, C'"H'.

A'P'TER'
'_.: I -. " -, . I, I

e:

I"

'__'

3'
-

:l.

FRE,QUEN.'CY ANALYSIS
. .
""-"':.

RES~PONSE
'
.

, 3.11 SINUSO.I DAL TRANSFER FUNCTION AN'D FREQUENCY RESPONSE

. .
_.

.The response. of' .a system fo:r the sinusoidel input iscalled sinusoidal response., The ratio of sinusoidal response and sinusoidal input is called sinusoiilal transfer /unctin'n of the system and in . general, it is denoted by Tr(jm). The sinusoidal transfer function is the frequency domain representation of ,

the system, and" so it is also caBedfrequency

.
','

domain transfer functiO_n. ' '

.~,,'
, '

·The sinusoidal transfer, function TOtp) can b,J obtained as shown' below.
" "

L 2.

Contruct a physicalmodel Determine the differential

of a system using basic elements/parameters.

equations governing th~ syst,emfrorn' the physical model of the"

, 3.' Take Laplace transformofdifferential equations in order toconven them to s-domain equation. . . . .. ". 4. Determine s-dornain transfer function, 'I'(s), which is ratio of s-domain output and input,
." : .-

system,

5.

Determine the frequency domaintransferfunctlon, transfer function, T(s).

TOm) by replacing

s by jo inthe s-doU;ain

Note :

If the s-domain transfer function, 1'(8) is known, then frequency .domain, transfer
function. Taco) can be obtained directlyfr-om. Tts) by replacing s by [co.
i.e., 'T(s)
s-jcu 0'

I
i.

'

Consider. a linear time' invariant system with frequency domaintransfer function, TGm} shown in fig 3. i-, the system be excited by a sinusoidal signalfrequency oJ"ampiitudeA, and phase e. Now the '. Let , response or output win also. be a sinusoidal signalof same frequency ffi,but the amplitude arid phase of , , response win be modified by amplitude and phase, of the transferfunction respectively. '
. . . .

'I~----~---.~--------~.-----,----~~~----~--------"--~----~~

TUro)

Now, 'the amplitude of the response is, given by the product. of the 'amplitude of the input and . ,transfer function .. The phase of the response is given by the sum of the phase of the input and transfer fuoc~a ' . , ."

'Let"
Let"

' TOO) =IT(jro)i LTGro)

'wher~" iT(j.ro)1 Magnitude of TO(O),.and~" ~
,

L Tum)

= Phase of TO co).. and'

Input; r{t) -

sin (cot + ,H) = A ,LH

=r(t)x,TOruJ
=

, where, A = Amplitude of input , o= Frequency of input,

Now, Response.en) =ALH x'lT(jro)ILTGm)'=Ax~T(joiji

e ~ Phase of input.
,

L(O+LTGro)) ~BL~'

where" B
ret)

AxiT(jro )1.= Magnitude of response, and, ~ ==9+ LTUro) =Phase

= A sine rot + 8) = A L oS
..

r{t)

Fig ~.1: System

1 ..=1 ... )1
TUm)

wU • sinusoidal

; h si

TOm

.,]' .

LT(jro):
,

, I'
.."

of response.

'.

"

c(t) '.

transferfunction

..

. .¢. TOm), ' ,..,

ctt) = B L$ :~where~ BA
,;:=

jTO',?)\. .. = e + LT(Jro) ,
x

"

3.2
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
.

· The frequency- domain 'transferfunction TU!;o)is a complex function of ei.Hence it can be seperated into magnitude function and phase function.Now, the magnitude and phase functionswilfbe real functions .'
of
0),

and they are caUedfl'equencyresponse.

.'

.'

.'

The frequencyresponse can be .evaluated -for open loop system and dosed loop system .. Thefrequency domain. transfer function of open' loop andelosed loop systems can-be obtainedfrom the s-domain transfer function by replacing s by jm shownbelow, . .

'. Ope. loep- transfer. function

·.Loop transfer f-unction

::G(s) '.

s"'"jm:.

G(j(l)) "'"100(0)1 LG(jO))

.

'

(3.])

.' _: G(s)H(s).

s=j@

G(j@Jl-fGw)""'IG(jm}HGm)I!LGGro)HGro) ..... (3.2)

Closed loop transfer function: M(s) . s""jro

MOm)

=IM,(jro.)j LMOro)

,..~.(33)·

where, IG(jro}~,IM(jfD)l,IG(joo.)H(joo)l are Magnitude functions LG(jro), LM(jm), LO(jro} HOoo) are Phase. functions, ~N~te z F~r unity feedback system~ H(s)
=

1 and open loop_.and loop' tr~nsferfunctions are same.

· The advantages of frequency response analysis are the following.· 1. and relative stability-of the closed loop system can .:·of~beir open l_oop frequency response, . _
<0

Th~ 'absolute

be estimated

from the knowledge .:

signal generators .

2.. The practical testing of systems can be easily carded with avallablesinusoidel .and precise measurement equipments . 3; .The transfer function ofcomplicated systems can be determinedexperimentally

.
by _ frequency

. response tests. .
4.

'The design
·

and parameter adjustment oftheopen loop transfer function a system for specified closed loop performance is carried_out more easilyin frequency domain.
.'

of

. -5... When the system designedby use of the frequency response analysis, the effects of noise disturbance andparameters variations are relatively easy [0 visualize and incorporate corrective measures. . _6. The frequency .response analysis and designs. can beextended to certain nonlinear control
·
.'

is

systems.

.,

.3·.2 FREQUENCY DOMAIN S.PEClFICATIO~S

The. performance and characteristics of system in frequency ·domain are 'measured in terms of frequency domain specifications. The requirements of a system to bedesigned are: usuallyspecified in .tenns' of these· specifications. -. .. .. -

a'

Tke frequency domain speciji.t;ations are, .

1. -2. .Resonant peak ,. M r · Resonant Frequency;
.

4. Cut-off rate mr . 5. Gain margin, K !l .

6 ...Phase margin,

3-.
~esonant

.Bandwidth
'.

1.1"

cob

Peak (Cf4)

The maximum value of the magnitude of dosed loop transfer function is called the resonant peak, .M; A large resonant peak corresponds to a large. overshoot in transient tes:ponse.

Resonant Frequency (<D,)

The' frequency at which the resonant peak occurs is called reSQri~n.1 frequency; (Or" This is related to the frequency of osciltation in the step response 'and .thus it is. indicative of the speed of transient response.

is' the' range: of frequencies 'for which normalized gadnofthe system is more tharl ' -J db.The frequency atwhich the gain is ~J'db'iscaUe9cut-off.frequencY, Bandwidth uSuallY'defined: forclosed loop system and. it transmits the signals whosefrequenciesare less than the cut-off'frequeney, '. the Bandwidth isa measure of the ability of a feedback system to reproduce the input signal," noise rejection characteristics arld- rise time, A large· band'\vidth corresponds to a sm:aH:rise time-or fast response.

Bandwidth.. '('1».). . :b

. .': The Bandwidth

'.',

.,

is

(ut-Qff Rate.

The slope of the log-magnitude curve near the cut off frequency is called cut-off rate indicates the ability of the. SY$~m to distinguish the signal from noise,

rate. The cur-off ..

"

~ait11:Margin ,I(g " ' ...

,The gain margin, Kg is defined as the value of gain, to. be added system to the verge of Instability, '.. ' "'.

to system,

in.order to

bring th,e'
"

... .•' The gain margin, K!!: s giv~n by the reciprocal oftbe ma~ituqe ofopen loop. transfer funetienm . ' i phase cross over frequency The frequency at which the phase of open loop _ transfer function is ] 8.00- s .. i called the phase crnss-overfreqaency, rope.;.
.. , .

Gam Margin, Kg: _,.'.'.,.

.' '.' . jG(J<O

'.

..

.',

t.

The gain. margin

in db .ean be expressed
= 20

pe )1,

..,... . ,.3.4)

.(

as.. .' )1 pc.'

0)=

.Kg 'in.db =, 20 'log Kg ..'

, .

log

1 IG(je)

...... :(1.5)

:Note. :~IG(j(t)rJl is the magn~Iud'e a/Gam)' at

rope . i

..

The Gain margin 'in db is. given by' the negative ,of the 'db magnitude of GGro)' at phase cto~s-Qver " .frequency, The gain margin indicates the additional gain that can be provid~d'to .system .wi~hout affecting .. . .the stability of the system, . , . Pha~e,~a,'!Ii.n.(1'), . , The phase, margin r, is defined as the additional phase lag: to' he added ?t the gain CfOSSOYler' 'frequency in order' to bring the system to the verge of instability. The gain cross. over 'frequency ro~cisthe frequency at whichthe magnitude of the open loop transfer function Is unity (or it is. jhe frequency at which the, db magnitude is zero). .' .. The phase margin y, is obtained by adding 180°('0 the , f[luCtlo·il at th~' gain cross over frequency . .... Phase margin,'. Y = 1800 + $g;.~ ' where, ,
",-'

. . "'~

phase angle '<p

"

of

the open
.

loop trarisfei

,
' ..:..,...(3_6)1 .

