside the chamber to scavenge the residual gas.

Good Flow toward Upper Chamber

Low flow lift

Good flow looping

i. Velocity vector distribution at symmetrical plane

ii. The trajectories (top) of the flow pattern iii. Trajectories (side) of flow pattern

Figure 5.16: Simulated results of sample 6. 99

100

5.2.2.2 Conclusion of the Results on Upsweep Angle Design Simulation

From the simulation results, sample 4 demonstrated a near perfect flow lift and flow toward the upper part of the chamber. The similarity among them is that the rear port is set at 60 and therefore the upsweep degree for rear port (UPR) is considered to be optimized at 60. For other samples, results have demonstrated that low quality of flow patterns was obtained. Therefore, the optimized design model for the Schnurle loop scavenging is having the following specifications shown in Table 5.6.

Table 5.6: Specification of the optimized Schnurle loop scavenging design.

No
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Specifications
AM1 AM2 MT1 MT2 UPM UPR UPS

Detail
65 50 20 12.3 15 60 20

5.3

Analysis of the Simulated Scavenging Process

An alternative CFD code, Fluent v6.1 was used to predict for the scavenging efficiency. There were two different transport species used in Fluent v6.1 to represent the fresh charge and residual burned gas. The dynamic meshing method in Fluent v6.1 was to simulate the piston movement at any range of engine speed. Owing to this, the simulation work could perform the analysis on the engine

101 computation domain at the different port timings. Figure 5.17 shows the flow chart for the simulation works carried out.

A computation domain is produced in SolidWorks 2004 and is exported to Gambit v 2.0 in ACIS format

The mesh option and boundary settings are executed in Gambit v2.0. The file is exported in mesh file format to Fluent v6.1

The operating parameters are set in the Fluent v6.1, which includes flow properties, model type, viscosity, and the input value of pressure inlet and outlet are made. The gas sampling method is defined by the transport species without undergoing reaction.

Define the dynamic mesh condition in the use of the unsteady state condition. The flow simulation results are analyzed in term of flow pattern velocity and pressure contour and mass fraction.

Figure 5.17: Flow chart showing the sequence of processes involved when using Fluent v 6.1.

The engine model is drawn in a symmetrical domain, and is transferred to the mesh tool Gambit v 2.0 in an ACIS file format. The engine domain meshing consists of quadrilateral and triangular pave typeface mesh, and Het/Hybrid volume mesh respectively. The definition of the boundary conditions such as the pressure inlet and exhaust, the symmetrical plane, the piston wall, volume fluid type is made in Gambit solver.

102 Figure 5.18 shows the symmetrical computational domain of the engine model. The symmetrical domain is used only for the symmetrical chamber design, and this reduces the iteration time of simulation works.

Ambient Air

Tracer gas O2

Figure 5.18: The engine computational symmetrical domain.

During the simulation, the transfer port is assigned as intake and the exhaust port as exhaust for all the combustion chamber models produced. Similarly, the transfer port is defined as pressure inlet while the exhaust port is defined as pressure outlet. The interior of the chamber is designated as the fluid, while the surface of the chamber is designated as the wall. For the piston surface, it is defined as the moving wall and this is to simulate the piston movement during the simulation process.

103 Figure 5.19 illustrates the concept of the moving wall of the piston surface, which could be interfaced with the transfer ports and exhaust port during it motion from TDC toward to BDC. The scavenging flow starts when the piston wall reaches the transfer port openings, and the fresh charge flows toward the inner chamber, and during blow down the residual gases will exit through the exhaust port.

a.) Piston at TDC

b.) Piston moves toward BDC

Figure 5.19: The piston surface (moving wall) of the scavenging process.

For the analysis of the dynamic flow condition, the following assumptions are appropriately made [4]:

1. No mass or heat is allowed to across the interface between the fresh charge and burnt gas. 2. The cylinder walls are adiabatic. 3. The two gases involved obey the ideal gas law and have the same molecular weights, with identical and constant specific heats. 4. The process occurs at a constant cylinder volume and pressure.

The unfired method simulating the scavenging process is applied. In dynamic gas sampling method, the transport species are defined as non-reacting gas, which represent the burned and unburned gases. The tracer gas oxygen, O2 is applied as the unburned gases or fresh charge. The ambient air represents the unburned gas inside the cylinder. When the transfer ports open during piston descend to BDC, the gas exchange process is noted to occur. The O2 gas will replace the internal zone of

104 chamber, and will blow down the ambient air through the exhaust port. Table 5.4 shows the parameters set up using Fluent v 6.1.

In the case of this exercise (i.e. scavenging simulation), the engine speed is set at 8000rpm. The gauge inlet pressure is set at 500kPa as the initial pressure of the flow intake into the chamber. The initial internal pressure of the chamber, before the exhaust port opens, is set in accordance to the situation where the expansion process occurred. The simulation conditions are presented in Table 5.7.

Table 5.7: The set up parameters when using Fluent v6.1.

Specifications
1 2 3 Model Viscosity Species Transport

Detail
3D, segregate, Double precise, Unsteady, 1st-Order Implicit Standard k-epsilon turbulence model Non-Reacting (2 species): O2 and Air Material: mixture, incompressible ideal gas Pressure inlet / outlet:

Boundary Conditions

Turbulence Intensity: 10% Turbulence Length Scale: 2 mm i. Quadrilateral and triangular pave face mesh

Meshing

ii. Het/Hybrid volume mesh ii. Dynamic mesh Convergence when residual reach: 1. at velocity, k- epsilon, continuity = 1 x 10-3 2. at energy = 1 x 10-6

6.

Accuracy check

105 Table 5.8: The simulation conditions for the scavenging process analysis.

Parameter
1. 2. 3. Engine Speed Gauge Pressure inlet, (constant) Pressure in-cylinder before exhaust port open, at 86.6 ATDC (kPa)

Value
8000 rpm 500 kPa 600 kPa

There were 38 time steps for the simulation to reach convergence. The overall duration for the dynamic mesh iteration to converge takes at least 12 hours for each of the simulation works. After several trials, the dynamic scavenging model which simulating the whole scavenging the in-cylinder process have been successfully implemented. The simulation is stopped when the results reaches the residuals for accuracy as showed in Table 5.7. Figure 5.20 illustrates an example of duration of the iteration done to reach convergence.

Figure 5.20: An example of a convergence of the dynamic scavenging model simulation work.

106

107

5.3.1

The Simulation Results

The simulation results are elucidated in term of velocity distributions and mass fraction of species transport. The velocity distribution results have illustrated the flow pattern during the scavenging process with the mass fraction results have showed the trapping efficiency.

5.3.1.1. Velocity distribution

Figure 5.21 (a) shows piston moves from 86.6 to 116.6 ATDC. The expansion volume has created the vacuum inside the chamber. Therefore, the phenomenon of back flow occurred at the exhaust port. Besides, Figure 5.21 (b) shows the flow has started entering the chamber.

Figure 5.22 and Figure 5.23 show the scavenging flow went to upper top chamber. The looping flow pattern is seen to blow down the residual toward the exhaust port during piston moves from 116.6 to 236.6 ATDC.

Figure 5.24 (a) shows the piston continues to move upward to 261.6ATDC. The transfer ports are closed, while the compression chamber volume has expedited the velocity at the zone near to the exhaust port. Figure 5.24 (b) shows both the transfer port and exhaust port are closed, the internal chamber remains in static condition.

Back Flow Occurred

Intake Flow starts

8000rpm 8000rpm

a. At 111.6 ATDC

b. At 136.6 ATDC

Figure 5.21: Velocity contour at 111.6 ATDC and at 136.6 ATDC.

108

Upper Flow

Flow filled chamber 8000rpm

8000rpm

a. At 161.6 ATDC

b. At 186.6 ATDC

Figure 5.22: Velocity contour at 161.6 ATDC and at 186.6 ATDC.

109

8000rpm

8000rpm

a. At 211.6 ATDC

b. At 236.6 ATDC

Figure 5.23: Velocity contour at 211.6 ATDC and at 236.6 ATDC.

110

8000rpm 8000rpm

a. At 261.6 ATDC

b. At 271.6 ATDC

Figure 5.24: Velocity contour at 261.6 ATDC and at 271.6 ATDC.

