LESSON 11: MU LTINATIONAL

The multinational corporations, also known by such names as international corporations, transnational corporations, global corporations ( or firms, companies or enterprises ) etc., a major driving force of globalization, often occupies the central place in the international business dynamics. The drastic political changes in the erstwhile communist and socialist countries and the economic liberalization across the world have enormously expanded the opportunities for the proliferation and growth of the MNCs. The rapidity with which the MNCs are growing is indicated by the fact that while according to the World Investment Report 2002 there were about 65,000 of them with about 8.5 lakh foreign affiliates. Only less than 12 per cent of these affiliates were in the developed countries. China was host to more than 3.6 lakh of the affiliates ( i.e., more than 40 per cent of the tota l and nearly three fourths of them in developing countries ) compared to more than 1400 in India. The MNCs account for a significant share of the worlds industrial investment, production, employment and trade. Although the multinational corporation took birth in the early 1860s, it was after the Second World War that multinationals have grown rapidly. In the early days, the United States was the home of most of the MNC:s. Now there are a large number of Japanese an d European multinationals. In the list of the1 0 or 20 largest MNCs, Japan has a major share. Multinationals have been emerging from the developing countries too. South Korea has, for example, well-known MNCs like Samsung, Hyundai, L G and Daewoo. MNCs of the US are more focused, Le., they confine their business to one industry or product category. Inc fact, several American MNCs which attempted diversification, mostly by the acquisitions route, reverted to focus, after bitter experiences with the diversification. Compared with the US MNCs, most European companies have a much broader product line. Japanese companies, generally, have product lines that are much too broad. Of the top ten corporation in the US, only one

Definitional Dimensions Some of the criteria often used to define the MNC are given below: Definition by Size: The term MNC implies bigness. But bigness also has a number of dimensions. Such factors as market value, sales, profits, and return on equity, when used to identify the largest multinationals, will yield varying results.! It should, however be noted that the extent of internationaliza - tion need not depend on the size. Many small firms are, indeed, much more global than larger ones. However, firms below certain size are normally excluded from the definition of multinational . Definition by Structure : According to Aharoni, an MNC has at least three significant dimensions: performance, and behavioural. Structural requirements for definition as an MNC include the number of countries in which the firm does business and the citizenship of corporate owners and top managers. 2 Definition by Performance : Definition by performance depends on such characteristics as earnings, sales, and assets. These perfor- mance characteristics indicate the extent of the commitment of corporate resources to foreign operations and the amount of rewards from that commitment . Definition by Behaviour: This is somewhat an abstract as a measure of multinationalisation and it refers mostly to the behavioral characteristics of top management. Globalization , basically, is a mind-set that reflects the global orientation of the company. In conclusion, as Onkvisit and Shaw point out, being interna- tional or multinational is a matter of degree. Furthermore , internationalization is note one-dimension concept, and it may not be reliable to employ a single-variable measure (e.g., foreign sales as a proportion of total sales) to characterize the interna- tionalization concept.4 Sullivan has proposeds utilizing the structural performance, and attitudinal dimensions to construct an aggregate index of the degree of internationalization. This index comprises five variables:
The ratio of foreign sales to total sales The ratio of foreign assets to total assets

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countries).6 Obviously, what is meant is a corporation that controls production facilities in more than one country, such facilities having been acquired through the process of foreign direct investment. Firms that participate in international business, however large they may be, solely by exporting or by licensing technology are not multinational enterprises. Among the various other benchmarks sometimes used to define multinational are that the company in question must:8 Produce (rather than just distribute) abroad as well as in the headquarters country