4l: =LG(jO)
E.C . . , -

I IP·
-'

Note: : ,LGOU)gc) is the phase angle

?! GOm)

--

at ro = 0) g'1

--

The phase margin _indicates the' additional phase lag that can be provided tothe system without affecting stability. . ..
~.-- .

3.4
. .

3.3' ·.FREQUENCVDOMAlN.S;,P;EC1IFjICATIO·NS
, RESONANT wPEA~.(M)" ..

OF SeC-oNDORDJiE·FtSYSTEM

.: .Cousidcr the closed'. loop transfer function of second order system"

'. .' C(s)
. _.. __ . == 'M{:=::) =,

.,'.' .' .

R.(s)

s- + 2~(l)n S+00; .

?,'

.,.Il

002

,,

'

.....(1.7)

..The sinusoidal transfer function Mfjw)·.is obtainedby l"eUipg s =jm,

. ,2

:. MCJm)

.'

.;;eo.( ". ')i , 2' r' (")" 2 . .: Jro ' +~ron J"ffi+(I)n
(0 -(i)I

00,.

., ~.(3 .8.)
.2
{IJ:)I

2 ~ J~mnW •..,~ n T

,+' fin. = 2
. .

200..
(!)n, ~

.(.
.'

2· ,00,
_
2,"

n
.••...

.Let, Normalized frequency,

:. MOw)
. '.
=;: .

~(:J: .
-. "',2 •• '

"+ 12'~" + t, ..-,'

(i)~.

ill

,I.

n.:

1-· ,
I

(' 'cJ
-'-.'

J2 .

1 "

·.·'-'-'n'

'i';'

+ j21;-' -',. -r."

. \)J.n

'0)

..

:(1-U")+JZt:;;!U'

i ~,. .

a " = . Phase of closed 1,001' transfer function.

.

"_

'M=IM(jrol=

"

[\. . . 'yl. - i+4S?u:;1"'2 I .' ·:::::[o'

\ 12

O-M2i+(2,SlJ.I).·
.. .~!

'

• ,.'

u2

"

'.

'

"

..,~,.(3.9) .. ,

a"'" L.M(Jf:t}) ;;;:,-.tan

..

....

~,,;

2~u l~u.

':

... .J •.•..

C"

10)

The resonant peak is the maximum v~lue of M. The condition for maximum value of Mean be obtained by differentiating the equation M with respect to u and letting dMldu= 0 .when u = u,

of

where, u, =
• ,I.

{[ll) ._l

'0)'

= Normalized

..

'

.',

,.,'

resonaat frequency
,

",...,'

"

'_'.

'_,

_',:

On. differentiating' equation (3.9) with respect to u we get,.

. du .. du ., , . -. .' i . '.' 2
(1'-'l!.. 2)2 . -dM ='-,'d [Cl-'u) 2:.+ ~"2,2]--2' .'2. .. ill

= ~-,[[.

..

+ Arl lIl, '. ~ 2]---2

. '
.J

. .'

3.

1['2j 1' ,2.J (. 2") +"Qr2 u . "C ~ •._ U -u ~.

I

'J'

=-[~4u._(L~ u~)+ :SZ;2U)

= .'4u(1~. U),2 ~
. 2 [O~· U
2 )2

~zu .
22

·2 1[( 1, Replac-e u
.
r

u2

i +_ 4S2U:l]'2

-+ 4S u

p-

by U in. equation
.' "1'

(3:1 1) and equate to zero, .

..

4u~ .(1- U;}_&;2U, . ='0

.2

[(1- u; i ~+4S1u;]i .

3.5
. The equation (3:.12)will be zero if numerator is zero ..Hence, on equating numerator to zero we get,
4uj[( 1-:-u;) - SS2Ur_= 0 .. =>
••.

4~ _4U;_&;2UT

=0
=r=.••• (3.13)

• . "It 'r ~r. 4' U, _llr2ul -"·u3 ~"r

Ther~fore, the resonant peak occurs when u, =: J"l-

2(/
I ,

Put this condition in the equation for M and solve for M

M :·.r .
.

= ---~--:--c:-Ih
('(1- u2')?~'4;2U2F

.f

ji

u = Ur

=----~-~ [(1- u~/ 4;2u;.y. +

_ ", 1

I.

- .,',:Resonant peak, Mr
!

-~=

IRE~ONANT FREOUENCY (m l

, ,
'.

2sjl-~z
ur = ()l~j"_ ==
(j:)j']

....~.t3..]4)

\ \'.

Normali~dres~n.antfr,eque;~qr,
. . .". . .\

~i':_2~2' .
.

.....(3.15J ..... (3.16)

\.

The resonant frequency, "',

= '"~~1- 2(,'

\'
'Let, Normalized bandwidth, . Whe~u
=
Ub; Ub

..

= rol),.
roD

th~ magnitude M, of the closed loop·syst~m i~ IIJ2 (or ,-3db)..

=~

Hen~ein' the equation for .M (equation 3.9), put u

1

and equate to If Ji..

... :.(3.17)

~'.M ;;;;. .' '. ..

[(1- U~)l + ~2U~]2

. " .!:

-J2' .
.-

.]

. On' squaring andcross multiplying we get, . . .

.

(1- ub )2 +~2U~ !P =2 . ...

u!~2u; (1- ~2) -1

_4~2)

.~()

Let, x "'"u~;
: ..X=

:. xl - 2(1- 2i;;?)x -: ] "':'0

2b-2,~2)± ~4(1~'2r/i+4.···' 2(1~2(/)±2J(1+4l;4 =

2 2

+~

Let us take. only the positive sign,

:.x=.I!--:-'-.;

.. ' ~ 2r2J. +2-~

Ar2'

Ar4 +""""';. ,

A'1'so

....
, U=b
0)

ron

3-.6
· .....(3.18)·

. PHASE. MARGI~ (y)

The open loop transfer function of second .order system,
'. G(15) = , II .' .s(s+2l;cofjJ
-'

- 2;

....•(3.19)
.

The sinusoidal transfer function G(jro) is obtained by letting s

_ 2:. OJ
[I . _ .. _. "" _. .

= jro.

_.

O(j W )

"",

jrn

Ow + 2C;wn)
11

'. mir(J.iW.:
, .
n

ill

n,.

J OO:n(-2L; + j ro, COJ.

,'"
1

co It.

=
'.j"
"..:

.n.

Will·.
]I.

W_(2~ +j_. m~ ').1.

n

_._

1·

..•... 3.20) (

. - Let [I,annal ize? frequency,

= w/ill

. On substituting u= w/(j)g inequation

G(jm)

(3,20Ywe get-

=.

Jll .' +JU'

.

(2~ . . )

MagnitudteofGU(i)I)=~GG(())i'~
._ .-

,1_=
.UJ.1,t;,2+U2

.. 1:.'
~U4 +~2U2_

· .... ;(3.22}
· ..... (3.23)

Phase of GUm) = -90~~ tan -i 2~

Atthe gain cross-over. frequ~ncy co!)ie" the magnitude of O(](I)) is unity. Let. normalized
.'

sain

cross over frequency; '

.

U ==(0 . ill:C .11';

1m11.

On substituting u bYlil~c in fue'equation(i2~) and equating to unity, we get,

:. Atu=u,o> lG(jro~ =~~4+~i

. ·gc ..

u' =.1.","
gc

u;, +4~2,,:, = 1

u:, + 4l;2u~ ~ 1 = 0

Let, x ""-U!c
'.,

;:.

XL

+ 4{;?x-1 ~ ()

.. x =

. ~~2

1J '.' , "2

± fl6S4-+4

. = ~2r/ 4S41 + 1 '. _. .:

±'J :r-,--

Let ustake only the positive sign,

. :. x ;=:~2S2 + ~4S4 .+·1

.:.. .(3'.24)

The phasemargin,

. y ~ 180 + LOOm)i

OJ

= ~gc, U"'Ug~

... ,,(J.25)

. Substituting for LGOro)

. . . ....

from
.

equation (3.23) in equation (3.25) we. get, .

-'

"t

='

180+(~90~ _tan.

t\c) 2~

1]'

...

"

90-tan-

1
.1

[_21;2 +~4S41 + ]J.2s

~,

'.

. ...

.. '

....... 3.26) :(

Note: The,gain margin of second order system is inji:nite.

. The correlation between time andfrequency response haS anexplicit-formonly order systems. The .correlatlon for second-order' system is discU5!s~d b~re... .

for first andsecond

.

Cans ider the magnitude and phase Qfoa·dos.ed Loop'secondordersystem

.frequeocyas

as

a function of'normalized .

given by equations (3.9) and (:1.10)_ .

Magnitude of closed loopsystem,

".

.' ' ]2<:u Phase of dosed loop system, a = LM(jm) ~ -tan - .'-. _.-2
-

M =IMOro)l:;: " ' . ..'. j~': . J{l--.,u") !+ '. . (2t;u) ..

2':':

. 1-u .

The magnitude and.ph~e.~gle ,charn~teristics for normalized frequency' u, for certainvalues of~ .. are shown ill fig 3~2 and 3.3, The-frequency at which M has a peakvalue is known as the _resonant . frequency. The peak value of the magnnudeis the resonantpeak M •. At this frequency :the.si9pe. of the magnitude curve is zero, Tile 'frequency corresponding to Mr is ur~ which is the normalized resonant :. .ftequency, ... . . .. From equations (3...14) -and (3,..15) we get,
. . 1

Resonant-peak; M.