111

112

5.3.1.2. Species Transport Mass Fraction Distribution

Figure 5.25 (a) shows the event at 111.6 ATDC. There is no any mass fraction present inside the chamber as the transfer port is closed. As the piston reached at 136.6 ATDC, the transport species has gradually filled in the transfer port.

Figure 5.26 (a) illustrate the event at 161.6 ATDC, the transfer ports start to open, and the initial transport species will enter the chamber. While, Figure 5.26 (b) shows the piston at 186.6ATDC, seen to have much more transport species has entered the chamber.

Figure 5.27(a) (b) shows when the piston at 211.6 and 236.6 ATDC, the transport species continues flow into the chamber. At the same time, the fresh charge replaced the residual gas inside the chamber.

Figure 5.28(a) (b) shows that piston at 261.6 and 271.6 ATDC. The intake of the transport species ceased after the transfer port closed. The chamber was filled with a quantity of transfer species. Also shown is the compression volume chamber that continue blow down the residual gas until all the ports were closed.

8000rpm

8000rpm

a. At 111.6 ATDC

b. At 136.6 ATDC

Figure 5.25: Mass Fraction distribution at 111.6 ATDC and at 136.6 ATDC.

113

8000rpm

8000rpm

a. At 161.6 ATDC

b. At 186.6 ATDC

Figure 5.26: Mass Fraction distribution at 161.6 ATDC and at 186.6 ATDC.

114

8000rpm

8000rpm

a. At 211.6 ATDC

b. At 236.6 ATDC

Figure 5.27: Mass Fraction distribution at 111.6 ATDC and at 136.6 ATDC.

115

8000rpm

8000rpm

a. At 261.6 ATDC

b. At 271.6 ATDC

Figure 5.28: Mass Fraction distribution at 261.6 ATDC and at 271.6 ATDC.

116

117 5.3.2 Discussion on the Results of the Dynamic Simulation

The dynamic simulation work has enabled the mass fraction of the trapped transport species inside the chamber during the scavenging process be obtained. Table 5.9 shows the mass fraction results.

Table 5.9: Results of Mass fraction

Crank angle (ATDC)

86.6 111.6 136.6 186.6 211.6 236.6 261.6 271.6

Mass Fraction Of Transport Species

0 0.00024 0.04456 0.22452 0.44534 0.58822 0.61538 0.62946

Figure 5.29 shows the graph of the mass fraction versus the crank angle. The mass fraction value has increased with the crank angle. This is due to the medium of the transport species, which increase when the transfer port is opened from 86.6 ATDC until 266.6ATDC position.

118

Dynamic Simulation of Scavenging Process

0.7

0.6

0.5

Mass Fraction

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 86.6 111.6 136.6 186.6 ATDC 211.6 236.6 261.6 271.6

Figure 5.29 The Mass fraction gas O2 versus crank angle.

From the results shown, the highest trapping efficiency for the proposed scavenging system was obtained as 63% at 271.6 ATDC. As mentioned in Section 2.5, scavenging efficiency can be calculated by multiplying the trapping efficiency with the scavenging ratio. Table 5.10 shows the parametric results for the scavenging system.

Table 5.10: The dynamic results for the scavenging parameter.

Parametric
1 2 Trapping efficiency, Scavenging ratio (pump volume ratio) Scavenging efficiency (simulation)

Value
0.63 1.5

0.945

119 In Section 2.6, there are perfect displacements and perfect mixing models for scavenging system were used to evaluate the simulation results. Table 5.11 shows the standard data (according to the mathematical model) of perfect displacement and perfect mixing scavenging model.

Table 5.11: The standard data for the perfect mixing and displacement scavenging model [4].

Scavenging efficiency Perfect mixing 0 0.0952 0.1813 0.2592 0.3297 0.3935 0.4512 0.5034 0.5507 0.5934 0.6321 0.6671 0.6988 0.7275 0.7534 0.7767 Perfect displacement 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1 1 1 1 1

Trapping Efficiency Perfect Perfect displacement mixing 1 0.9516 0.9063 0.8639 0.8242 0.7869 0.7520 0.7192 0.6883 0.6594 0.6321 0.6065 0.5823 0.5596 0.5381 0.5179 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0.9091 0.8333 0.7692 0.7143 0.6667

Scavenging ratio

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

120 In Figure 5.30 and Figure 5.31, the dynamic simulation results are plotted together with the perfect mixing and perfect displacement standard data. The dynamic results were closed to the perfect mixing standard, and thus we can conclude that the simulation results have shown that the scavenging system design is satisfactory.

Scavenging efficiency Vs Scavenging ratio

1.2

scavenging efficiency

0.8

0.6

0.4

perfect mixing perfect displacement dynamic simulation result

0.2

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

scavenging ratio

Figure 5.30: Scavenging efficiency versus scavenging ratio.

trapping efficiency Vs Scavenging Ratio

1.2

0.8

Trapping Ratio

Perfect mixing 0.6 Perfect displacement Dynamic result

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

Scavenging Ratio

Figure 5.31: Trapping ratio versus scavenging ratio.

CHAPTER 6

FABRICATION OF SCAVENGING SYSTEM TEST RIG

6.1

Introduction

The scavenging test rig was developed to analyze the actual scavenging process. The unfired condition with the tracer gases of oxygen is applied to analyze for the scavenging efficiency. In addition, the Scotch-Yoke mechanisms such as the C-plates, sliders and pistons were constructed to simulate the linear piston motion.

The fabrication work took about six months to finish. During fabrication process, the motion parts such as i) bearing sliders, ii) piston liners (with the cylinder block) and iii) crank mechanism have encountered problem of unfit joint. However, improving the clearance of the machined items solved the problems.

Other constraints were the piston speed. The system speed has to be set low because most of the rig components such as the cylinder block, liners are made by Perspec material. To overcome this, a 3-phase motor controlled the system with speed at 1450 rpm, and the gear box set to 1: 20, which has reduced the speed to 72.5 rpm.

122 6.2 Test Rig Components

The test rig components are first drawn in SolidWorks 2004. The detail drawings provide the information of the components dimensions, orthographic view and the isometric view of the assembly as well as the exploded view of the components. The physical dimensions are illustrated in Appendix B.

During assemblies, the liners, slider bearing, cylinder block and pistons needed much adjustments and this is to ensure that of the pistons could run smoothly. Besides this, the gasket seal, oil rings and Teflon are added to mitigate the leakage problems. The soap bubble inspection method was applied to check for the leakage. Figure 6.1 shows the gasket sealing and Figure 6.2 shows the soap bubble method performed for leakage test on the rig.

Crankcase

Gasket

Liner Piston Figure 6.1: The gasket sealing and leakage inspection.

Piston

123

Intake Manifold

Cylinder Block

Bubble Soap

Figure 6.2: Leakage inspection with soap bubble.

BOM is a product structure to describe what raw materials or components are required, and in what quantities, to produce the engine model. Table 6.1 shows the Bill of Material (BOM) for the test rig model.

The Orthographic Drawing and Exploded Assembly Drawing for the test rig are illustrated in Appendix B1 and B2. There are in total 35 items, which made up the test rig components. The crank-mechanism components are fabricated using

aluminum, whilst the cylinder block and crankcase are fabricated in Perspec material. The machined components are illustrated from Figure 6.3 to Figure 6.5.

124 Table 6.1: Bill of Material (BOM) for the test rig model.

Item no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35

Qty 3 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 1 4 1 6 4 4 2 1 2 2 4 4 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 4 2

Part No. Slider R Slider L Slider Bearing Slider Bearing 2 Bearing Withthrust Crank Bearing M Crankshaft Crankcase Exhaust Manifold Crankshaft Bearing Intake manifold c-platrigmodel1 c-platrigmodel2 Piston55K Compression rig2 Piston pump Sleeve test reed main body reed petal reed limiter screw, M2 x 0.4 x 3 Block gasket Cylinder head Block linertest gasket1 linearslide sparkplug gasket exhaust gasket intake adapter block Piston ring Pump ring

Material Aluminium Aluminium Brass Brass Brass Brass Aluminium Aluminum Perspex Brass Perspec Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium Aluminium Perspec Perspec Fiber glass Brass Paper gasket Perspec Perspec Perspec Paper gasket Brass Paper gasket Paper gasket Perspec Oil ring Oil ring

Drawing No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 18 18 19 20 21 22 -

Appendix B3.1 B3.2 B3.3 B3.4 B3.5 B3.6 B3.7 B3.8 B3.9 B3.10 B3.11 B3.12 B3.13 B3.14 B3.15 B3.16 B3.17 B3.19 B3.19 B3.19 B3.20 B3.20 B3.21 B3.22 -

125

Slider

C-plate

Piston

Figure 6.3: The machined items of the engine crank mechanism.