permanent establishment or office of the foreign Investor; (ii) an unincorporated partnership or joint venture between the foreign direct investor and one or more third parties; (iii) land, structures (except structures owned by government entities), and for immovable equipment and objects directly owned by a foreign resident; {iv} mobile equipment (such as ships, aircraft, gas or oil-drilling rigs) operating within a country other than that of the foreign Investor for at least one year . As the World Investment Report 7999 observes, transnationa l corporations (TNCs) establish, under the common governance of their headquarters, international production systems in which factors of production move, to a greater or lesser extent, among units located in different countries. These systems increasingly cover a variety of activities, ranging from research and development (R&D) to manufacturing to service functions such as accounting, advertising, marketing and training, dispersed over hostcountry locations and integrated to produce final goods or services. They are also increasingly being estab- lished, especially in developed countries, through mergers between existing firms from different countries or the acquisi- tion of existing enterprises in countries by firms .from others. Once internationally dispersed production units under com- mon governance are established, mobile and location bound factors of production to which a TNC has access in home and host countries (and sometimes even third countries) are combined in each unit in ways and for production that contribute the most to the firms economic and strategic objectives. From the perspective of factor use - as distinct from that of location as host or home country for enterprises engaged in international production all of the production that takes place in these TNC production systems (in parent firms or home-country units as well as foreign affiliates or host-country units) constitutes international production. Organisational

Operate in a certain minimum number of nations (six for example) Derive some minimum percentage of its income from foreign operations (e.g., 25 per cent) Have a certain minimum ratio of foreign to total number of employees, or of foreign total value of assets Possess a management team with geocentric orienta tions

Directly control foreign investments (as opposed simply to holding shares in foreign companies) .

The definitions of the terms transnational corporation (used to mean the same thing as MNC and similar terms) foreign affiliate, subsidiary and branch given in the UNs World Investment

Report are as Follows: Transnational Corporation s reincorporated or unincorporated enterprises comprising parent enterprises and their foreign affiliates. A parent enterpris e is denned as an enterprise that controls assets of other entities in countries other than its home country, usually by owning a certain equity capital stake. An equity capital stake of 10 per cent or more of the ordinary shares or voting power for an incorporated enterprise, or its equivalent for an unincorporated enterprise, is normally considered as a threshold for the control of assets. On some countries suet1 as Germany and United Kingdom, the thresh- old is a stake of 20 per cent or more.) A Foreign Affiliate is an incorporated or unincorporated enterprise in which an Investor, who .is resident In another economy, owns a stake that permits a lasting interest in the .management of that enterprise (an equity stake of 10' per cent for an incorporated enterprise or its equivalent for an unincor- porated enterprise.) In the World Investment Repott a subsidiary

Models
Terms such as international corporation, multinational corpora- tion, transnational corporation and global corporation are often used as synonyms. However, several multinationals have evolved into certain advanced stage of transnational organisation and operations that it becomes necessary to draw some distinction between these terms. However, the interpretations of these terms given by different authors are not same. Sometimes the differences arise from the differences in the context. With reference to the configuration of resources
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According: to Bartlett and Ghoshal, the multinationa l organisation is defined by the following characteristics: a decentralised federation of assets and responsibilities, a management process defined by simple financial control systems overlaid on informal personal coordination, and a dominant strategy mentality that viewed the companys worldwide operations as a portfolio of national businesses. In a multinational organisation, the decisions, obviously, are decentralised. International Organisation Model This organisation structure, was predominant in the case of the American Companies which internationalised in the early postwar years. In the international organisation, the structural configuration o f which is described as coordinated federation, many assets, resources, responsibilities and decisions are decentralised but controlled from the headquarters. The overseas operations are regarded essentially as appendages to a central domestic corporation. In this model, the headquarters transfers knowledge and expertise to overseas environments that were less advanced in technology or market development. While local subsidiaries are often free to adapt the new products or strategies, their dependence on the parent company for new products, processes, or ideas dictated a great deal more coordi- nation and control by the headquarters than in the classical multinational organisation . Global Organisation Model The Japanese companies, which internationalised since the mid 1960s through the 1970s and 1980s adopted global organisation model. The global configuration is based on centralisation of assets, resources and responsibilities; overseas operations are used to reach foreign markets in order to build global scale. The role of local subsidiaries is to assemble and sell products and to implement plans and policies developed at headquarters. Compared with subsidiaries in multinational or international organisations, they have much less freedom to create new products or strategies or even to modify existing ones. In the global model, management treats overseas operations as delivery pipe lines to a unified global market, is described as a centralised hub. The rapid decline in tariffs, coupled with dramatic improvements in transportation and communicatio n of this period made a truly export based strategy feasible. The global organization model, where authority and decision making are centralized and subsidiaries are used basically as implementing
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In a transnational, the specialized resources and capabilities are dispersed among the various operating units globally. These units are interdependent and integrated and have large flows of components, products, resources, people and information among them. An important feature of the transnational , therefore, is the complex process of coordination and cooperation in an environment of decisions making. Importance and Dominance of Mncs
Mncs and International Production

