Urban drainage Introduction: Urbanization along with its impermeable structures is the major causes of flooding in urban areas.

Urban storm water influences the service life of urban infrastructures. The rainfall intensity and characteristics of catchment area are the major factors for designing urban storm water drainage facilities. These facilities have a paramount advantage to safely dispose the generated floods to ultimate receiving system. This study has assessed the integration of road and urban storm water drainage infrastructure with the help of topographic map and also the condition, pavement type and hierarchy of every road and drain. (http://www.academicjournals.org/jetr/PDF/pdf%202011/Jul/Belete.pdf)

[Proper drainage of a roadway in an urban region can be more difficult than draining roadways in sparsely settled rural areas for the following reasons:
y y y y y y y

heavy traffic and subsequent higher risks wide roadway sections relatively flat grades, both in longitudinal and transverse directions shallow water courses absence of side ditches and a presence of concentrated flow the potential for costly property damages that may occur from ponding of water or from flow of water through built-up areas a roadway section that must carry traffic and act as a channel to carry the water to some disposal point.

The flow of water along a roadway can interfere with or halt highway traffic. These conditions sound and consistent engineering principles and the use of all available data to achieve an acceptable drainage design. The primary aim of urban drainage design is to limit the amount of water flowing along the gutters or ponding at the low areas to rates and quantities that will not interfere with traffic. You can accomplish this goal by placing inlets at appropriate locations to prevent large concentrations of runoff. The most destructive effects of an inadequate drainage system are damage to surrounding or adjacent properties, deterioration of the roadway components, and hazard and delay to traffic caused by excessive ponding in sags or excessive flow along roadway grades. ] http://onlinemanuals.txdot.gov/txdotmanuals/hyd/storm_drains.htm 1.2 General characteristics of urban drainage and sustainability concept
Water in urban areas, and urban storm drainage as a part of the urban infrastructure, are topics which are gaining in importance in recent years. Cities now house 50% of the world population, consume 75% of its resources, yet occupy only 2% of the land surface. By the middle of the next century, it is confidently predicted that 70% of the global population will live in urban areas. The number of mega cities (> 10 million inhabitants) will increase to over 20, 80% of which are in developing countries (Niemcynowicz, 1996). Properly designed and operated urban drainage systems with its interactions with other urban water systems are crucial element of healthy and safe urban environment.

The concept of sustainable development is provoking a profound rethinking in our approach to urban water management (ASCE/UNESCO-IHP, 1998). Sustainable development is that which meets the needs and aspirations of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). So, sustainable solutions have a now and a then component, and improvements though necessary in the present must not be carried out at the expense of future needs and situations. An alternative definition (IUCNUNEP- WWF, 1991) asserts that sustainable development is that which improves the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems . Here, the emphasis is placed on mankind s demand for and impact upon earth resources and the environment. Finally, Agenda 21 behoves us to think global, but act local . Public participation becomes important and demands individual responsibility. Sustainable services must be environmentally friendly, socially acceptable and financially viable into the next millennium (Butler & Maksimovic 1999). The sustainability concept calls for overall rethinking and this implies paying attention to particular situations in the local area. Learning about natural and manmade processes that affect the runoff quality and quantity is of prime importance. This publication is thus expected to point out the most important issues that affect the way that we analyse, design, build and operate our storm drainage systems in a nature friendly fashion. Our current knowledge about the physical processes involved is far from satisfactory, even in temperate climates where the most of research has been carried out in the past. Knowledge about processes affecting urban storm drainage systems in particular climates covered in this publication (arid and semi-arid, humid tropical and subtropical and cold) is far from satisfactory. However the publication is aimed at providing an up to date look at solutions to flooding and water quality problems. The concept of sustainability calls for amenity and resources recycling to be taken into account as well. The a uthors are aware of the fact that many issues raised here require further studies, research and development and that the issues raised will provoke further refinements. In densely populated developed countries (UK, Germany, some parts of the USA, Japan, etc.), urban drainage consumes a high proportion of the investments into urban infrastructure. The reasons for this are the obvious need for an integrated approach to urban water management, and raised public awareness of the pollution caused by urban effluents, which affect both the urban areas themselves and the receiving water bodies. The situation in developing counties is also changing rapidly in the sense that all parties involved in planning, design, management and maintenance as well as funding ( World Bank, aid agencies etc.) are becoming aware that storm drainage can not be ignored. On the contrary, it has to be incorporated into integrated urban infrastructure projects with their mutual interactions encompassing not only the conventional problem of flood mitigation but also health hazard reduction (water quality concerns) and problems of urban amenities and resources management (Figure 1.1). Although cities are in contact with water from various origins (ground water, streams flowing through or near the city etc.), the major concern of urban drainage systems is water originating in the city area itself, i.e. water from local rainfall (urban storm runoff) and its interaction with the water originating from the rest of the river basin. The change of the role of urban storm drainage (USD) and developments of information processing technology have imposed a need for new tools and products to be used in the problem solving procedure. Methods for flood protection by local storms and for assessment of the effects of pollution transported by storms on receiving waters have been significantly improved during the past two decades with the introduction of computer based simulation, design,