Probe connector

Intake Manifold

Figure 6.4: The Perspec material representing the intake manifold.

126

Reed valve with gasket

Cylinder Block

Figure 6.5: The associated reed valves and cylinder head section.

The overview of the motored scavenging test rig is shown in Figure 6.6. The motored assembly consists of an AC Inverter, a 2-phase motor, a coupling, and a gearbox. The 3-phase motor will convert electric energy to mechanical turning torque to run the engine model at a predetermined speed.

3-phase Motor Coupling 50Hz

Gear Box (1:20)

Engine Model AC Inverter (50HZ)

Figure 6.6: The overview of the motorized scavenging test rig.

127 Besides this, the main components for the scavenging system test rig (i.e. the motored system), there are several instrumentations used for the measurement purposes. These instrumentations and consumable are listed in Table 6.2. Figure 6.7 illustrates the gas analyzer probe used. The probe was used to collect the samples of the trapped gas. It is linked to the Oliver IGD gas analyzer to display the respective constituents of the exhaust gas. Figure 6.8 illustrated the Dewetron high-speed data acquisition unit and the crank encoder used. The instrumentations are used to measure the crank angle during the scavenging process in conjunction with the chamber pressure.

Table 6.2: Specification of the instrumentations.

Description of Instrumentations
1 Cylinder Gas 02 and N2

Detail
MOX, 7.2m3, 145bar, Purity = O2 (95%), N2 (99.99%) 1. Comet 700, BOC, 0 10 bar 2. CONCOA, Range 0- 25 bar TECO, 220V, 1Hp, 0-50 Hz TECO, 1450Rpm, 50Hz, Power: 0.56kW(0.75hp) GONG TZYH, TKB50, Ratio 1:20 KISTLER, type 6117BCD15, SN 127479, Measure range: 0-50bar. TOCSIN IGD 300 GA

2 3 4 5 6

Pressure regular 1 & 2 Inverter 3-phase motor Speed Reducer Pressure Transducer

Exhaust Analyzer

Response time = 30s Sample rate = 1L/s

8 9 10

Pressure and crank angle Signal Crank angle encoder Manometer

Monitor the signal relation between pressure and crank angle KISTLER type 2613B Micro manometer, model 8702, DP-CALC

128

i. Gas analyzer probe

ii. Oliver IGD gas Analyzer

Figure 6.7: The gas analyzer probe and Oliver IGD gas analyzer.

i. Dewetron signal Display

ii. Crank angle sensor

Figure 6.8: The Dewetron high-speed data acquisition and crank shaft encoder.

Figure 6.9 (i) shows a digital manometer, which was used to measure for pressure and velocity at the intake manifold. Figure 6.9 (ii) shows a Tachometer, which was used to check for the rotational speed of the system during trials.

129

i. Digital manometer

ii. Tachometer

Figure 6.9: Digital Manometer and Tachometer.

6.3 Test Rig Set-up

In the scavenging system model, only half of the model was developed for the testing purpose. As such, only a piston pump chamber and two combustion chambers (chamber A and B) were constructed. The intake manifold is connected to the piston pump chamber while the piston pump chamber supplied the intake charges to each side of the combustion chamber at every 180 interval.

The scavenging measurement method includes:

1. Pressure and velocity measurements at intake and pumping manifolds (at both Chamber A and Chamber B) during the scavenging process. 2. Measurements of the internal pressure of pumping and combustion chambers during the scavenging process. 3. Measurements of the trapped volume fraction inside the chamber during the scavenging process.

130 Figure 6.10 illustrates the schematic diagram of the scavenging test rig. There is inlet from tracer gas Oxygen (O2) as the unburned gas, while another inlet gas Nitrogen (N2) represented the combustion residual gas. There are two outlets, exhaust port and a one-way control valve mounted at the top of the chamber. During the end of the blow down process (after exhaust port closed), the trapped volume inside chamber will be compressed by the piston, and force the trapped volume to pass the control valve for the sampling collection.

Gas O2 cylinder Manometer

Pressure Regulator 1 Gas Box

Inlet

3-phase Motor Speed Reducer

Inverter

Gas N2 Pressure Regulator 2

Testing Rig Engine Model

Inlet Gas Box
(During compression)

Exhaust port

Exhaust Analyzer

Figure 6.10: Schematic diagram of the scavenging test rig set up.

The experimental procedures for the measurement of the scavenging efficiency are as following:

1. Install the instrumentations and check for the leakage. 2. Start to run the motor to intake the charging gas O2. 3. While the transfer port opens, the gas O2 will enter the chamber. 4. While the reach the TDC, exhaust port is closed, and the trapping volume flow through the one-way valve to the exhaust analyzer. 5. Gas N2 is drawn into the chamber to fill the vacuum in-cylinder. 6. The gas sampling is collected by exhaust analyzer.

131 Figure 6.11 shows the picture of the measurement of pressure and velocity points and cylinder A and B.

Figure 6.12 shows the picture of the analyzer probe measurement. The gas analyzer probe collected the species for is putting at the opening of the outflow of this trapped volume to obtain the samplings. Besides, another tracer gas Nitrogen is applied as the ambient gas in the chamber. Only the gas O2 is analyzer with Oliver IGD analyzer, which sets the range of reading at 20 100 % with tolerance of 0.01% and with accuracy at Forecast Standard Deviation (FSD) of 1%.

Figure 6.13 showed the piston pumping will draw the tracer gas O2 from gas box, while the combustion chamber will draw the gas N2 during the expansion.

P2, V2 Point

Cylinder B

P1, V1 Point Cylinder A

Figure 6.11: The scavenging measurement arrangement.

Cylinder Block

Spark plug as blind plug Analyzer Probe

Check Valve

Supply of gas N2

Figure 6.12: The gas analyzer probe on the outflow of the system. 132

Tracer gas O2 P1,V1

Volume A

P2, V2

Volume B To gas analyzer Tracer gas N2

Figure 6.13: The illustration of the scavenging measurement.

133

134 6.3.1 Scavenging Measurement Results

The measurement parameters for the scavenging process were in term of the pressure and velocity at manifold, as well as the mass fraction of tracer species. The pressure and velocity distribution showed the flow rate, and the mass fraction showed the scavenging efficiency.

Figure 6.14 showed the pressure inlet, P1 with the engine speed. The pressure P1 is increased when the engine speed increased. The Volume A with pump and tracer gas has shown the higher pressure than the volume B. At speed 74.5 rpm, P1 for volume A is 12 mmHg (0.016 bar), volume B is 8 mmHg (0.011 bar) and the pressure P1 without pump is only 2.26mmHg (0.003 bar). The differences in pressure inlet of volume A and volume B may due to the geometrical design is different in between the each side of pumping manifold due to the double action pumping design constraint.

Pressure Inlet, P1 Versus Engine Speed, Rpm

14.00

12.00

Without pump

10.00

Pressure (mmHg)

8.00

Volume A with pump,and tracer gas O2

6.00

4.00

volume B with pump,and tracer gas O2

2.00

0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Engine Speed, RPM

Figure 6.14: Pressure inlet P1 versus Engine speed (rpm).

135 The Figure 6.15 shows the variation of the inlet velocity, V1 with engine speed. The maximum velocity volume A (with pump) and tracer gas could reach 50.70m/s. The velocity for volume B (with pump) and tracer gas is at about 42.38m/s. The velocity is observed to increase with the engine speed. The condition of the velocity V1 for the testing without piston pump and the condition has shown the lower results (20.9m/s). Both the volume A and volume B has received the pumping charge, this showed that the piston pump design has been successfully provided the double action of pumping in every 180 interval.

Figure 6.16 shows the pumping manifold pressure versus engine speed. The pumping pressure for volume A has a small drop of pressure when the engine speed increases. This may caused by the unsatisfactory lifting of the reed valves. In addition to this volume B shows the increase of the pressure P2 with the engine speed. But, the pressure P2 for volume B is noted to be lower than P2 at volume A. This may due to the discharge coefficient is higher during the increasing of engines speed, and thus the gas leakage problem through the clearance between the piston pump and the cylinder liner is substantially reduced.