The global liberalisationa has paved the way for fast expansion and growth of the MNCs. The value added of all foreign affiliates of MNCs as a percentage of world GDP increased from about 5 per cent in the beginning of the 1980s to nearly 7 per cent at the end of the 1990s. Box 7.1 provides some indications of the economic dominance of the multinational s Courtesy: UNDP, World Investment Report, 2000 and 2002. The economic cloth of the MNCs is indicated by the fact that the GDP of most of the countries is smaller than the value of the annual sales turnover of the multinational giants. The value of the annual sales of General Motors in 2000 was about $183 billion. Only a very small number of developing countries like India, China, Mexico, Brazil, Russia, Argentina, Indonesia and Republic of Korea had GDP which was higher than this figure. There were also several developed countries whose value of GDP was less than this. The total sales of the three largest automobile firms of the world (G M, Ford and Toyota) far exceed the value of GDP of India. With sales totaling $183 billion in 2000, General Motors, which maintained the No.1 position interms of ,sales for a long time, had fallen behind Exxon M6bilCorporations $232.7 billion and Wal-Mart Stores. In 2001, foreign affiliates of MNCs employed about 54 million people, compared to 24 million in 1990. The greater part of the increase of employment in foreign affiliates in recent years has taken place ,on developing countries. A, considerable share of the increase was ,concentrated in East and South East Asia, inparticular in China, and in export processing zones in those regions and elsewhere: In addition, the indirect employment effect of the TNC activities -are at least equal to the direct effects and probably much larger. MNCs and International Trade Peter Drucker remarks that multinationals and depending world trade are two sides of the same coin. He points out that the- period of most rapid growth of multinationals - the fifties and sixties -

There was a very significant increase in the export intensity (i.e., the percentage of exports to total5ales) of the foreign affiliates of many MNCs. The export intensity of foreign affiliates of US MNCs, for example, increased from less than 20 per cent in the mid sixties to over 40 per cent in the early 1990s for all econo- mies; it doubled from about 20 to 40 per cent in the case of developed economies; jumped from about six to 22 per cent in the case of the Latin American affiliated and /01+123 to 64,percerlt for developing Asia. The average expert intensity of al1 the affiliates has, however, remained between 21-24 .per cent for a long time. In the case of India, however, it has very low. More than 40 per cent of. the total exports of China is done by MNC affiliates. The export contribution of foreign affiliates in China is far larger than the total exports of India . Apart from trade in commodities, other

would have been the case between independent parties operat- ing at arms length. Such differences may reflect the legitimate concerns of the companies but are also capable of being used in order to shift profits from high to low tax countries or to get around exchange or price controls or customs duties. As the Brandt Commission observes, the ability of multinationals to manipulate financial flows by the use of artificial transfer prices is bound to be a matter of concern to Governments. The monitoring and control of transfer prices involves inter- Governmental cooperation and measures to secure due disclosure of relevant information by companies. This is necessary to make effective tax laws covering transfer prices which exist in many countries. Intra-firm trade also opens up the possibility-for corporations to impose restrictive business practices within their own organisation; they can limit the exports of their, affiliates; allocate their markets between

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developmental objectives and national interests of host countries.12 Benefits of MNCs As the preface to the ILO report on Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy observes/ for some, the multinationa l companies are an invaluable dynamic, force and instrument for wider distribution of capital, technology and employment; for others, they are monsters which our present institutions, national or international, cannot adequately control, a law to themselves with no reasonable concept, the public interest or social policy can accept. B The important arguments in favour of and against the MNCs are mentioned below. MNCs, it is claimed, help the host countries in the follow- ing ways: 1. MNCs help increase the investment level and thereby the income and employment in host country. 2. The transnational corporations have become vehicles for the transfer technology, especially to the developing countries. 3. They also kindle a managerial revolution in the host countries through professional management and the employment of highly sophisticated management techniques. 4. The MNCs enable the host countries to increase their exports and decrease their import requirements . 5. They work to equalise the cost of factors of production around the world. 6. MNCs provide an efficient means of integrating national economies. 7. The enormous resources of the multinational enterprises enable them to have- very efficient research and development systems. Thus; they make a commendable contribution to inventions and innovations . 8. MNCs also stimulate domestic enterprise because to support their own operations, the MNCs may encourage and assist domestic suppliers. 9. MNCs help increase competition and break domestic monopolies .