optimisation, real time control and management. The achievements of modern informatics (i.e., a higher level of information processing) have made a significant impact on all aspects of problem solving. However, despite significant development achieved, there is still a big gap to be bridged since a compact and reliable package that adequately predicts dynamics and spatial distribution of urban floods and that incorporates source control measures does not seem to exist in the world. Figure 1.1 Stormwater quality, quantity and amenity and resources management of equal importance In modern societies, the status of urban drainage as a part of the integrated infrastructure system varies from one country to another, depending primarily on the level of development and the society awareness of the importance of this problem. In general, the importance of the system increases with the level of development, but there are also exceptions. The awareness of the wetweather pollution potential has rapidly increased in recent years. The systems, which used to have a simple function of collecting storm water and conveying it to the nearest point of disposal as soon as possible, have gradually evolved and are being replaced by the integrated systems which are gaining in importance. Their role has changed and now in addition to covering urban flood protection, pollution control and management they are starting to cater for improvement of the quality of life by bringing water features creating urban amenity in the city. Additionally, storm water is considered to be a precious resource, which can be retained near the source to be reused, recharged to the underground for aquifer replenishment or to create habitat for the return of wildlife to designated urban areas etc. Conventional urban drainage systems are separate such as shown in Figure 1.2 or combined in which case both waste and stormwater share the same pipe. During dry weather, water is directed to treatment plant (if existing) and during wet weather, part of the mixed water in combined sewers diverts to receiving stream via Combined Sewer Overflows (CSO). If the city is served by a wastewater treatment plant, CSOs may be one of the major point sources of receiving water pollution. In practice, separate systems rarely remain fully separate; there is always some storm water in foul system and waste water in storm systems. In most cases they behave like two combined systems with various degrees of waste water dilution. Treatment plant suffers from intermittent overload during storm periods. Increased environmental concern has lead to development of the concept in which, at least in developed countries, conventional storm drainage systems are gradually being replaced by the systems based on runoff quantity and quantity control. The system consists of several techniques that aim at controlling the problem as near to the source as possible thus the term source control . They all attempt to mimic the natural processes involved. The techniques include storage, treatment and infiltration, by a water management treatment train (Figure 1.3), that results in significant reduction of peak and volume of runoff, improved water quality and a possibility of using storm water as a resource and as an element of urban amenity. However, the means of implementing the element and principles of this technology in urban drainage in particular climates is an art still to be mastered despite significant achievement in some countries for example Sweden, Stahre (1999) in cold climate, city of Curitiba, Brazil, in tropical, several cases in Israel etc in arid climate conditions as resented by Simon (1996). However, in order to reach greater sustainability in both conventional and innovative urban drainage systems, better understanding of the physical processes, interactions between the systems and

environment in particulate climatic conditions is needed. This publication is supposed to cover part of missing information and to address the problems that need further investigations.

1.6 GIS and informatic support Geographical Information Systems are know to deal with acquisition, processing and implementation of data of a spatial nature (Boroughs 1986). Despite significant progress being made in this technology and its application in various water and environmental engineering fields, their application in urban drainage is still relatively limited. Significant progress has been made in the use of GIS based data in creation of data bases linked urban water infrastructure system simulation models (for example AquaBase Kuby 1998). For the creation of initial data sets (GIS layers) various sources of data can be used (Figure 1.10). The systems are extremely powerful in providing input data to models after the elementary manipulations with layers presenting physical features of the catchment (such as elevation model and land use) and superficial and underground network have been performed. Starting in the late eighties, with some of the first papers on GIS application in urban drainage - Elgy et al (1993), the research group of the present author has developed a methodology for handling arbitrary data sources and automatic creation of input files for storm drainage modelling. An example of data preparation for creation of input files for catchment delineation (Maksimovic (1995) is given in Figure 1.11. The results of application of catchment delineation is presented in Figure 1.12. Figures 1.13 present the results of application of GIS functionalities in the analysis - assessment of the suitability of a catchment of implementation of source control techniques and Figure 1.13 depicts the results of the application of this analysis in the survey of the applicability of source 26 control in the same catchment (Macropoulos et al 1998 and Macropoulos et al 1999). The works of Prodanovic (1999) and Djordjevic et al (1998) provide further development towards GIS - assisted physically-based flood modelling in urban areas based on the dual drainage concept. There is a huge unexploited potential of GIS application in particular climates. In the individual chapters, authors present current techniques in data analysis and modelling. Most of the specific features of the urban catchment in particular climates are of a spatial nature which renders them particularly applicable to quantification by GIS (e.g. suitable for application of GIS. It can be used in quantification of both physical features (such as soil propensity characteristics, soil erosion, pollutant potential distribution, snow cover, asphalt temperature, solar radiation exposure). These and other GIS applications are yet to be researched and made a part of the daily routine.

Figure 1.11. Pre processing and post-processing of data for catchment delineation