'.

==.

2s,,'1
0);

,r:::i ' ...

~~2 .

Resonant frequency,

=(on~r-l--'2i;-.:'·-2

-._.(327)

. Whent:=.o. . ';;
. M~,
1:.4. ' 1.2

~
..

]\.1 .r

2r;4J _.t:;,2

1. .

== 00'

. ~.

(3..28)

0: ,

1.0----0.. 8

0.6 .. 0:4 '0;2 ~

.~.

. I.
0'

I. -:

'1·::

l
(Or ~

u,

_.,. u.
U~

o· .

t.

Flg 3.2 : l'\4agnititde,.M as a jimct.iorJoi

Fig 3.j : Phase, o: as «function .

of u.
.

··From equations (1.27) 'and. (3.28), it 'is clear .that as ~. tendsto approaches infinity.' ... ', .

zero, ror ·approaGhe~. mri,:,and 'Mr

.

Whery'I-2~ ==10,

0,

~hich means

there is no resonant peak. at this condition.

~=-'

. -/2. ID
Il~

F~r .10< ~ :S 1I.n • the resonant frequency always has a value iess. than

and the resonant peak:

has

a value greater than one .:

3 .. 8 Fo~ S> 1Ifi, , the ~cbi1dition(dlvlldu). =0, willnot be 'Stitisfied fof

..

".' _-'. 1}:¥nc'~ wben '>1~.J2 tbemagnitwi¢ -. .

-

M de.cr~M~slRo~~Ic;anY
..

any ·rear~allJeGfm~.'.~:;.~:'. .
-

. increasing .

u,

It follows that'fot-

"~;llJitbere:is resonant p~ak;m:dthe·gPeaitestV'alue ..o-f.M equals oae, 00'

--.......,

-h~Q1·M '-:-:I. ,at u ~. 0 ~i~h .

. '

. The frequency at which M h~~a~lue'of ~lfJi"i-s efspecia1.·,signincance and iscaI1ed)he cut-off frequenq .coc:' The signal frequ~ncies 'a;oolie' cllt~ff are ~ly :attetW.me:d 'OIR,paSsmg:thro;ngh a system~ . For feedback ~ontrol &Yi~,the'mnge offrequeneiesover which M';::: ID:o:' 'C~ntroi ,$.Y,stembcing1ow~paS$: mtefSJ~~t zerij,freqUency M=' fl" lhe: !b~dtb
~Al,t1e1i~~,mc' " '.' .,,"

l/Ji is defm~d'as"baoowidth
«J'b: i~ equal '1o'cUt~off
c .. ': • "

,".:.:: -". -In: general thebandwidthof'ncourrol

,>:'~ .' ,'.'

.",' an.

~ystem,.Also,

bandwidthgi'l/¢S . .

-,.:~~<maliz~.~~~~<[l- ~2~Ji_;¢-+1;'1I .. .. ·
"_. .... . ... --. .. '.' . .
r

at measure

'df the ttansi!entrespensre.··· ": ,'. : :.' .' - .

.J

system 'indicates the'ilois(};.ftfterlrig:characte,ristircs'·ofthe;

, ."

.. ,.' ", ", .....

..'
. .: .•.. ""~

," -

From fbe equation ofl\ it ·isclear that ~ is ,~funeUon Qf.f;

aiwre. Thegmph,'.:~oon:·~*d
.' ;

;~ls~:
"

.::·sbn:wttin ~~3A.:.
.. ,;:
:'..flOOptltlS£,

,,'~., .. ': .," . .~ '.~ Tbe ~pres:s:ionfQr $e.:dam;IDpedfteq:uenqy ..of·oseiij,atisD

l' .. ' ".;".

for. O~,C.:5: tare, ..,.:, :".

."

1_f'$d ..

..

:andpeak: ..3~hoPt·<Mp .of-the s~_; I

-I;.~.

.'.

.O~pe((fr,equenc:y,· ro'd=(i):n,Ji~,s~".' and' -, Peak .

... .
;

ov,er~h()O~~·~p:€"J1~(,2.

.,.,'

. .:-

. " ,Th{sketCh of M~an~J

.....~,·"Compari:s,on. <of the eq]uaD1)n,,:;'af

• .' '.'

. are'sfuowh in fig.3.5.11le sketc'bestevealS,.that asystem .'" With .~:given value of Mr must' exhibit a corresponding . 1~5 .

¥; f{)f'~~

M and- M.P reveals that b~th'ar.£A:imctiQinS·ofonfy- s;.', . . '. .

I'

value

Of ~

u, '.'

..

. 'range:oft;,."thestePresponseoscmatioos.are~weUdamped.
.'.: ad 'M .is negligible.' a
, . ,p

:wlue of Mif -subJeded ~tO.<1tstepirnput.. For''s> vJi ,. . P. '" '. tbe:resonant·peak Mr does not:exiSf1md'tlIe -correlation '.1.'0 .breaks down. This is: not a seril)m ~m as fOr this
'. ' .. ..
.' .. .' .

0.5

..
'.
"
.

. •The comparison of the equatien ofcoralld (Od r reveals that there exists a ·defini~·e.orrelation between ...,. 0.5· O~707 ".1 .' them., The sketch of (i)r/m" with respect to, t; 'is'shownm " .' Fig '3.4 : NofRwlis.ed bandw,idth as afonctioo ,of~ '~g 1.6. '. '.
Wr ~.

rod

, 2~O·

1J) ,
,

.'

.'
'1 ~ ..

_.

o"
. F,ig .3.5 :

_ (is 0 707

M;.aiJ-P Mp as a junclitm ofs.

.....

3';·;9::,

--

3.5 . FREQU.ENCY,RESP:QNSE·Pl,01S, .'

Frequencyresponse

-~ :: '':-

,"

'~.

"

. ~...

·analYsts cfocntrolsystems- can b¢ carried either analytically or' graphically> The.various graphical techniqaes available for .frequeney respeaseanalysis are, .. .
". :.1. ..>Bodeplot.
; .. ,': ':.... ' -.
,C' .. .

·4.

Mand·'N:cir¢les:·.

"",

.;.-'," The)a·~.d~lot~;POllarplQ,t8.1!dNic]jols p
. . . '. -v-: .. ,

: ·.··,~·2 : po.nar:pm,Qt:(or:NYqEIlistplnt) ... .; ' .. 3.. .N~'~ilJolsplot

plot;' the performance
, ••••• -. ;.". ~<. ... ~-

5.. Nicholschart ';... ' .~ ..

_ .• ...-, ~.

,-; ,
..

~t ' .,-- ", ", ;:.,'.

loopresponse
• •• • '.'

circles. and: Nichols, cfu~. ~:~,~ed JO 'gntp:h,ically determine .iflAf!' .freqll,el:l}cy response of unity feedback closed loop system' from the knowtedgeofjrpen loop respoq~e •..'. .. .... .'. . .' '.. .' r
~..' • ." ".' •• '-... .' , ' _ :. • ••••• ••• • :._ • • • ~. p • _. ••• ~ • ~ • ••• • _ • _ ~ •• _ ••

and

plot are·.usuaijy.d~~ open.loop systems ..From tht;:. Qpen . stabilityofclosed loop .system are estimated. Th~ M. and. N.:

foi

.-. The~quencyresponse
Ute stab~1ityofthesysteins

and to. adjuS:ttil'e·gain.oftlie~·System·~Q·s@;tisZY:the.dt?s_iiedspecifications.

.. I l .

pInts"~ar_elUsedtodetenjlinetbe ~equericy-don1ain specifications:" tostudy

.

.3 ....."·: BODE'PLOT, 6
.
.- ..

_.....

..

>

... _

. The Bode plot is

: p¥tofcoin:sistS
.

oi'two··gfa:pbs.

a frequencyresponse

of system.A Bode On~ ~~pldt()f the magnimde of a .8jbii$Q;j\dali.traiisfe:rfillicti~n verses' log. 6k 'f's
., .

plot of the sinusoidaltransferfunction

The other is a plot ofthe . phase angle ofa ,sinusoidal transfer-function versus logm. . . ..

The Bode'plot·can·be drawn ferbathopen loop and closed loop system. Usuallythe bode plot is drawn for open loop system, The: standard representation of the logarithmic magnitude' of open .loop transfer. function of Gum) is 20. ilog_~"IG(jro)1 where thebase of thy Iogarithm is 10. The unit' used .in this representatiorr of the magnitude is the decibel.usually tlbb~evja~~A db, _'1becurVes am drawn OR ~emHlJg ~. paper, using the .log.scale (abcissa) for frequency and the:lin~ar ~sRal~{Or~ina~t1) foreither ~gfl~tude (in.·
decibels} Or phase angle (in

de~es):·"

"_- -

~ ' .:..

.' .~ .

~~

i""

.. The main advantage.ofthe bode plot is that ri1Ultiplicatio,1fll."jO:finagnitUdes·;.canbeconv.ert~d into, addition. Also a simple method for sketching an: approximate log-megnimde curve is available, .. ,. -. .
.. -.

~ _::::.~~

-~ ;
. .:.