developmental objectives and national interests of host countries. Benefits of MNCS As the preface to the ILO report on Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy observes, for some, the multinationa l companies are an invaluable dynamic force and instrument for wider distribution of capital, technology and employment; for others, they are monsters which our present institutions, national or international, cannot adequately control, a law to themselves with no reasonable concept, the public interest or social policy can accept. The important arguments in favour of and against the MNCs are mentioned below. MNCs, it is claimed, help the host countries in the following ways: MNCs help increase the investment level and thereby the income and employment in host country. The transnationa l corporations have become vehicles for the transfer technology, especially to the developing countries. They also kindle a managerial revolution in the host countries through professional management and the employment of highly sophisticated management techniques. The MNCs enable the host countries to increase their exports and decrease their import requirements . They work to equalize the cost of factors of production around the world. MNCs provide an efficient means of integrating national economies. The enormous resources of the multinationa l enterprises enable them to have very efficient research and development systems. Thus, they make a commendabl e contribution to inventions and innovations . MNCs also stimulate domestic enterprise because to support their own operations, the MNCs may encourage and assist domestic suppliers. MNCs help increase competition and break domestic monopo- lies.

Problems
MNCs have, however, been subject to a number of criticisms, like those mentioned below. 1.As Leonard Gomes points out, the MNCsa technology is designed for world wide profit maximization, not the development needs of poor countries, in particula r employment needs and relative factor scarcities in these countries. In general, it is asserted, the imported technologies are not adapted to (a) the consumption needs, (b) the size of domestic markets, (c) resource availabilities, and (d) stage of development of

Problems
MNCs have, however, been subject to a number of criticisms, like those mentioned below. 1. As Leonard Gomes points out, the MNCs technology is designed for world wide profit maximisation, not the development needs of poor countries, in particula r employment needs and relative factor scarcities in these countries.
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the sovereignty of the nations in which they do business. On Political involvement, MNCs have been accused on occasion of:1s supporting repressive regimes; paying bribes to secure political influence; not respecting human rights; paying protection money to terrorist groups; and, destabilizing national governments of which they do not approve. 5. MNCs retard growth of employment in the home country. 6. The transnational corporations cause fast depletion of some of the non-renewable natural resources in the host country. They have also been accused of the following environmenta l problems:16 polluting the environment; not paying compensation for the environmental damages; causing harmful changes in the local living conditions; and, paying little regard to the risks of accidents causing major environmental catastrophes . 7. The transfer pricing enables MNCs to avoid taxes by manipulating prices on intra-company transactions . 8. The MNCs have been criticized for their business strategies and practices in the host countries. They undermine local cultures and traditions, change the consumption habits for their benefit against the long-term interests qf the local community, promote conspicuou s consumption, dump harmful products in the developing countries etc.

should desist from other restrictive practices such as export controls or market, not restrict current transfers such as profits, royalties and dividends, or the repatriation of capital, so long as they are on terms which were agreed when the investment was originally approved or subsequently negotiated. I 2. legislation promoted and coordinated in home and host countries, to regulate the activities of transnational corporations in such matters as ethical behaviour, disclosure of information, 1 restrictive business practices, cartels, anti- competitive practices and labour standards. International codes and guidelines are a useful step in that direction. 3. Cooperation by Governments in their tax policies to monitor transfer pricing and to eliminate the resort to tax havens. 4. Fiscal and other incentives and policies towards foreign investment to be harmonized among host developing countries, particularly at regional and sub-regional levels, to avoid the undermining of the tax base and competitive positions of host countries. 5. An international procedure for discussions and consultations on measures affecting direct investment and the activities of transnational corporations . The Code of Conduct for MNCs, drawn up by the Commis- sion on Transnational Corporations, set up by the UNs Economic and Social Council, required MNCs, inter alial to: Respect the national sovereignty of host countries and observe their domestic laws, regulations and administrative practices Adhere to host nations economic goals, development objec- tives and sociocultural values Respect human rights Not interfere in internal political affairs or in intergovernmental relations 0 Not engage in corrupt practices Apply good practice in relation to payment of taxes, abstention from involvement in anti-competitive practices, consumer and environmenta l protection and the treatment of employees Disclose Relevant Information to Host Country Governments. According to the1976 declaration of the GECD Code of Practice on MNC operations, MNCs should contribute positively to economic and social progress within host nations. Its main provisions were that MNCs should: Contribute to host countries science arid technology objectives by permitting the rapid diffusion of technologies -Not, behave in
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Perspectiv e
Future holds out an enormous scope for the growth of MNCs. The changes in the economic environment in a large number of countries indicate this. For instance, the number .of bilateral treaties that promote and/or protect FDI has increased markedly in recent times. A United Nations report described several developments that points to a rapidly changing context for economic growth, along with a growing role for transnational corporations in that process. These include:17 1. Increasing emphasis on market forces and a growing role for the private sector in nearly all developing countries. 2. Rapidly changing technologies that are transforming the nature of organisation and location of international production . 3. The globalization of firms and industries; 4. The rise of services to constitute the largest single sector in the World economy; and 5. Regional economic integration, which involve both the Worlds largest economies as well as selected developing countries.