Figure 6.17 shows the pumping manifold velocity versus engine speed. The velocity V2 for volume A is slightly higher than volume B. This maybe also influenced by the differential of the pressure P2, as mentioned in Figure 6.10. The maximum for V2 could be archived by volume A is 36.55 m/s, while volume B is at 30 m/s.

Figure 6.18 shows the profile of the trapped volume ratio (of gas O2) versus engine speed. Both the trapped volume for Volume A and B are noted to increase with the increase in engine speed. This is most likely due to increase in the pumping work and proportionately reduction in the pressure lost at higher speed region. Here the maximum trapped volume ratio for volume A is 0.75, while the cylinder B is at 0.70.

Inlet Velocity, V1 versus Engine Speed, RPM

60.00

50.00

without pump

Inlet Velocity, m/s

40.00

volume A with pump, and tracer gas O2

30.00

volume B with pump, and tracer gas O2

20.00

10.00

0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Engine Speed, RPM

Figure 6.15: Inlet velocity, V1 versus Engine Speed (rpm).

136

Pumping Manifold Pressure , P2 Versus Engine Speed, RPM

7.00

6.00

5.00

volume A with pump and tracer gas O2

Pressure, mmHg

4.00

volume B with pump, and gas tracer

3.00

2.00

1.00

0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Engine Speed, RPM

Figure 6.16: Pumping manifold Pressure, P2 versus Engine Speed (rpm).

137

Pumping manifold velocity, V2 versus Engine Speed, RPM

40.00 35.00 30.00 25.00 20.00 15.00 10.00 5.00 0.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

volume A with pump and tracer gas

Velocity, m/s

volume B with pump and tracer gas

Engine Speed, RPM

Figure 6.17: Pumping manifold velocity, V2 versus Engine Speed (rpm).

138

Trapped volume ratio of gas O2 versus Engine Speed, RPM

1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

Trapped volume ratio of gas O2

Trapped volume ratio of gas O2 for volume A Trapped volume ratio of gas O2 for volume B

Engine Speed, RPM

Figure 6.18: Trapped volume ratio of Gas O2 versus Engine Speed (rpm).

139

140 6.4 The Pressure inside the chamber

The in-cylinder pressures of cylinder chamber A and B, and cylinder pump are measured with the use of a pressure transducer (refer to Table 6.2). Apart from the pressure measurements, volume displacement is measured using crank angle encoder. The reference cylinder TDC is set to 0 crank angle in the DeweCA software. The in-cylinder pressure for volume A and B are found to depict similar gauge pressure distribution profile. Figure 6.19 shows the schematic diagram of the pressure in-cylinder measurement.

The pressure measurement signals are acquired from the Dewetron signal display. The software DeweCA v2.2 is applied for the signal display and data reading. The parameters set up of DeweCA v2.2 is shown at Appendix E.

Speed input

3-phase Motor Speed Reducer Signal 2

Inverter Signal 1

Pressure Transducer

Test Rig Engine Model

Crank Angle encoder

Dewetron high speed data acquisition

Data Collection

Figure 6.19: Schematic diagram of the pressure in-cylinder measurement.

141 The mounting position of the pressure transducer is centrally at the spark plug hole. In most occasions, the Kistler type pressure transducer is mainly use for measuring pressure profile of a combustion cycle in a reciprocating engine. Figure 6.20 shows the location of the mounting of the pressure transducer.

Cylinder Block Cylinder B

Cylinder A

Cylinder Pump

Pressure Transducer

Figure 6.20: The location of the mounting of the Pressure Transducer.

6.4.1

Results of Pressure-In-Cylinder Analysis

The comparison between the cylinder A, B and pump with the engine speed is illustrated Figure 6.21 to 6.23. The TDC is set to 0 for this simulation results discussion. The crank angle in between -120 to -80 is the expansion process, while

142 the crank angle in between -80 to 40 is the compression process inside the chamber.

The pressure inside cylinder A and B has dramatically drop during the period at timing from crank angle from -120 to -80, this may because of expansion volume chamber during the piston moves to BDC. However, the pressure started to increase during period of crank angle from -80 to 0. This is because of the compression stage of the piston movement.

In Figure 6.21, the pressure in-cylinder A is found has same distribution with the engine speed. The maximum value for the gauge pressure for the compression is 0.8 bar at 74.5rpm. The pressure chamber dropped during the period of crank angle from -120 to -80, the lowest negative gauge pressure is 2.6 bar (vacuum). This vacuum condition occurred due to the expansion volume at unfired condition.

Figure 6.21: Pressure Variation in chamber A versus Crank Angle.

143

144 In Figure 6.22, the pressure in-cylinder B is found also has pressure distribution with the chamber A. The maximum value for the gauge pressure for the compression is 0.8 bar at 74.5rpm. The pressure chamber also dropped during the period of crank angle from -120 to -80, the lowest negative gauge pressure is 3.1 bar (vacuum). This vacuum condition occurred also due to the expansion volume at unfired condition.

Figure 6.23 showed the pressure in piston pumping chamber, the negative gauge is found lower than ambient pressure. This is because of the piston pump always expanded its volume for the induction process. The expansion volume caused the vacuum and drew the new intake charge. Another reason for the negative gauge pressure is that reed valve always allowed the medium to flow through to pumping manifold during the piston moves upward TDC to compress the medium. However, to understand the actual pumping process, the pumping manifold was instigated. The Figure 6.16 has showed that highest velocity of pumping manifold is 36.55 m/s, while the velocities for intake charge without pump is 20.9 m/s. There is a relatively increase of 15.65 m/s with the piston pump usage. This has proven that the negative gauge pressure inside the pumping chamber was the process of induction of new charge. The highest of negative gauge pressure for the pumping chamber could reach at 0.245 bar (vacuum).

Figure 6.22: Pressure Variation in chamber B versus crank angle.

145

146

Figure 6.23: Pressure Variation in piston pump chamber versus Crank angle.

147 6.5 Scavenging Performance Analysis

Due to the test rig limitation at the running speed, the experimental results could only provide the result of the scavenging performance at the 72.5RPM speed range. The experimental data for the testing is attached in Appendix D. Table 6.3 shows the experimental results for volume A and volume B. The volume A obtained the scavenging efficiency at 0.75, while the volume B obtained the scavenging efficiency at 0.74. To compare the typical value in section 2.5(Table 2.4), the scavenging efficiency is in between 0.6 to 0.9. Therefore, the scavenging efficiency result is within the range of typical value.

Table 6.3: The experimental results for volume A and volume B.

Scavenging ratio (pump volume ratio)

Scavenging efficiency ( experimental)

Trapping efficiency

Volume A Volume B

1.5 1.5

0.75 0.74

0.50 0.49

To understand the effectiveness of the trapped volume value in the test rig, the comparison with the ideal scavenging model is required. Figure 6.24 and Figure 6.25 show that the situation of the scavenging parametric for this engine model is close to the perfect mixing model curve line. This showed the engine model, which employs the gas sampling method has met the good mixing process during the scavenging process.

148

Scavenging efficiency vs Scavenging ratio

1.2

scavenging efficiency

0.8

perfect mixing perfect displacement Volume A volume B

0.6

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

scavenging ratio

Figure 6.24: Scavenging efficiency versus scavenging ratio

Trapping efficiency vs Scavenging ratio

1.2

trapping efficiency

0.8

0.6

Perfect mixing perfect displacement volume A volume B

0.4

0.2

0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

scavenging ratio

Figure 6.25: Trapping ratio versus scavenging ratio.

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER WORK

7.1

Conclusions

The following salient points are the major outcomes of the work carried out:

1. The scavenging system with external piston pump has successfully proposed and developed. The external piston pump is designed by adapting the ScotchYoke mechanism, which allows creating the double action of the pumping process. The piston pump is capable of a delivery ratio reaching at 1.5. The double action-pumping feature has been proven to be successfully developed for the engine model.

2. In static condition, an optimized Schnurle loop scavenging system was proven to have a better scavenging flow pattern inside the cylinder. With the optimization of the port geometry design, it manages to achieve the goal of low fuel consumption and reduction of exhaust emission.