.- Consider the open loop transfer function, G(s) ~ _ J<_Jh+.sTr},,··.~ ..',.'

. _" .. . '. s' (1 +sT2) (1+51
.,

"GOm)

'. .

=. .

K,<l.+ jw 1).,_. . Jill 0 + J(QT1) (1 + JlroT31

'j' ..'

" ...

;.. '....
".1

,. . .
'.

'., .'_" _. ~., .... V"1+ro2T2' ·<.'KLO~i ' .~

"

Ltan-1roT····· '~ ",'._ ..

.

"

_ ~L90~ Jl1"·(o2T{~tan~1 ~'T2~b+(i/t;L~-! roT3,' K Jl+ID2~2

The magnitude ofG(jro)= IG{jroJI= , .~"

.
. . '. . . . '..

"

I.

.,........

"'.'

.:

r''''1.+m-T2 12 .' .·.W . . u.>: I ......Jl.J[.;,,;,2r2

..... ?

., .. '

.... '

.... 13

The phase angle ofthe GUm) = The magnitude of

.

LG(jro)

= tan-l.roT) _, 901:l'~

tan-!roT2 -tan-1 mT3

GOm)

can be expressed in decibels .

~.

as .shown below, ~

IGuOl)1 in db= 20 logJGGro)1

,.. ...

K.· = 20 log r: x ~l+'ro

(0·
,

. '..

[.,.

.3."10
.2· ...

..
.

Jt

x.

'.' K 1·2....2 ..... I' ... : 1 "'"20 l?g .:-: + 20,:lBg V·I+a:c 1m + 20 log .... ..... '._ + 20 log . '. :-. '. I'. Z · . ·.·00 -; .' '. 1/ 1+0),2Ti - ". '~201og~ K+20-I~g Jl+ro1;-20 lo~
· ·G
-

41

~(02Tff

'.

~2~I~g
.

41 +ro 1j: ~.
2

,Jl+ro Tit
.

...:.(3.29)

_ .' -From the e#lu'on (3~29) it is clear that,· when the ~~itude is.expressed in 4b,_fub multip~ication ~:Isconvertedto addition. Hencein ~.~tlide plot, the db magnitudes 9fmdividtm1 factors of G(jrn) can be
~~de(L . . - .. , .. ... ', variations ofindividua] "':f3CtpTis essential, -The 'maghiUlde~-plet·and pbase ;pb)t ofvarioas _factors :ot,'OOcci} are ~xpi;arned' in. the '.~ foU9Wir.lg section, . .' '. .~.~.: .... . ··:G:. ~ -' -'. - .
....
"

-- f·· .. Therefore .to,. sketch the m~gnimd~ plo~a knowledge ....

.

oith~' I1l8gnibide

,...

",'

-,-

, ,·The~basic factors that

v~zy ttequeritly
K' _- :

occur in a typical

tfaosfer

'function OOm) are, -,

_"o' •

,-..
~>

~ ..~. Constant gain, K

.

.:.:
-,

;.:r--

;,to

2. .]nte~l

..

_"

f---~.:

.0.'"

factor, - or _ _ ..-' ..... _ ' j(1'J, (jroJn .

."

K.·_

t _.-

. 3. - Derivative factor" K x jioo, rK x (jj:i))n n 4. FIrSt order factor m denominator,

.'. . .. -..

1 r +J,roT

.. " . or ..,..... --..m

([ + JmT)

.1

.-5..- First order factor in numerator, (1 ~+jcoT) r {1 + jm.ti' o

,

-"

.',
. '.J'
..

'. -.

6.. Quadraticfactor m denominetor; .'. - .....,... -'.

.....
. I .

..'

'-' --.. . ~ -

.' '.. .'.

-,;--. •. [.
. .

1
,-

.•••

I+2t'; (jro J

(OIIJ +Ow
.

.'

I m·o)
;.','

-. - :2

. ]!I
•

s, ,~ -'

.'

'.

..

·.7: Quadraticfac«lrm" ~
'.
•

'.
"

to

,[.! 1+ 2l; I
I

(.jm'·.).I:+('j(O)!']i .
roo· ron.·'
• .

Lef;-G(s) =K . .~._0(0) 0

.'

= K =K Loa
• 0 •

-t
in
db A

'. i

.f.db: -. O'I-l--~----.....;...K ='.1\ .. .:

-A = IG(j-ro)nn db =:.210log:K ..
~:

"

41· ~

LOGm) =.00

O<K<1 -dbi~, ~-_"""'-_""";"'_-

The ma~~tud~p~o~. foraconstant gain K is a horizontal straight line at themagnitude of 20:'log K.dlb. The phase plot is straight line atO° -. '
.. ' .. WhenK> l~

.,

·t.
.

,-.

0° I
Ir-'

-_...;.,-""'-----~

20 logK is positive ..
'-:

Whe...n K-···~l' . .,

20 log K is zero,

•fig 3~ 7;-Bode_p?rit. ofconstam gain. 'l(. '

. .'

. .' '. co(log scale}

: +<'.:a~ .~2t~'!71" ~.

'. :A"=lGOro)l in:db=2tJlog

. -:

(KIm)
..,'

~ .~.LO(jOO) = --90
• • I .

- -." , ;.:' ..

'.

'.: 0 .:
.

Derivativ.eFitctor·
.

• Let, G(s) ;;='K$

.',
. .. ..

..
'.

.., GGro}=K JO) =Kro.L90° ' ') A·=IG(j;m)! FJidb'"", 20; log (Kro)

....;.

.~"

;:

...

. ...

"'::

"

.-.,.= LG(Jro) = +90

• ! ". -'

.(

WheH,{t) .-

"'"

0; 11K, --A=20 leg·(Q.;1)=_;20 db

Whefl.ro=

From ."the above analysis it Isevident that the .$, .' magnitude plot of the derivativefaetoris a straight linc·'L;",·· .with a slQpe of +2n .db/dec and passing through zero d~

Whtm~ - HlIK, "~ t ~O"~10=

=

ilK,

A'=201og:1=Odb

..

+ 20"".

.1.

'

. ,.

.. "
., ....
"

."',,,-i .'

I·

::+90~~.-'---:-...;...;, ·'-·__ ;...,;;.;.._ "_,,;;;,........... .......

..

-.;;,":_

0" I-~~· .~....,.:----,.._.::-,. ....."....._ '. ~---..;.: . .,..,._,

I . •

,'_';.:L~

""_'_~~~'_''''''1'-.

when

~1.

. denen independent

0)

:l!K. Since the LGJjro) is .a constant and f." .' .' .... .' P
0

o, the.phase plet is a straight line at +90

..

.. '. . '.. ' .' .. Fig 3.·.10.:Bode plot of.dertvative factQ!!;. K x,j(fJ.:
.

-':'_1~O"""'___;_--;':""-'.....,,; -i-- -.::... .. K.· K . roqog~ciller:~

_.'Y'","''- "·When.d6ivatlve factor:_h~ muitipOOity.~of nthen, ..

G(s)~K SO ., 'O(jw)'='Kfjoo)"""

t . " ..-, ,..I•• •

...",":"
-x'

3.12"'
.0; ..

Kro L90Jiion

":

'",

, ."A' +~

"," .::~~
!!

'"'' .A.=='IO(j(o)(iit.. b~2Qlog:(~ID". .: . d

. ~n:·. ~'4 . db:...:20rr:······ '~\.O'9.~·~, '.' '

. ~ 20 logtKli'li (0)'11 ~2O--tt log (KiI~ill)

. , == LGGCl) = 90n'? ."

,. "t:'ciw~e
~.t.sa

~itudeplot

Of~deri~

'~'

'r ~""'--,.......... _...... ..-_'__ -.~~'' . ":-'.~-..... . ... .'_ ~_::.~~-'

.::"
".

..

.'

,.

.:

. '"

>

-:Sttaight fine'et +90n¢.

sl_!a.Ig~tllne WIth a slope of +20n dbfde~;-and, :passIEIg througli'zero:',db when w = lIKUII~The phase plot is a

.~

0.

:;
'-1

:.
-11.

4-

..

0.1 . 1 ' . 10 "K"'

.'.f1itst>Eir\i'et,~t:art~r. ~;A.ifen(} inator. m ......

~.' <1(5)= ,1 '. ' ;. . l+s.T -~ · , .'

. .-

-,

."

~
.

:";"'~c" ,.;.' ilg' J.11} jJodeltiot/oj~rtvdtiv~:a:etor;. KOrol'. f .;KJi, ·KfI.

.

. - ;(

.-:.(I 1 .:.m log': scale.·)

.:>

/..'

':",

:;,'GOro) :=.1> ::"~ I: " L'~tan~l:IDT .l+jroT ...ff+fil,~1-··:? . ".' 1- " .', ... 20 Jog: ~,~~2:0Jog~]+ro2r 1ll.db '. ' il ' 2'T'2 :.y '+.~ -1:· _ ", ....

._~~~~ .• ~.*IG{jill)rin db."

-'_.'_':, '" ",. ",

t: A = lG(jm)!i'
• n

- ',':: ~';-i:,';-

',Xi-'very

Io-wfrequenci:es~ mT«"l;'

.~,.A =-201og'Jl';,W:2T; ~ -20 legl

",,'<' :-::":Atv.~ryhighftequericies,,{nt,;>i';"

~'o' _
~'-20~lij~,O)T

:~:':'::':~'..::::~,.:=::::~:. <..' .•.•....•• .. -. .•....