countries that the Code become legally binding were rejected by the UN General Assembly, at the behest of economically advanced countries.

M ultinationals

in Indi a

Comparatively very little foreign investment has taken place in India due to several reasons, as stated in the previous chapter ( like the dominant role assigned to the public sector in the industrial policy and the restrictive Government policy towards foreign investment). Some multinationals, Coca Cola and IBM, even left India in the late 1970s as the Government conditions were unacceptable to them. A common criticism against the MNCs is that they tend to invest in the low priority and high profit sectors in the develop- ing countries, ignoring the national priorities. However, in India the Government policy confined the foreign investment to the priority areas like high technology and heavy investment sectors of national importance and export sectors. Firms which had been established in non-priority areas prior to the implementa - tion of this policy have, however, been allowed to continue in those sectors. The controversial Foreign Exchange Regulation Act (FERA), 1973, required the foreign companies in India to dilute the foreign equity holding to 40 per cent (exceptions were aI/owed in certain cases like high technology and export oriented sectors). An often heard criticism is that multinationals drain the foreign exchange resources of the developing countries. However, Aiyars study indicates that, contrary to the popular belief, foreign companies are less of a drain on foreign exchange reserves than Indian ones. He also points out that the public sector has a higher propensity to use foreign exchange on a net basis than multinationals. In fact, the foreign exchange outgo of the public sector alone is greater than the entire trade deficit of the country.18 It is not a right approach to estimate the net impact of multina- tionals on the foreign exchange reserves by taking the net foreign exchange outflow or inflow. If a multinational is operating in an import substitution industry, the net effect on the foreign exchange reserves could be favorable even if there is a net foreign exchange outflow by the company. Multinationals in several developing countries make substantial contribution to export earnings. The performance in the case o f India has, however, been very dismal. This is attributed mostly to the Government policy. We have consistently followed policies in India that
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than exports. However, since the mid 1980s with the economic liberalisation that increased domestic competition and the steady depreciation of the rupee, exports began to become attractive and several foreign companies and companies with foreign participation, as well as Indian companies, have become serious about exports. This was reflected in the acceleration of the export growth. The new policy is expected to give a considerable impetus for MNCs investment in India. However, foreign companies find the policy and procedural environment in India still so perplex- ing and disgusting that a multinational, Motorola, even shifted some of the projects, originally earmarked for India, to Chin a where the Government environment is much mere conducive. Since the economic liberalisation ushered in 1991, many multinationals in different lines of business have entered the Indian market. A number of multinational which were in India prior to this have expand-ed-their-business . It is high time that the Government put in place a Competition Policy and Law to ensure fair competition.