150 3. The dynamic model test of the engine domain was successfully investigated with the CFD code Fluent v 6.1. The results have shown promising results of the inlet charge flowing toward the upper chamber during the blow down process. In addition, the gas sampling method has shown that the simulation result for the engine could reach the scavenging efficiency at 0.945 and trapping efficiency at 0.63 at the maximum engine speed of 8000 rpm.

4. In the test rig, the scavenging performance experimental results have shown the scavenging results are near to the perfect mixing condition. The scavenging efficiency could achieve 75% and trapping efficiency at 50%. This will allow for the reduction of the pollutant emission, and will minimize short-circuiting problem of the two-stroke engine.

This project is of significant important to produce a scavenging system for a newly designed multi-cylinder two-stroke Scotch-Yoke engine, which will contribute to the prototype development of a lean burn, stratified-charge, and two-stroke engine. The reduction of the short-circuiting problem (for this engine model) will ultimately reduce fuel lost and mitigate pollutant emission caused by the incomplete combustion process normally associated with conventional two-stroke engine.

151 7.2 Recommendation for Further Works

Some of the immediate work to be carried put to further enhance the performance of the engine prototype will be:

1.

The engine model has been simulated with the unfired condition, and the port geometry design is considered in optimized design condition. Therefore, for the fired condition purposes, the consideration of the piston and the engine chamber shapes are to be made to adapt the latest technology of direct fuel injection system and ignition timing system.

2.

Further simulation work on the scavenging process must include incylinder combustion process at various operating conditions. The investigation of the combustion and scavenging processes will be the next challenge to further validate the virtual prediction of the engine combustion analysis made earlier on.

3.

Further design optimization of the engine intake and exhaust systems is required especially the tuning of the engine exhaust for optimize engine output.

4.

Further design optimization of the reed valve and its materials used is also required to ensure that the valves are able to withstand the extreme pressure and temperature fluctuation in engines transient and steady-state operating condition.

REFERENCES
[1] Geoffrey,C., Robert J.K., Robert G.K. and William, J.S.

Development of a Stratified Scavenging System for Small Capacity Two-Stroke Engines. SAE1999-01-3270 / JSAE 9938025.1999. [2] Rosennkranz, H.G. Simple Harmonic Piston Motion of CMCRs SYTECH Engines Influence on Design and Operation. Paper number 99007. 1999. [3] Rosenkranze, H.G, Why Change to CMC Scotch-yoke Engine technology (SYTECH), CMCR report:, Melbourne, September 1998. [4] Heywood, J.B and Sher, E. The Two-Stroke Cycle Engine Its Development, Operation and Design, SAE international, Taylor & Francis. 1998. [5] Fleck, R. and Thornhill, D. Single Cycle Scavenge Testing a Multi-Cylinder, Externally Scavenged, Two-Stroke Engine with a Log Intake Manifold. SAE technical paper 941684. 1994. [6] Blair,G.P. Design and Simulation of Two-Stroke Engines. Warrendle, USA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 1994. [7] Durret,P. A new generation of two-stroke Engine for the future?: Contribution of Scientific Tool and computer modeling to the understanding of two-stroke engine aerodynamic and direct fuel injection behavior. France, Editions Technip. 1993. [8] Pulkrabek,W.W. Engineering Fundamental of the Internal Combustion Engine. United State of America, Prentice-Hall International,Inc. 1997. [9] Foudray, H.Z.and Ghandhi,J.B. Scavenging measurements in a DirectInjection two stroke engine. SAE technical paper 2003-32-0081. 2003. [10] Crouse, W.H. and Anglin, D.L. Automotive Mechanics, tenth edition. New York, McGraw Hill. 1993. [11] Setright. LJK. Turbocharging and Supercharging for maximum power and Torque. Sparkford Yeovil Somerset, Foulis Motoring Book. 1976. [12] Cross, N. Engineering Design Methods, strategy for product design third edition. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons, LTD. 2000. [13] Heywood,J.B. Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals. Singapore.

McGraw-Hill Book Company. 1988.

153 [14] Heisler,H. Vehicle and Engine Technology: Second Edition, Great Britain, Butterworth-Heinemann. 2001. [15] Ravi, M.R., Effect of Port Sizes and Timings on the Scavenging Characteristics of a Uniflow Scavenged Engine, SAE 920782. 1992. [16] Franz J. L, CFD Application in Compact Engine Development, SAE 982016. 1998. [17] Richard,S. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines. Warrendle, USA, Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 1999. [18] Buckland,J., Cook,J.,Kolmanovsky and Sun, J. Technology Assessment of Boosted Direct Injection Stratified Charge Gasoline Engines, SAE 2000-010249, 2000. [19] Yoshida,Y., Uenoyama,K., Kawahara,Y. and Kudo,K. Development of Stratified Scavenging Two-Stroke Cycle Engine for Emission Reduction, SAE1999-01-3269/JSAE 9938024, 1999. [20] Fluent Inc. Fluent vs 6.1 Users guide manual, 2003. [21] Fluent Inc. Scavenging in a Two-Stroke IC engine, Application Brief from Fluent, EX204.2003. [22] Bergman,M., Gustafsson,R.U.K, Jonsson, B.I.R., and Husqvarna,A.B.

Scavenging System Layout of A 25cc Two-Stroke Engine Intended for Stratified Scavenging. SAE2002-32-1840/ JSAE 20024333. 2002. [23] Chiatti,G. and Chiavola,O. Scavenge Stream Analysis in High Speed 2T Gasoline Engine. SAE2002-01-2180. 2002. [24] Mitianiec,W. Analysis of Loop Scavenging Process in A Small Power SI TwoStroke Engine. SAE2002-01-2181. 2002. [25] Zeng,Yangbing and Strauss,S. Modeling of Scavenging and Plugging in a Twin-Cylinder Two-Stroke Engine Using CFD. SAE 2003-32-0020/JSAE 20034320. 2003. [26] Ghiatti,G. and Chiavola,O. Scavenging Efficiency and Combustion

Performance in 2T Gasoline Engine. SAE 2003-32-0030/JSAE 20034330. 2003. [27] Bergman,M. Gustafsson,R.U.K and Jonsson, B.I.R. Emmission and

Performance Evaluation of A 25cc Stratified Scavenging Two-Stroke engine. SAE 2003-32-0047/JSAE 20034347. 2003.

154 [28] Raghunathan,B.D. and Kenny,R.G. CFD Simulation and Validation of The Flow within a Motored Two-Stroke Engine. SAE 970359. [29] Elligott, S.M., Douglas,R. and Kenny,R.G. An Assessment of A Stratified Scavenging Process Applied to A Loop Scavenged Two-Stroke Engine. SAE 1999-01-3272/ JSAE 9938027. 1999. [30] Laurine,J.L., Gary,S.S, Vladimir,L.G.,Subrata,S., Abdreas,M.B. and

Juergen,Meyer. CFD Investigation of the Scavenging Process In A Two-Stroke Engine. SAE 941929. 1994. [31] Cheang, Louis. Small Engine That Packs a Punch. 22 September 2002. Sunday Star, Malaysia, Page 18. [32] SAE International. Automotive Handbook 5th Edition. Bosch. Germany. 2002 [33] Fenton, F. Gasoline Engine Analysis For Computer Aided Design. Mechanical Engineering Publication LTD. London. 1986. [34] Bailey,J.M. Engine Components New Materials And Manufacturing Processes, ICE Vol.1. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. New York. 1986. [35] Goldsborough, S.S. Optimizing the Scavenging System for High Efficiency And Low Emission: A Computational Approach. Ph.D. Dissertation. Colorado State University; 2002. [36] Rosenkranze, H.G, Why Change to CMC Scotch-yoke Engine technology (SYTECH), CMCR report:, Melbourne, September 1998. [37] Duret, P. A New Generation of Two-Stroke Engines for the Year 2000. International Seminar A new generation of two-stroke Engine for the future?.November 29-30, 1993.Rueil-Malmaison, France. Editions Technip. 1993. Pages 181-194. [38] Plint,M. and Martyr,A. Engine Testing Theory and Practice second edition. Warrendale, SAE International. 2001. [39] Andeson,J.D. Computational Fluid Dynamic The Basic with Applications. New York, McGraw Hill. 1995. [40] Shames,I.H. Mechanics of Fluids, Fourth Edition. New York, McGraw Hill. 2003. [41] Schuster,W.A. Small Engine Technology, Second Edition. United State of America, Delmar Publishers, 1999.