".".,-. A·=-20 lQgiH-m;2t2,~~201tog.·J~¥

.... .' '

:·:tVid;-str31g'ht

,·:.,The,above

-:s;traigntline With slope ~20 db/dec. fu,£th~freq;Ubncy,nm:ge .. lrr'·<'m~< 00,. 'Theilwosmight iin~s,are : :.;asymptotes· of the' 'exact curVe.' , . _~" ,',: .' ~,~,: "" _ ~ '., "" ,~.•. _-

tmes~one.isa

analysis showsthat ~m:agnitUde plQt of the factor If([+jm\t)

sirtiighiIme at"Odh fot'the frequen;cy rallge; 01'<(0' <'1{T~"m~"t1i¢otheris a'

~be!'appro~hnated'by

at which the two asymptotes .meet is called 't:Qrller/Teqii-eltci ,or' break frequ~cy" . · F'o:rthe'factoi·ll(l+j_mT),the'freguency, ,00 = lIT is the corn~ frequency" ,ro~.__it divi(jes thefreqeency :,response- curve into two regions, a curve for: low frequency :region 'and a, c~:,forfigh:' fteque:ncy region. .

.The .frequency
-.

.'.

._.

The actual magnitud,e. at the. corner fiequeney, ,A.; ~2nlog;Ji 1= -3 db.Z'.;.f:;,}· :,. .. _.;". ,

me;: ~

is,.' ' .' " "..•. •

'.

..

~",_~ JI~;n¢e bY'tlJiS ,appro~matj_oD the IUSB in db' at the comer £req-aency is -3 'db: -' ',' :-, ·__-. ....-.. . ', ':" ~ ... ." -. : '_ -'. - .. _~. -. ., . . , . . :. . -" > . - ... . ._ ... ';" ,:'. _1JJ.epbase is obtained by ca1culat~g the' phase angle pi GUm) for ;vatious_valuea of ro
-.._-.J. , ...... ' ..... ,..

.....

wn.
,,'

."

.- ......

_.

...

.._

,:
.!, -- ' -.:' " --:':::, :,'

Phaseangle,

'~=,LGGID};;,;".;~-::I

~W·_

,>

.'

..

.- ..

_ _.'~-:':.:: A-frne'porner teq~cy,,~ _. " f

'i.:, ' .,," "':-"_ . :A.sm'-~~;'9,~" ,,~,O°

As
oCt)

=7'oj~,;;,;
,,'

. >:1;"

l:~:", ' ., "qy'~-~ttm-I6JT=~~4r=--4So' ,.

,"
,'

..

".

'__ ,'.' '...

',< ,_

-4 00,

>~

.....

90o;

. _.:.

...:

,.

. '. Thephase angle of the facto'r, ..1/(1 t jmT)~-.varieS· from. a!?~to--:,9no: ~,.(i). is-varied froM zero:'~ti:~ iufinity.The phase'p,lot is a curve passing thro-~gh-450_'at Ol~.· . . When. thefirsrordee _. .
.

factor-in the .denominator hasa .' multiplicity of m,..then, ..

.:'. .

"1 O(s)"""-'-" . O+sT)w."

... .': 1 • GOm:}= " .. _.: . (1 +jroT)mc.(

'/' ,'"!Jl+0l2T2,,>~m

.)m.

_tIm:lmT , .'
.
,,~

.:~ ...

'.

-:

~ ~

i'f

45

°
~...;...:....~.:::::~.
I'

'.'

"'.' __;_ 901.}~·

=-_ ___::_
II

I·
~

I
I

,m . ;: ~

·1

'1'0
.

~.'.~.:T

T.·· '.....• ~ca :C.'

(log - 1) J' + ](J.l

.1._

OJ

.1
..
roc;::;; -

10
T,·.

0)'

'.1:: ':

_. l~g;seale) (

"

~:~
•

fig-3:.:12':' .

B()de p!ot·oft~/acto,.'

,Fig 3.13' ,: Bo~ plotof the/actor IJ(J_+jwTr.·. '-.' j

Now the magnitude plot of the factor: :l!(l+ ]mT)'" can be-approximetedby 'two straightlines, one a straight Hue at zero db for the frequency range; 0 < (0 < lrr~ the other is a straight 'line .with·sl(),pe1 and ~20m db/dec for' the frequency range, Iff -c m <. 00. The comerrreque:ncy,. Ole = lIT and theloss iii dbaitth~,; cornerfrequency is ·~3m db .. ' - '. . ..... ~

is:~

'.. :: . ~The·:.~h8Seruig[e· the fa9~:f1/(l~j(j)t)m~v3rl,~s:.f[6m:o~_to·~90mO :is, vari~d ft~ni~~ t~).~ of -~.m

.infinity.' The phase plot is a .ClJn!ie-passing through ~5mO atQ) ~.' . FIRST ORDER FACTOR IN llHIE NlJ1M1ERATOR
-,.

G(s}=l+sT .

~.'

."

. . GOm) ~l ~j~T~U~Jl+ol.f·Ltan~l!»T .'

. A= IG(jro)i in db=20log

.-. - ,.'.'.'''--1 ...."'1

. :1 .'~

.. " .. '.-::~ -.., '.:. :-~ ... ~

~

'i

~]+ro2J:2 -

.' = Lauro) = tan-I roT .' .

- By an analysis similar tQ~t o,f_p~vjous section itcan ~e' shown _tflatthe fuagJ:l~U;de/p~'9tof the: . .factor (1+jroT) can be approximated .by two straight lines, oaeIsa StraigJi:t line atzero db' for the fi"equency-:. 'range ,()<'ro < 11Tand: the otherIs astraight lIne witb's:lope+20 db/dec for the frequency rang~.: ur< en « the NO straight Iines are asymptotes of'the exact curve. . .0:).

The frequency at which the .twoasymptotes meet iscalled the comer frequency or break frequeacy. For the facror(l+jooT), the! frequency, (00 = Ilf) is th.e corner frequency, (O~. this approxanation the lQ~:. in db at the corner frequency is +3 db: The phase angle of the factor (1+jmT) .varies from zero to +900 as 0) isvaried from 0 to-co. The phase- plot is a curve, passingthrough +450 at roc' '-j

By

'-

,~

3.14 When the flsst order factor in the numerator hasa multiplicity','of m,'then,
O(s)
'.
:~."

= (1 + sT)m

GUro) =(1+ imT)'" ~Ul~ID'TTLm~C1IDT

.~A ~•.!?{j~)I' db= 2Qlog in
.

A.
,in'

1
. 1.. .

Appro~dmate plot '-It': .'~ . +20 ---~------1--,,~~--~60 . .+3 ' -~~~:t-~I~'!~"""""'k1;rt) ~. .

,.

.,+. 'r

,.f-':

./GG")" '0)

(Jl

+OO2T2

-.

J~

== 20milogJ'l+ olT2 .

;i::m' ...",..;,-1 Hl!J'.rI

(i)

T
ij"

~._...-."-.,, .... ,.

~.

I' ,

.: ..
='
1
I-

db +900 r~~"'"---'r---~:::;;;;::;;:i;: .' """'1'

," .

""':'""""""'"--:::','7"."',"
.:~.

.-

r.:

., .

'1'.

.:

::,":"',

......

_',' .
:

Let, A = IGOm)[in db.

= ~201og'.

" ,

'(,.1,.

'.

'1-' '00,',2.'. 'J2+. ~ .1f .; .. ,..,

.~·n....
(02.

'.0:,1 .', .-,It·

.~:.2

=-2Q[log

. '~4

1+ - ,4' ~ 2-+ tlr_2 -. 2 ""'.-2010g' 2'~' '.

Oln COn .COn

.;

ro2'

'0:/

.,.".

. ,

'"3 - .. .'.
_. "
~'

_.

'

'~':'-.~'~:=--:---.'-. :."

",_

'.

At very .low freq'tlrencies' when ".. . '_....:....

A -= -:-20log.
',... " .0)2

"(0,

«,(j); , ,i

n·

the- m'Sgnimde is" .' ._ .

. •.

-r-z (2~ 4l;-)m+~44 ;::,-20 . . ill 'ro

'2

;J:---

log 1= 0

n·

At very high frequencies, when

A=
'.

-20 log
. .'

1-::
m
. IDa ,•
-.

(2~
11

~z; ::,.~20log.•1Sf =~20I~:~ + V~.,

n

{G,»

m~,,tbe: inagilltude Is, ... .. : ,

= -20 log(': J.. n

:.A== -40 log. .. ~ ,

. At
.

O)"'".~·"'A~

.~

..