Transfer of Technology.
One of the important ways by which MNCs can contribute to the development of the host countries is by transfer o f technology to them. A general complaint, however, is that the required technology transfer to the developing countries is not taking place. When the technology transfer by the MNCs is internalised it does not help the domestic firms much. Technology transfer is the process by which commercial technology is disseminated. This will take the form of a technology transfer transaction, which mayor may not be a legally binding contract,2 but which will involve the communi- cation, by the transferor, of the relevant knowledge to the recipient. Among the types of transfer transactions that may be used, the Draft TOT Code by UNCTAD has listed the following: (a) The assignment, sale and licensing of all forms of industria l property, except for try marks, service marks al1d trade names when they are not part of transfer of techno transactions; (b) The provision of know-how and technical expertise in the form of feasibility study plans, diagrams, models, instructions, guides, formulae, basic or detailed enginee r designs, specifications and equipment for training, services involving technical advise and managerial personnel, and personnel training; (c) The provision of technological knowledge

to infrastructure or agricultural development, or to internationa l cooperation in the fields of reason education, employment or transport. Broadly, there are two forms of TT, viz., internalized and externalized forms of technology transfer. Internalised forms refer to investment associated TT, where control resides with t technology transferor. The transferor, normally, holding the majority or full equity owners Externalized forms refer to all other forms, such as joint ventures with local control, license strategic alliances and international subcontracting. The distinguishing feature between- these two modalities of resource transfer is that internalised TT, the transferor has a significant and continuing financial stake in the success of affiliate, allows it to use its brand names and to have access to its global technology and markets networks, exercises control over the affiliates investment, technology and sales decisions, a sees the affiliate as an integral part of its global strategy. Externalized forms lack one or all these features, with repercus- sions on the TT process. Over time, the array of TT arrangements r diversified and particular modes have also become more flexible. Thus, the dividing lines between externalized and internalised modes are becoming less easy to draw Levels of TT A simplified treatment of the subject would suggest four levels of TT. 2" Operational Level: At the bottom levels are the simplest ones, needed for operating a give plant these involve basic manufacturing skills, as well as some more demanding troubleshooting quality control, maintenance and procurement skills. Duplicative Level At the intermediate level are duplicative skills, which include the investment capabilities needed to expand capacity and to purchase and integrate foreign technologies. Adaptive Level: At this Technological Self-reliance level, imported technologies are adapted and improved, and design skills for more complex engineering learned. Innovative Level: This level is characterized by innovative skills, based on, for all R&D, that are needed to keep pace with technological frontiers or to generate new technologies. Channels of Technology Flow The most important channels for the flow of technology ar e foreign investment and Technology Licence Agreements and Joint Ventures. Foreign Investment: Traditionally, the flow of technology to developing countries has been an

rapid growth of joint ventures, encouraged by government restrictions on foreign investment and foreign trade or the perceived advantages of such ventures. When foreign capital participation in joint ventures is below 50 per cent, technologica l agreements assume considerable significance.

Methods of Technology

Transfer

Transfer of technology takes a variety of forms depending on the type, nature and extent of technological assistance required. The following are the important methods of technology transfer: I. Training or Employment of Technical Expert: Fairly simple and unattended manufacturing techniques/processes, can be transferred by imparting the requisite training to suitable personnel. Alternatively, such technology can be acquired by employing foreign technical experts. 2. Contracts for Supply of Machinery and Equipment: Contracts for supply of machinery and equipment, which normally provide for the transfer of operational technology pertaining to such equipment, is often quite adequate for manufacturing purposes not only in small scale projects but also in a number of large scale industries where the nature of technology is not particularly complex. 3. Licensing Agreements: Licensing agreements, under which the licensor enters into an agreement with a licensee in another country to use the technical expertise of the former, is an important means for the transfer of technology. Licensing agreements are usually entered into when foreign direct investment is not possible or desirable. 4. Turnkey Contracts: Transfer of complex technology often takes place through turnkey project contracts, which include the supply of such services as design. creation, commissioning or supervision of a system or a facility to the client, apart from the supply of goods. Many times, a combination of two or more of the above- mentioned methods is used. Turnkey contracts, obviously, are the most comprehensive of such combinations . Issues in Transfer of technology Cost, appropriateness, dependence and obsolescence are the four important issues associated with the transfer of technol- ogy. In many cases, the developing countries obtain foreign