155 [42] Keribin, P.H. Contribution of Scientific Tools and Computer Modeling to the Understanding of Two-Stroke Engine Aerodynamics and Direct Fuel Injection Behaviour. International Seminar. A new generation of two-stroke Engine for the future? November 29-30, 1993.Rueil-Malmaison, France. Editions Technip. 1993. Pages 9-16. [43] Yu,L., Campbell,T., Pollock,L and Marconi,P. Lean Burn Combustion Engine. IMechE Seminar Publication 1996-20. Exhaust Emission Control with Direct Multi-point Fuel-injection of a Small Two-stroke Engine. 3-4November 1996. Bury St.Edmund, London. Mechanical Enginnering Publication.1996.Pages 165-185.] [44] Warhaft,Z. An Introduction to Thermal-Fluid Engineering The Engine and The Atmosphere. United Kingdom, The Press Syndicate of The University of Cambridge. 1997. [45] Ravi, M.R, Marathe,A.G. Effect of Port Sizes and Timings on the Scavenging Characteristics of a Uniflow Scavenged Engine. SAE 920782. 1992. [46] Wallesten,J, Lipatnikov,A and Chomiak,J. Simulations of Fuel/Air Mixing, Combustion,and Pollutant Formation in a Direct Injection Gasoline Engine. SAE 2002-01-0835. 2002. [47] Joseph,M.B. A Simple High Efficiency S.I. Engine Design. SAE 2003-010923. 2003. [48] Vita,A.D. Experimental Analysis and CFD Simulation of GDI Sprays. SAE 2003-01-0004. 2003. [49] Norihiko,W., Shinya,M., Masayuki, K. and Junichi, N. The CFD Application for Efficient Designing in the Automotive Engineering. SAE 2003-01-1335. 2003. [50] Yoshida, Kazuyuki, U., Yoshitaka, K. and Kazunori, K. Development of Stratified Scavenging Two-Stroke Cycle Engine for Emission Reduction. SAE 1999-01-3269. 1999. [51] Azhar, A.A, Fong, K.W., Ng,T.N. Design Concept for a Boosted Small Capacity Multi-Cylinder Two-stroke Horizontal Opposed Scotch-Yoke Engine. Conference NAME 05 UITM. 2005.

APPENDICES

157 Appendix A

158 Appendix B1

159 Appendix B2

160 Appendix B3.1

161 Appendix B3.2

162 Appendix B3.3

163 Appendix B3.4

164 Appendix B3.5

165 Appendix B3.6

166 Appendix B3.7

167 Appendix B3.8

168 Appendix B3.9

169 Appendix B3.10

170 Appendix B3.11

171 Appendix B3.12

172 Appendix B3.13

173 Appendix B3.14

174 Appendix B3.15

175 Appendix B3.16

176 Appendix B3.17

177 Appendix B3.18

178 Appendix B3.19

179 Appendix B3.20

180 Appendix B3.21

181 Appendix B3.22

182 APPENDIX C

Dynamic Mesh Option Setting

The Scotch-Yoke mechanism piston movement step is needed to adapt the conventional engine setting in the Fluent v6.1 mesh option set up.

The calculation for the Dynamic mesh for crank angle:

D = r + a (a cos + r 2 a 2 sin 2 ) 25.5 = 100 + 24 (24 cos + 100 2 24 2 sin 2 `) 100 2 24 2 sin 2 = 98.5 24 cos 100 2 24 2 sin 2 = (98.5 24 cos )
2

10000 576 sin 2 = 9702.25 4728 cos + 576 cos 2 10000 576(1 cos 2 ) = 9702.25 4728 cos + 576 cos 2 10000 576 + 576 cos 2 = 9702.25 4728 cos + 576 cos 2 4728 cos = 9702.25 10000 + 576 cos = 278.25 4728

= 0.05885

= 86.63

Where, D = 25.5mm, a = crank offset, 24 mm r = connecting rod length, 100 mm

= crank angle, which is measured from the cylinder centerline and is zero when the
piston is at TDC.

183 The dynamic mesh In-cylinder setting is as following:

Appendix D

Scavenging Rig Experimental Data

Date: 1/6/2005

Testing 1: Measurement at cylinder chamber without pump, and at natural aspirated condition

Inverter Tachometer (Hz) (rpm) 10 20 30 40 50 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5 1 0.83 2.05 2.13 2.15 2.1 2 1.03 2.49 2.13 2.11 2.16

P1 3 0.95 2.45 2.3 2.07 2.09 4 min 0.91 0.93 1.93 2.23 2.46 2.26 1.98 2.08 2.68 2.26 1 11.47 17.92 19.33 21.26 22.03 2 13.14 15.12 20.02 20.05 20.53

V1 3 10.84 16.03 21.82 20.49 21.41 4 min 13.73 12.30 24.61 18.42 20.58 20.44 21.84 20.91 19.6 20.89

184

Date: 9/6/2005

Testing 2: Measurement at cylinder A with piston pump, and supply with gas sampling O2

i.) The measurement of the Pressure and velocity Inverter Tachometer (Hz) (rpm) 10 20 30 40 50 Inverter (Hz) 10 20 30 40 50 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5 Tachometer (rpm) 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5 1 11.91 12.65 11.66 11.77 12.41 2 9.16 11.79 12.22 11.64 11.2

P1 3 10.42 11.66 12.32 12.9 12.42 P2 1 6.56 6.2 4.87 5.41 5.4 2 7.19 7.11 6.44 4.99 5.48 3 6.09 6.84 5.94 4.32 5.25 4 min 7.48 6.83 7.49 6.91 4.76 5.50 5.07 4.95 5.41 5.39 1 21.06 24.38 33.59 32.48 33.98 2 34.97 35.6 32.07 32.21 40.85 4 min 12.01 10.88 10.6 11.68 12.63 12.21 12.68 12.25 13.08 12.28 1 43.86 49.23 49.64 49.23 51.4 2 50.56 51.87 49.61 50.13 51.32

V1 3 49.23 47.48 51.84 49.94 52.54 V2 3 36.36 37.81 36.22 31.07 34.92 4 min 34.62 31.75 22.4 30.05 36.77 34.66 33.01 32.19 36.46 36.55 4 min 44.32 46.99 47.49 49.02 44.01 48.78 49.94 49.81 47.53 50.70

185

ii.) The measurement of the Scavenging Efficiency

Inverter (Hz) 10 20 30 40 50

Tachometer Gas box sampling Analyzer sampling (rpm) O2, %vol O2, % vol 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 31.59 36.88 40.85 41.68 44.39

Scavenging Efficiency 0.539078498 0.629351536 0.697098976 0.711262799 0.757508532

Date: 13/6/2005

Testing 3: Measurement at cylinder B with piston pump, and supply of gas sampling O2

i.) The measurement of the Pressure and velocity

Inverter Tachometer (Hz) (rpm) 10 20 30 40 50 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5 1 8.45 8.78 7.46 7.55 7.19 2 8.31 9.21 6.8 8.01 8.58

P1 3 9.31 8.97 6.31 7.56 7.27 4 min 6.65 8.18 8.84 8.95 6.86 6.86 7.51 7.66 8.84 7.97 1 36.7 40.36 42.24 41.65 41.73 2 39.94 40.81 42.23 42.24 41.51

V1 3 36.78 40.23 42.09 42.13 41.81 4 min 40.1 38.38 40.58 40.50 42.06 42.16 42.67 42.17 44.47 42.38

186

Inverter (Hz) 10 20 30 40 50

Tachometer (rpm) 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5 1 5.31 3.47 4.04 4.64 4.1 2 2.83 3.15 4.04 4.48 4.08

P2 3 3.34 3.3 3.08 4.55 4.58 4 min 3.25 3.68 3.65 3.39 3.68 3.71 4.28 4.49 4.58 4.34 1 23.46 24.38 26.9 27.98 30.36 2 20.46 24.01 28.15 26.04 30.32

V2 3 28.87 28.4 29.36 27.07 28.79 4 min 27.66 25.11 29.46 26.56 30.22 28.66 27.64 27.18 30.42 29.97

ii.) The measurement of the Scavenging Efficiency

Inverter Tachometer (Hz) (rpm) 10 20 30 40 50 14.8 29.7 44.6 60.5 74.5

Gas box sampling O2, %v 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8 56.8