.;"cr'l:e.gl='O·db,.. ..
., .
..
. '-

'At

(9 ~

10(U~ A~'40 lagrO = ~·40dh

From tl1f~atr6ve'analysis: it is ev:ident tlmt'tlle magnitude'plOt ():fthe-:quaaraticfactorin·the: den~Jmiriator '. can-be approxi~ated by , two _ strai:gbtH:nes, . oneis. i..a straight fine 'atO .db- for the frequency range 0 <.ro <; 0)"n . . .' . ._. . ..... . '. '. .. ,.,..... . and ·the other is a straight line with slope -40- db/dec for the: 'ftequen~.mnge .ff) ID < 00, The ..-twQ- ;stmigbt .. _'lines are asymptotes Qflhe: exact ~e. Thefrequenciy at whicll;·the twO', asYmptotes meet .is called. the comer.freffltency. For the .g' ·nadratic factor~ .the ~uertCY m:n is the eorner frequency, Q) • ; . '. ,.
<,

II ~

~ "'_-.

'~ymptob~sl of'the exactare indeperident -o(tlle .d3:mpiing ratio, .~~.In the exact IDagnI·tude -pU;~,resenam peak occurs near the corner fi,el:}Uenq' and~:th:emagnitude of resonant peak '.~ depends on ~.~Lower the ,value of S, larger.win· be the res,onamp¢.~'·.H.enc¢. by ~s apprgxhrtation the '~ITqr at the'.:cQmer 'frequency dependsOD_~Wjlping -ratio ~.Th~p~~plot is obtained lJycaIcuraflng the,

The· two

curve

,lt1;'w."J

,10

.
. . .

'p~eaDgIe
""

uf'Ciuro} for varioUS, vaIu¢~ of-~..,..

.... . . .

'.

. . , .'.

. . ..:.,

'

"

: ~.

'

'.':.:

+UI!J!

;iI''''

,
0·: -- .
A '-db .

~\"----.',:=

'_'"_"',

1jJi.3:,

:.;~~~_ -'l:;'-:O-~~''.~: :>'

'~~:~~~~~~'~'~~'~~·:~oD.fr~-~~~~-

.I.

'.

t '. .......~;s- =: 0..5: t, ,~90r",-.,_·"-,;...__.;.-~......;....~---=:::..:~~---,-...;..:'

$.

--...,.p.",........;._.__.

t;, ~ 0.3-

'___;;~-----,-

-lSQ,:;.
.I

.c .

,.

..

II·

,
I"

..-

..

Fig
...

.. :' -; ;o{logscale)c 3.. 6·: BOde plOt of quariratic/aC'io'f: in den()~inati:Jr.··. 1

.
..

. .'

....

'.

~-.,

c .. '

co-

,.

IP = LG(Jro)=-tan

;,'. , .-

-I'

-roD.'
(I):.

i ".2'

, - (i)2.
n

I'

3,'l6
. ··soo =(J) A
.. . '. [l'

'1jJ ---Lan
_. .

t·:..i. _.=-' tan-I.'00 == '90':" . 2S, .1,

.

,":',

',;:'

O.

."

'.

.. As

As

(0 ~

0,
:~.

q, -» 0·'
~':4.,UK;
isvaried fr0iJ1.0':to 00. The . ·~9:Ot'I ~.ct Atthe OOTIierfrequency phase angle. is:-:-900 aI!!d·ind:ep.endent . at

ro' rl

The phase angle of.&cqUadm& "factol' v:arie$:.from(l:to~]80o~·.ro

.P,lhas~plot is a curve passingthrough of'~..but at all other frequenCy ~td~pends t;.,. '. .:Dll
,'-_.....
-,'.

'. . .....

:,

_.. .:_ ..

G(s)=..

2 S

+2~ID.:. +O) .' It.S

(1)2

'"

..

.'

.n

..... .

. = 1+2<;

. ("')'~S [, (
fi}'

I',' . S.' -1.+1-1'.:1'

)'2
II

. n.

'ill

D .. ,.

+db .
i

l'

'0.' ~db
':,

,.'

'i
~,

.. 90° -~,-:...- .

. . .' : Oo~..-..!I!!"_==:~::;::~::::;::::::::~~2.:.._;__.~ '

:
',:,.

.._,__;;_~~,":'_;'_,
00 (log scale)

','

:"_-'_

--"-,

- _ _..:_._-

..

Fig3~17: Bodeplotof quadratic factor in numerator:

'.

.Based. on an analysis to. that of denominator quadratic. factor, the magnitudeplot of the , . quadratic factor in the: nume~ot can.be:apjJro1::imated by twostraight'Iines, oneis a 'straight line' at-O db :-fot the frequency rangeu-c d/< ID:~mililieQthl~r. is a-straight Iinewitfislope +40'db(dec for. the frequency. ta.nge (0 ~ -c ro ..:::r:iJ',The co"t1ter: ftequ~cy is' Q\, ..'Due to this ·appr.oxirilatfon:the error at the' comer frequerrcy
depends
OD.~. '.' - ' .. :.·."f
... -: ...•. . .' .. ' ... ' :'. . '. _ ..

sunilar

'. ',' _. 'The: phase angle-varies: from' OU0<+1.80(>,as- ro is varied WID,r) to: ·oj.At the ·ember .fre,quency the .: .phase angle is' +900 and ina'epen.den:t6f~", butatallother fre(piency ftdepends on·~r.·.· _ .

17
IPROCiEDURE FOR MAGNITUDE PLOT OF BODE PLOT

From the analysis of previous sections the following conclusions e~b~

obtained.

I,. The constant gainK, integral and derivative factors contclbut~ gain (magnitude)

at all frequen.cies;-

2. In .approximete plot the first, quadratic and higher order factors contribute gain (magnitude) only when the frequency is greater than the comer frequency. ~ _

. -. ··:He~ce the,·low freq~encyresponse upto the decided by or K j Oici,t~r··· KOm)n term. Then at-every comer frequency the slope of the ·magnitUde plot is alteredby the first, quadfati¢ . endhigher order terms. Therefore the magnitudeplot canbestari~.~t~:I<: o~:KI(j(Oro-r )({jrof-tef.rrt~d _ .then the db magnitude every firs,' and higher order terms are added one by one in the increasingorder of the cornerfrequency, -, , .

low~._o<?rrier~q4~n~Yis

of

_ This is illustrated Inthe following example .... . K (·]+ST\2 Let, G(s) = 2. .. . . 1';..- .
s- (1 +ST2) (1:TsT3) . K_. ,(~ +J~""T ),2 ,:.00(0) ~ G· i(l···~ ·T.~(ll"1,+Jm' t3·j ,. ... ..0) I + Jim, 2; .

Let,
..,
.

T2:< T.:>, < T

_

1 •.

-The comer frequencies are, Let,

'I' -' .

__ •.

'

. -.;_.1.
€atl::::::i: __

·T'~:'
1··

ffig:2

fl:)cl

-c We:! < me2-

=::;:.-."
- ~23

-Wc3

= -T

.,..

.The magnitude m fig 3.18.

p,lot or the' individaal

..,..

terms of'6ti,ro), and their combined magnitude plot .are shown ., .

:. : •• ;', ';-""':~ ~-" .•

The steP. by' step procedure for pLotting the magn~ii:ude plot is Hlven below

.. .step1 : ' Convert the transfer functi~n into Bod,e form :~rtime. constant. form .. The Bode form of:
the 'transferfuncti~n. is .
0(5):;::

'

..

-_

~-··K~~l 1) + s1:
. - \. - --.

. ,(1 +,T,)

h~~ 2I;;J"
. ..
.

s=jen~

G(J!~)

..

ja> (1+

j~T'+-:; :J
'

K (1 +J·OOT)

. -.

21

..

.....

+j2l;

.. _Step 2: List thecom~r. Irequeaciea inthe i~easi~i{ota~and prepare a table . . --.' '. .. -- .. - . .
. .. .

~:

, ._-....

as shown below.
,-

I . Term
,. :r

... Corner frequency

-S~lopt·--::.' t:haDge~hisiope

rad/~~~

db/il~ .

diJ/dec

; .'

I· .....

In the above table enter K .orK f (jrot or KOrol. 3;S the.firstterm and the other: tet:tn:s_jp.~e· increasingorder of comer frequencies, ,Then~nty:r.the_,cQmerfrequency, s-lope contributed .. by each term and change in slope at every

"

".

..,

.....'

-··n

.... ·····

-:.

...

:.:' .. '--

comer:·-trequency. ,-

- ....,

Step 3.: .Choose an arbitraryfrequency IDi which is lesser thanthe lowest.corner frequency, Calculate .the dbmagnitude of Kor lK/iGcotor KUro)11 :at ror8!nd~t the lowest corner frequency. .

"

,3.,18

I~

+db'

:Magnnude, plot! of the term, Owl

L, -----",,'~' -~.:;,..,

,:

, t<:

0' db

-db

.' .

'""""

~-

~~--;---:--;;-~-f-~-'-~~~_---'---ooo-'"

.. ~.

.-

..."..,,--'-' =: --

".lj!

,.

_,ii

I.';

-.
,

,~ Magnitude,p,",
.

1 JotQltheterril (' ", ',',,'T'-,:)': .,' '.. .-. - , 1"," Jm 3, !

.
'!' .

"
-,
•

,.
• L~ •

'.

Qdb

L----~--~,~-'~"~'~~~ __--~--~~--~~~'~.'~~~~~-------. _, '. _,

'"J . •
,

-:db

.
.'

......,fl....,
"

- ...C!lV.....

+db:

''0':&0-:

;.._ ..