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It is pointed out that the import of modern sophisticate d technology has tended to displace the traditional indigenous technology which has been improved under a different set of policies. The steady stream of new products and processes introduced by multinationals into developing countries has been unfavourable to the promotion of domestic technologica l capacities and has discouraged local scientists and technicians from devoting themselves to practical development problems. It creates an attitude of subservient dependence, which may inhibit the capacity to do even relatively minor adaptive research or to adopt processes which are developed locally. It has also been observed that there is a tendency to transfer outdated technology to the developing countries. Thus, they would not enjoy the advantages of the latest technology and would still technologically lag behind. It is unfortunate that the owners of modern technology view the developing countries as a mean as to salvage technology that is obsolescent in the advanced countries, even when they possess more advanced technology.

economic point of view and furnish reasons for preferring th e particular technology and source of .import. Payment Terms and Foreign Exchange Outflow: Most govern- ments take measures to ensure that disproportionately high payments are not paid for any technology. Restrictions were imposed also on dividend payments and pricing. The Government of Indias guidelines clearly laid down that there should be no requirement for the payment of minimum guaranteed royalty, regardless of the quantum and value of production. Restrictive Terms in the Agreement: Technology imports with highly restrictive terms on the importing parties are not generally favoured. For instance, according to the Government of Indias policy, to the fullest extent possible, there should be no restrictions on free exports to all countries. Further agree- ments or clauses which in any manner bind the Indian party with regard to the procurement of capital goods, components , spares, raw materials, pricing policy and selling arrangements should be avoided. Promotional Measures To take full advantage of the positive role of foreign technol- ogy, it is necessary to take certain promotional measures. These include: 1. Assessing technological requirements of various sectors and identifying areas where foreign technology is required. 2. Dissemination of information in foreign countries regardin g foreign investment potentials and scope for technical collaboration in the domestic economy, government policy and regulation in respect of foreign capital and technology, institutional assistance and infrastructural and other facilities for industrial development. The Indian Investment Centre, established in 1961 has been playing such a role. 3. Provision of advisory services to Indian entrepreneurs in respect of foreign technology including the techniques and process of technology transfers. The Transnational Corporations (TNCs), with their large number of foreign affiliates and a plethora of inter-firm arrangements, spans virtually all countries and economic activities, rendering it a formidable force in todays world economy. There is no universally accepted definition of the term multina- tional corporation. As an ILO report observes, the essential nature of the multinational enterprises lies in the fact that its

Promotion

and Regulation

Despite the problems or shortcomings of foreign technology, it is widely recognised that if properly regulated and promoted it can playa positive role, particularly in the technologically backward LDCs. The governments of India and a number of other countries have, therefore, taken a number of regulatory and promotional measures to take advantage of foreign technology without sacrificing national interests. Areas of Regulation A number of regulatory measures have been taken by differen t countries to ensure that the technology chosen is the best available, appropriate to domestic conditions and that indis- criminate and unnecessary import of foreign technology is no t undertaken. The following are the aspects of technology commonly regulated: The Extent and terms of Equity Participation: These are generally determined by the priorities of the technology-usin g industry m the nations economy, supply conditions of the technology and its type and nature. Phasing of Domestic Manufacturing: Where foreign technology is employed, many governments, including that of India, insisted upon in organisation on a phased manner. The government of India in the past also insisted that suitable provisions should be made for the training of Indians in the fields of production and management. Further, there should be adequate arrangements for research and development,
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dominate the scene, more and more MNCs are emerging from the developing countries. The worlds top 100 (non-financial) TNCs, based almost exclusively in developed countries, are the principal drivers of international production. The universe of TNCs, however, is quite diverse, and includes a growing number of small and medium-sized enterprises . As a result of the liberalizations, MNCs have been spreading fast in the developing countries. Most of the foreign affiliates of the MNCs are in the developing countries, China alone hosting about one-third of the total number. MNCs help the. host countries to increase domestic investment and employment generation, boost exports, transfer technology and accelerate economic growth. While the host countries can reap several benefits from the MNCs, these giants pose many problems particularly to the developing countries. They may destroy domestic firms through unfair competition, acquire market dominance through acquisition of domestic firms or other means. The MNCs technology which is designed for world wide profit maximiza- tion may not adapted to the consumption needs, the size of domestic markets, resource availabilities, and the stage of development of many of the developing countries. They may cause fast depletion of some of the non-renewable natural resources in the host country. The transfer pricing may be so designed as to avoid or minimise taxes. All these emphasise the need for a code of conduct for the MNCs and an effective competition policy and law in the host countries. Several MNCs are also accused at

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