Analyzer sampling O2, % v 28.06 36.45 39.21 36.45 43.53

Scavenging Efficiency 0.47883959 0.622013652 0.669112628 0.622013652 0.742832765

187

188

Appendix E

Dewetron Signal Display Setting

i. The setting of the engine geometry

ii. The channel for the pressure transducer detection

189

Appendix F Pressure In-cylinder Data

Measurement of the Pressure in-cylinder A at different rpm Crank degree() -180 -175 -170 -165 -160 -155 -150 -145.001 -140.001 -135.001 -130.001 -125.001 -120.001 -115.001 -110.001 -105.001 -100.001 -95.0013 -90.0014 -85.0014 -80.0015 -75.0016 -70.0017 -65.0018 -60.0018 -55.0019 -50.002 -45.0021 -40.0021 -35.0022 -30.0023 -25.0024 -20.0024 -15.0025 -10.0026 -5.00267 -0.00274658 5.19717 10.1971 15.197 20.1969 20Hz ( 14.8 rpm) -0.099487 -0.100708 -0.10376 -0.106201 -0.109863 -0.111694 -0.12207 -0.134277 -0.140991 -0.147705 -0.158691 -0.222168 -0.36499 -0.510254 -0.679321 -0.847778 -1.02478 -1.19446 -1.34766 -1.46545 -1.52283 -1.51001 -1.41663 -1.24695 -1.00525 -0.730591 -0.435181 -0.162964 0.0567627 0.195313 0.286255 0.394287 0.472412 0.524292 0.563354 0.592651 0.608521 0.623169 0.567017 0.369263 0.230103 30Hz ( 29.8 rpm ) -0.00044 -0.0061 -0.00828 -0.01221 -0.01482 -0.02093 -0.03749 -0.05668 -0.0715 -0.08458 -0.09766 -0.17003 -0.32131 -0.49221 -0.69013 -0.90114 -1.13395 -1.37373 -1.60697 -1.82408 -1.97449 -2.04119 -2.005 -1.85983 -1.61264 -1.30048 -0.92991 -0.57068 -0.25504 0.009591 0.20752 0.322178 0.430298 0.525338 0.595093 0.650024 0.688825 0.717163 0.701468 0.569807 0.457328 40Hz (44.6 rpm ) 0.079346 0.075073 0.07019 0.065918 0.064087 0.057373 0.030518 0.004272 -0.01099 -0.03906 -0.0592 -0.14282 -0.30701 -0.49561 -0.71045 -0.95337 -1.22131 -1.51123 -1.80359 -2.08557 -2.29431 -2.39075 -2.35962 -2.21252 -1.95618 -1.63574 -1.23657 -0.82947 -0.46692 -0.15625 0.092163 0.281372 0.392456 0.497437 0.59021 0.662842 0.719604 0.761108 0.759888 0.673828 0.599976 50Hz (74.5rpm) 0.115967 0.113678 0.106812 0.106812 0.102234 0.092316 0.069428 0.031281 0.010681 -0.04959 -0.01907 -0.1297 -0.29678 -0.49667 -0.72479 -0.9819 -1.26953 -1.58386 -1.90887 -2.22168 -2.4498 -2.55051 -2.49252 -2.34756 -2.08817 -1.76926 -1.37711 -0.96054 -0.57068 -0.24109 0.028229 0.234985 0.375366 0.46463 0.579071 0.654602 0.719452 0.772095 0.785065 0.722504 0.668335

190 25.1969 30.1968 35.1967 40.1966 45.1966 50.1965 55.1964 60.1963 65.1963 70.1962 75.1961 80.196 85.196 90.1959 95.1958 100.196 105.196 110.196 115.195 120.195 125.195 130.195 135.195 140.195 145.195 150.195 155.195 160.195 165.195 170.195 175.195 179.795 0.120239 0.0476074 0.0170898 0.0109863 0.0048828 0.0024414 -0.003662 -0.008545 -0.012207 -0.020142 -0.025024 -0.029297 -0.033569 -0.036621 -0.040283 -0.046387 -0.053711 -0.053101 -0.057983 -0.061646 -0.065918 -0.068359 -0.075684 -0.076904 -0.079956 -0.083008 -0.084839 -0.087891 -0.091553 -0.093994 -0.095825 -0.098267 0.366647 0.25504 0.164795 0.142997 0.134713 0.130354 0.121634 0.115967 0.112043 0.102888 0.100272 0.092861 0.088065 0.082833 0.078474 0.071498 0.064523 0.062343 0.054496 0.052752 0.047084 0.040109 0.036621 0.032261 0.029646 0.021798 0.02049 0.014823 0.012643 0.005668 0.002616 0 0.523682 0.432129 0.291748 0.222778 0.219116 0.210571 0.206299 0.199585 0.193481 0.187378 0.180054 0.177002 0.169678 0.167236 0.158691 0.151978 0.149536 0.144653 0.139771 0.135498 0.128174 0.125122 0.118408 0.112915 0.106812 0.10498 0.100708 0.096436 0.091553 0.087891 0.083008 0.078125 0.610352 0.526428 0.392151 0.257111 0.25177 0.244904 0.241089 0.2388 0.230408 0.226593 0.219727 0.217438 0.211334 0.20752 0.200653 0.197601 0.192261 0.185394 0.180817 0.177002 0.175476 0.16861 0.167084 0.160217 0.156403 0.152588 0.145721 0.144958 0.138855 0.13504 0.131989 0.126648

Measurement of the Pressure in-cylinder B at different rpm crank degree() -180 -175 -170 -165 -160 -155 -150 -145.001 -140.001 -135.001 20Hz 30Hz 40Hz 50Hz ( 14.8 rpm) ( 29.8 rpm ) (44.6 rpm ) (74.5rpm) -0.0274658 0.067139 0.15564 0.462341 -0.0350952 0.060018 0.151571 0.457764 -0.038147 0.052389 0.143433 0.454712 -0.0427246 0.044759 0.136312 0.45166 -0.0518799 0.039673 0.126139 0.448608 -0.0579834 0.02594 0.11495 0.431824 -0.0854492 -0.00966 0.0671387 0.38147 -0.109863 -0.05188 0.0142415 0.32959 -0.126648 -0.08494 -0.0325521 0.271606 -0.137329 -0.10173 -0.0620524 0.224304

191 -130.001 -125.001 -120.001 -115.001 -110.001 -105.001 -100.001 -95.0013 -90.0014 -84.0015 -80.0015 -75.0016 -70.0017 -65.0018 -60.0018 -55.0019 -50.002 -45.0021 -40.0021 -35.0022 -30.0023 -25.0024 -20.0024 -15.0025 -10.0026 -5.00267 -0.00274658 4.99718 9.9971 14.997 19.9969 24.9969 29.9968 34.9967 39.7966 44.9966 49.9965 54.9964 59.9963 64.9963 69.9962 74.9961 79.996 84.996 89.9959 94.9958 99.9957 104.996 -0.143433 -0.152588 -0.268555 -0.415039 -0.585938 -0.778198 -0.98114 -1.20087 -1.42975 -1.69373 -1.83563 -1.96838 -2.034 -1.98669 -1.80969 -1.5625 -1.24512 -0.91095 -0.578308 -0.289917 -0.0411987 0.161743 0.315857 0.437927 0.50354 0.558472 0.621033 0.660706 0.576782 0.485229 0.411987 0.350952 0.306702 0.273132 0.259399 0.244141 0.22583 0.215149 0.201416 0.184631 0.167847 0.15564 0.143433 0.131226 0.119019 0.106812 0.0961304 0.088501 -0.12004 -0.13682 -0.26499 -0.43538 -0.62561 -0.84127 -1.08795 -1.35142 -1.6276 -1.9104 -2.16064 -2.34833 -2.44904 -2.43022 -2.28068 -2.0284 -1.67898 -1.30361 -0.91705 -0.56966 -0.26805 -0.01831 0.183614 0.341288 0.463867 0.545756 0.606283 0.661723 0.632731 0.608826 0.564067 0.472514 0.396729 0.361633 0.344849 0.33315 0.319417 0.306193 0.293986 0.26652 0.252787 0.24058 0.22939 0.218201 0.205485 0.19633 0.18514 0.177511 -0.0895182 -0.112915 -0.24821 -0.431315 -0.638835 -0.879924 -1.1556 -1.45264 -1.77104 -2.09757 -2.3936 -2.63774 -2.771 -2.77608 -2.62044 -2.35291 -1.99483 -1.58183 -1.17188 -0.782267 -0.442505 -0.154622 0.0762939 0.262451 0.411987 0.523885 0.586955 0.656128 0.655111 0.665283 0.663249 0.579834 0.486247 0.430298 0.416056 0.404867 0.391642 0.380452 0.37028 0.352987 0.343831 0.334676 0.320435 0.310262 0.30009 0.287882 0.275675 0.272624 0.18158 0.140381 -0.00305176 -0.204468 -0.430298 -0.70343 -1.01624 -1.35345 -1.73645 -2.13623 -2.52075 -2.85645 -3.07617 -3.13721 -3.00446 -2.75269 -2.40173 -1.98364 -1.53198 -1.10779 -0.720215 -0.384521 -0.10376 0.128174 0.312805 0.463867 0.585938 0.662231 0.680542 0.727844 0.765991 0.793457 0.799561 0.701904 0.58136 0.572205 0.570679 0.564575 0.566101 0.556946 0.550842 0.547791 0.541687 0.537109 0.534058 0.526428 0.520325 0.515747