.
,.
,"

,:

;'1

,Odb/4~~"~~ .... .
.-:

": _ Ma9~itud€lplotofthe ten~'j "",:1". '. ',-, "," - (1+J002

., ....
.

', ),

-db, ,_ ,

'II

.
'

' ..

'

"

./

"

~.

"

. '..
a

:,1

"

'

.-

.. .

~
" -~e3

" Fig

, ' , :" ,-' , " '-', . " , ,-- K{l+jwT;/' ' s.t 8 ,:1Wagnit,Jd~ploi, a/bode plo~0'£'GOm_) -, (j~)4;(1 + jw !2)(1+ jro73)',

'

J!. :1,-_-- ~_. , _.

Step 4 ~~' 'Ihencaleulatetae . file formula, , 'Gain at ..
OJ:
';I-

'gain (db' magnitude) at everycomer frequency one by one by using-.·.

ill'

change. ingain fr-om Ol to ',.. .

,,t

y"

+ Gain. atm: x . '. . "

,
.' .,' .

. . _ --;;;;:'[i Slope from "'. to-e

'1'.,'

,K

log'" ]:.+ G~in._-mili~

.
(Ox ,
•.• ,p_ ,

A.:

• .'

'

..... •

' ••

x
L

:IIJ

- -1~' . ,~.- . A,J ..~",,,~.- "'; " ~-":'

-...: .
,

y_

..
.

~ .....

-,

'0

. .

,Ar·--·""· '.. ;;-

,.•• .-

,., .

"",

'-.
'.

Sti!P -5:Choose.fl1l

is ·.~:?:tI!(~~~~_.~:~ghest. . Calculate the gain at (Oh ,by using.the formulain step 4.

r' .' '~.

arpcitrarY (requelllcy. OJhwbjcIl,

.

90l11eF frequenCy;
',~'.'

step ~: - In a semjlog, graph sheet

.

the.range of-db-.magUi,mde-p11- -y-axi_s(ordinary

-rn~kthe required

range o{ft~quency onx-axis (log s~ie).~4

': scale) aft:er-cilOosing proper unilt$~' . _.. join the

Siep7,: . Mark allth~ points obt~~.ed in steps 3,,4~ ,ami 5 on the ~phand straigh! Tines. Mark the slope every part of the graph. '.

at

pdirits:" by
.' ..

Note: The ~~ainit~deplot obtained above is an approxiwuitep!ot_ lfan' exaczpiotis .' needed then" approprlaie·.correctlons "ifio;uIJ ev:efj;-:c.omer frequ-encf~s-: .' '.'

bema1leat

·PRUCEUURE FOR- PHASE-I~lnt O:F OOOEPLOT Hence. the exact phase-angles ofGfjoo) areeomputed fqJf.: Vjjd~~-Y;~lu~ ,ofui;'and tabu1ated~:- he choice of T ·frequenciesare preferably the-frequencies cb~sel'ffor r;nagnf~d~:p_IQL Us.u~l]y magnim.de 'p1ot .and jhe . phase plot are drawnina single seg]ilt?g ·,_;'Sh~et on acommon frequency scale ..'. .' ..' '. ..
. '-.

: The phase 'pJ~ot: is

'an eX3dtplui-and

no approximations' are made w.h:ili:e- 'drawing the phase plot.

Take' another y-axis in: diegmpb: where the magnitude plot is. drawn and in this y-axismark the ·desired range o~.phase angles.' after .choosing proper units...From the tabulated valuesof m and. phase.
angles, mark all the points on the graph; Jointhe points by a smooth.curve,

..

IJ:ETER:MINAIION' OF GAIN. MARGIN A:NI) PHASE ,MARGIN mOM BODE PlJOT ..

. - The gain margin ill db :is given by the, negative _ db rn;agni1;udeof GUO)) at the phase cross-over. of ·fr~quency,(1} pc' The rope the fWquen~y ~fwhich phase of G(j0))·is-180o• If the dbmagnsude of G(j!;!») _. at (Ope is negative then gain margin is positive and vice versa. . . . ':, ..

is

. '. . -. . Let.~ be thephase angle of G(jro) at gait}!cress over' fteq)uency @~. The _ ·is mg<:. frequency at . 0 which. the db magnitude of.G(jro)_ is zero. Nowthe phase margin, '"'I -i:s given by, y = 180 +" 4l'g<;;.: If tPgc is less' . negative than -[800 then phase margin positive and viceversa, .'. '. - -.'.

-t~e

is

.. The positive and.negativegaln.marginsandphase

margins areillustrated
·+db'-,
I

in fig 3J9~

..

A
j:n

+db ....
-·1'····
,.

_. j,.' -: ...-;

A
jn

Negative - GM,:__ _ ~

d'b'~ -db" 7-90 . _~_

41,,,,,
;
iIo "" -". _. : : ', '; ', -. - J~ •• ".

..
..

. db

_:_ b d
iii ... ',."

..

'

.,'

,. r--t80,...........~;:..__.L.....:---~:-----.~ ...

_ ...

. .- . Nre~ti\(e

~PM-·~.·

-2:70

1-',

- __ .

----.--__;_---,.....;;

...

,_,..

____,.___;_.,....--

I,
. (Q IP
-.,'

'.

·m
_,

.•

>~ . : ~Oog scale) .

- . -'-

(j)

pc:. ..

~Oog scale)
,,':

~
.',

'Fig.3~19:BoJeptQt~howi.~g phase margin (Pl,d),arJ[i~ai~ margin (GM).· . : .

~~."~. . <: ....:.". _.". ~:~; ~-..' -.. " ..
c• ._

-IiAIN AO,JUSTME:NT IN !BODE PLOT . ._" ._' . -

.. _.' -'::-

"

.~-

only magnitude. ~en~-·by - .changingthe valueof K the:sy~te1il"~inC(ID. adjusted tomeet-thedeslred specifi~ll!tion5;.The:desired . be Specitkiitions are.gain tri~f~n;··ph~·1Uatgin~(o·_ ana·(!)r ge-.. rna'sYstemtIanster~function·jftbe.v'alne ofK· ... . .. _ ,_ . . .._ . pc . ". .. .. .
required to be estimated to up or down, Henceshift the.magnitude plot vertically up or down to . meet the desired specificatlen, ~quate the vertical .distance by wh-iph the magnitude plot .shifted . 20 log Kand solve for-K, '. '. ,-, _ ... '-' .- - .-. - - ' . "magnitude plot win shift.vertically

Enthe open loop transfer function Gum) the constaat K co~b~tes·

K·= l , The- constantK can a~d.20·.~og.K.t(f:every point of·ilie~magllifudei-pl6;tanddne:to:irns};,dditi()~·d-Ie.:

,ganszy,a

desired specmootion then dmw:tke {bode plot of the syetem -with

is

to

.- Let; ~·~change in db ,{xisj,ositi~ie if·tbe:plot isshlftetl upand yic~versa).:·.

Now, 20 log

K ~x

-;.: I~~K. ~'~iO

; ..

... K·"", O~· I

. . I

--

...

..

-Note -: A point. 'i,t i:t'omplex·pl;;;;'e·c:Cm·b~ repres·erited·bY· rect-angular, -Cbor'lJfll"!ltes:. Ofhy-'~alar

coordinates. Consider

- .-Now,

a'poim, '~ =. a+jb : jz!,= .fa2 + vi . and

in complex plane.
L

...' .:
_, .

==

tan -s -blli

.. lithe point lies i~fli\st:a~ f~l'th quadrant then the argumen! os caicuJCJt~d,by tan~l w#l be ..the correct values. But if it lies either in 'Second or third quadraniihen· a correCiifJ~should be made in th« calculated values .qj ilr~ent.· b~q;a.us£,ih.e ·.e:"alculiJ.torwi,ll· aLways give: the values· of· san b/a either /rom 0 to .+90'~ OF ft'Q11) 0 to,-9()~, The co'"eeriof1i to be' made whileconVertingf;nin irec.taflguiar topolar coordinrites .is;ho~;nbelow,·· .. _.. .. . A
. -'-I· -. . .. . . . . . ..
< • _... . . .

b/a

pointln T~:4Iialiritqt;.·

a + jb == J~i+b2-- a~ Jb ~Ja2

Ltaii'=-lb/a....

.<.

A point in II~~: (iuadmnt, -:-a+ jb=~a2~_b2 L(:n:- tan-1b/a) :

Apoint
A

in·IIin(-q~T~t,

+ bi' .L(~+ ~
...:::: -tan

~lb/~)

point in IV~ quadran~·· ·a -jb =,.,J a2 +:b2

;"']b/a)

;,~!;i'3.::u
EXAMPLE '3 ..1 .

. .:......

"

.. ::,....: .. .

. Skeroh Bode plot fur·the·f6mowing tlansfeltfunctiol1 and determillethe systBmgain K forme 'ga!incross over 1ifeque~cy: 'to be 5 rad/sec. ", . '. .: ......: . . ".'. ." " .. '; ,
G{s)

"(1+ 0.25) (1 +~102s)'.

......,.."s

. 'K'

~2

"._. '.

SOLUTION
ThesinuSiJidal transfer fimotion Gam) is P!btained·by replacing s byjro·inilIhegiVen s-do~ain1ran~rfunction.

..
-_'. . '!" .