192 109.996 114.995 119.995 124.995 129.995 134.995 139.995 144.995 149.995 154.995 159.995 164.995 169.995 174.995 179.795 0.0778198 0.0701904 0.0595093 0.0549316 0.0442505 0.0320435 0.0289917 0.0213623 0.0183105 0.00610352 0 -0.00915527 -0.0167847 -0.0213623 -0.0274658 0.165304 0.158183 0.150553 0.142924 0.13682 0.126648 0.120544 0.113424 0.102743 0.09257 0.088501 0.082398 0.072225 0.065613 0.263468 0.252279 0.244141 0.240072 0.231934 0.221761 0.218709 0.209554 0.203451 0.194295 0.184123 0.168864 0.172933 0.16276 0.158691 0.512695 0.508118 0.498962 0.50354 0.500488 0.495911 0.489807 0.485229 0.483704 0.4776 0.473022 0.469971 0.466919 0.462341

Measurement of the Pressure in-cylinder C (Piston Pump) at different rpm 20Hz 30Hz 40Hz 50Hz ( 29.8 rpm ) (44.6 rpm ) (74.5rpm) crank degree() ( 14.8 rpm) -180 -0.23651 -0.24262 -0.24719 -0.24282 -175 -0.23689 -0.24223 -0.24894 -0.24206 -170 -0.23651 -0.24262 -0.24588 -0.24348 -165 -0.23727 -0.24414 -0.2533 -0.24419 -160 -0.23651 -0.24376 -0.25068 -0.24495 -155 -0.23575 -0.2449 -0.25112 -0.2448 -150 -0.23575 -0.24223 -0.24806 -0.24536 -145.001 -0.23613 -0.24109 -0.24806 -0.24323 -140.001 -0.23422 -0.23804 -0.24283 -0.23972 -135.001 -0.23384 -0.24147 -0.24283 -0.23773 -130.001 -0.2327 -0.23651 -0.24022 -0.23183 -125.001 -0.23346 -0.23689 -0.24022 -0.23321 -120.001 -0.23041 -0.23613 -0.23891 -0.22985 -115.001 -0.23346 -0.23422 -0.23629 -0.227 -110.001 -0.23003 -0.2346 -0.23717 -0.22608 -105.001 -0.23041 -0.23384 -0.23499 -0.22629 -100.001 -0.22926 -0.23308 -0.23542 -0.22502 -95.0013 -0.22888 -0.23232 -0.23629 -0.2238 -90.0014 -0.22926 -0.23155 -0.23324 -0.22603 -85.0014 -0.2285 -0.2327 -0.23411 -0.22471 -80.0015 -0.22774 -0.22965 -0.23368 -0.2243 -75.0016 -0.22926 -0.23117 -0.23281 -0.22288 -70.0017 -0.22965 -0.22965 -0.23237 -0.22161 -65.0018 -0.22736 -0.23079 -0.23237 -0.22247 -60.0018 -0.22812 -0.22888 -0.22888 -0.21983 -55.0019 -0.22812 -0.22812 -0.22932 -0.21769 -50.002 -0.22583 -0.22697 -0.22975 -0.21907

193 -45.0021 -40.0021 -35.0022 -30.0023 -25.0024 -20.0024 -15.0025 -10.0026 -5.00267 -0.00275 4.99718 9.9971 14.997 19.9969 24.9969 29.9968 34.9967 39.9966 44.9966 49.9965 54.9964 59.9963 64.9963 69.9962 74.9961 79.996 84.996 89.9959 94.9958 99.9957 104.996 109.996 114.995 119.995 124.995 129.995 134.995 139.995 144.995 149.995 154.995 159.995 164.995 169.995 174.995 179.795 -0.22697 -0.22621 -0.22392 -0.22621 -0.2243 -0.22736 -0.22697 -0.22583 -0.22697 -0.22621 -0.22659 -0.22659 -0.22812 -0.22736 -0.22774 -0.22545 -0.22888 -0.22736 -0.22621 -0.2285 -0.22888 -0.22888 -0.22888 -0.22888 -0.23003 -0.2285 -0.23117 -0.23041 -0.22926 -0.23041 -0.22965 -0.23079 -0.23117 -0.23117 -0.23232 -0.23155 -0.23193 -0.23346 -0.23537 -0.2346 -0.23613 -0.23613 -0.23689 -0.23575 -0.2346 -0.23575 -0.2285 -0.22736 -0.22736 -0.22888 -0.22736 -0.22659 -0.22583 -0.22659 -0.22583 -0.22697 -0.22812 -0.22697 -0.22697 -0.22888 -0.22697 -0.22812 -0.22545 -0.23117 -0.22965 -0.22926 -0.22736 -0.22697 -0.23003 -0.22965 -0.22926 -0.23079 -0.2285 -0.23346 -0.23155 -0.2327 -0.23155 -0.23346 -0.23422 -0.23499 -0.23422 -0.23537 -0.23575 -0.2388 -0.23804 -0.24071 -0.23804 -0.23994 -0.24185 -0.24376 -0.24223 -0.24262 -0.23193 -0.22714 -0.22714 -0.2267 -0.22888 -0.22627 -0.22757 -0.2267 -0.22627 -0.22888 -0.22801 -0.22932 -0.22975 -0.2267 -0.22757 -0.22757 -0.22714 -0.2267 -0.2267 -0.22627 -0.22845 -0.22888 -0.22975 -0.22888 -0.23019 -0.23106 -0.2315 -0.2315 -0.23063 -0.23193 -0.23411 -0.23281 -0.23455 -0.23411 -0.23542 -0.23629 -0.23673 -0.23847 -0.24153 -0.24109 -0.24414 -0.24632 -0.24632 -0.24719 -0.24763 -0.24763 -0.21815 -0.21744 -0.21525 -0.21652 -0.21673 -0.21805 -0.21566 -0.21566 -0.21515 -0.2179 -0.21495 -0.21759 -0.21256 -0.2154 -0.21545 -0.21566 -0.21723 -0.21403 -0.21586 -0.22156 -0.22191 -0.21729 -0.21846 -0.21952 -0.21947 -0.21973 -0.22054 -0.22024 -0.22003 -0.22146 -0.2211 -0.22273 -0.2242 -0.22476 -0.2268 -0.22771 -0.23377 -0.23402 -0.23438 -0.23275 -0.23697 -0.23977 -0.239 -0.23992 -0.24216 -0.242

194

Appendix G

Tube Adaptor Specifications

NO Tube Accessory 1 tube(inlet)

Male connector

Female connector

Branch Tee connector

Check valve

specifications Stainless steel OD = 6 mm, thickness = 1mm Brass Male Connector, 6 mm OD - 1/4 in. Male ISO Tapered Threads Brass Female Connector, 6 mm OD - 1/4 in. Female ISO Tapered Brass Street Tee, 1/4 in. FNPT - 1/4 in. MNPT - 1/4 in. FNPT Brass 1-Piece Check Valve, 1/4 in. Male NPT, 1 PSIG Spring

quantity length = 1.5 m

purchase -

Swagelok B-6M0-1-4RT 3 units

1 unit

Swagelok B-6M0-7-4RT

1 unit

Swagelok B-4-ST

2 unit

Swagelok B-4CP2-1

195