K{Jm} ."
.,'.'

.2

..:. GUm)."" Sl+0.2iro)!t~t)~02jm)

LetK=t,'. ·:.G(JOO}='

'.

'(1+ jO.2w)(1+·jO.02ro)

.' -.'.

(' . '.,Jm )2

.,:'

. ,", '. 1·· , . The ~merfrequencies are, mc1 == 0' . ;;; 5 red looc .,1.,2'

and

... . ID"22 ~ .~--; - = 50md , sec .

. . . l'

..

:0.02.

Thevarioustemils of Gfj®" are listed in Table-1 tnt tile increasing order ~ftheirco~er freQU9RCy. Also the table shows . the siope contrtbut~ by each te,nnand:the cbange in slope at tt1e,ccinierfrequenc,y~ .~.'~..' .' :" .. :

TABLE-:i
. : ..
'

.. :1'

Ternll
",

. CQ~~~rfieq~ency:
.

..

-'

Slo'pe dbfd"c:
!: ._

.' . Ch.arngie. in .,=slope . . ..:_.:.". ... " . ..·db/de'c .

·i'

T
_.",

.: '·'·Om'
1.

+40

..~...; <~-;.,."'..
.,.

1+ jO.2m 1 . 1+ jO.Q2ro ,

-;20 ' .
.........

.. . '. . : 40 - '20 = 20' .

.rf.7/f' .......

...... ~, ..-

,..~".! •.••••. •• ~.- -;:... ,.." ..•

I
.'

20'

'~~':'....•....; '.'
,

.20.,;.20 ~;;~ ,..,.,

..

= 0.

.Choose. a, lowf;reguency (OJ'Slich thatto" <mc;~.and ()tI:QOse ~ high·freq~enC.y roil sucbtbatoo'll >.' 0lc2' Let,
ill,

==

0':5 red/sec ando)h:=100radfset .

. L_et,' A :;:;.lG(jro~ in db:.

. . 'Let ~'scalculate A ". At U'I.=~I:'
. J\'t····

a~:00,,',"@CI ,Ola and roh. .

....
_

.. .

':A == 20 iog~~fl
:::! .

,;;2Qilog (m )2.;';" 20Iog(O.~~·~-12 db ..' .

1'i.W

". ' 09Jm, = .'.' .. . (5'· '2:'8' b = (!J'el" A'·· :2"0' I'· 1:('"':' ')'21~'. '2'·'0 I'og '( (J) )'...220'1" ..:og,.,.')2 =~ '.'d;' . , .. =

At:ro ~@'c2'

.~:=['slope from
,

~C1

to~e2'xl,Og

.UI\"c1

:a..

]'+A.(atm'~c), ~ ~OXlbg.550 +?8 ;;:4~:dtf

, ·1· " .

A = [SlOpe .' .'

from fficzt~(j)hX~og
.

roil:!'

m.'h.·.·]~ Ai ,_ .

. \~""·"'c2

.') =':Ox f~9"1.~O+

.....'

50·

48~.

48 db

respectively on the magnitude .-plot .In SI sem:i~oggraph sli1eetchoose a seale of' 111nit =10db ony",.axis. The frequencies are marked lndecades from 0.1 tot 00 rad/sec on, ·loga~,thll1.i~scalesin:xc;a~i;.;:"OEi*:the:P-Oi~.~,,;.D,. candden tlle'.grqph; ~J,Qill.1l;the-PQm.jS··by st(aIgl;l~:linel:i~Od .matkthe slope on tile :r~p~cl1v:e reg.ian; - . . -. . -; - .. ". . . -.
(tIiti

let i1.he points e, b,

c and d be "e pa,intSoomeS.pon dingi to frequendes. rol, mel

,00 c2 and

PHASE. PLOT .

The phase:ang'le·~ot~G(jro)
.
-,-"

.¢' ~

LG(1m ) ~ 1·810·_·.-='tafl~ 19,2m ., tan-1o.oero .. .

~.

as erf!L1nct!ontif"m is'guvenby,
..

' .. p<~.,";-'

__

L':'

The phase arigle' of G(jm)'are' ca:Jcul?tect fOI.vadous Values of w.and I:Isted in~!e-:2:
·

. . .-

-",~:.' .:,::..... . .' -

~--. . .....

..

,;,

..

-:'0::

_"~' .;..".'--'~. '.

...

I:'
"~.-r' -, . .:
-:

-~ --'~

~'-

~-:-:.- ... :i' :~

- [···tati~I-:0:Zij)-·.. -:
I •• -'. • .' -. •

:_"'-::d~,g'-.:.':.'_;.-.~ ~'~g;_ : _ >-<:.' _->~__ . ·11-.345'

.'.

:_·::_:t,an~c.l . 0,.,02.(1).'"
••• ..:: •• •

"..-'.~.-

.,',~¢9j·· .~' ' ..

..,J
-.'

·.:'Poi:ntin .. '. - ·phase·pld~:. ..... : '.-:.

.--:

"

, -.

-.

. ". -.' e·, .'

-.:-.~ .

··l67.6~168
5.. 7 . ' .·::·:·11.· ...· .. -r ... '. -11"3"';"
:.",

,.

f
·9 .: h.'
-i_

t29.·3~130.

.51)".

.\: I'.
••••

--6":3- :.'. ----:...

.
.U'"t.
I

:: ..

_105;3~'1U6 '; ~ ,-. - , .

50.7_ ~ '50
-. .•• _ •• _..

. .. :.-

'"1·

1:00

'- "87;,1:

..

· :.. '.-. -., '634 .. .

_'
},

-, :'.}"
..

..

.-

.-' On 'the samesemirOg:graph~e.et~e~e-.a§:~leQf-ll.mit;·2d",~onthe y,,~~n lherlg~ts!deQf:semiiog gmph sheet. Markn.ecalculated-phasea~QI:eonThe graph j·oiiri the.·pohllts b:/a-sirJoothouFV1e.: .. . ..

. . .. : :-- ~~'

s~
...

CALCULATION-OF

K
·

_.

-.:--

..5 radtsecthe:n~,f~at'fueq4rency,ithe'BltgaittsneEtret~:Zf:jfo~ i~nce· ilO,'eveiy:po'iin~);tf~ag~iludep.IQtal dp~ga,iri{jJ-:"'"28t!p-should ..be·ao.ded..The·,t3dditL0:nl;Of.~2~db~_~~t~.~]~~; ~e.comr~,~-:r]*~f1itad~~~:iSt~bta.iijed1Qy·shii~g1;lJe!:p!otWith ..

'..K ='1~by
..

.• Given th~~:tOe:9ajil C(~~t~~il~1_$;5~9t~~-:~t·~o;,~.5 ~dJseeail~Qai!l.1~~8,db f-lJ~Jn -,I c~ffss~verft~I~~ncyjS ..

_;28d.b (1OWJ:iw~rds:.T~etij-agfji~.ide-;tarr~ct{Oitiis f,nd~peli1dlililt 9t:f1~;tfuenq< -JHler'c,~tltJ~ Jt1agi1itude.ij(-.;28db is oontJiiblJltedby:the-terril KThevahi'e ofiKisfCai~p~'i~ts;I~byqll.l;:Jtiriig~2Q:lp-g,K19;~28db.·· ..'.. '- . e ..
. ,-. . :'. : . .. -.~ ' .j:.

<.~...

., .. _.. .. .
.',

.~ -,

r, 20 log K ~ ...,.28db' .. -.-- .

IO~K=:~~~8
. 20 -, ';"-

. ,~.-'

.~ .

:-'K'~'10~(:U -, '..' ~·-O.O~g8· -,

-'" .
.,

'

..
d/Jzgai'!' a~:~ ~51J1d1sec:

._Note;' Thebjfq'liencyeiJ =5£fJiJI$~ iil£0fPf#e-rfrequer;cyi.;iienlieiiT_i!ie_;eXactjJltJU/1e

.: 20lQQK=.-25 ,~.~,..... .. . log' K ;::. .' 2.0-·'. -' .. ' '. . .

I. will be 3db l~tI1an;tn~~ctUalPk1~:~:7J;e~~~iiii:6pClPlqtlhii2tJloifIfwil!'konhtbllle'8cjj:;in:t)t7~5d~ . ''-

:2~·;; t~I~(:)..0562 .. ~~ -"" 0

2- .: J".,.

._:

.....

o·

ON:'
1fIIIIIIIII ........

~<,.S~

· <EXAMPLE 3.2:

'. Sketch the bode-lllotfOr thefQllpwi'llgJran5terlfl\JnOtion anadeti:mTIinep~$e...riJi:lalijin a:ndgaj~.margtn...

. " ~$; ,. ~
._--." ... '1 u+ "S2 +

..- ~
'

~'..'

.'.

-.15 ~!+_0.2~)-- .

-. ~ :

,,-.' <. ;:.~. ~---'

. -... ;- <-:,:'-:
-r..

- .'
-_'..;, .

S'(S2

+165+ t'OO);.',_

.. .'-., n'd''(1) · r: a
. .'''',

!1

.•

as'

liO"o .Y-.

=:

'52 .

2r; . '2 +:~row>~ +.'~n

"

'OnGomparing

we get,

.",
~-..

-:

'-:',,:

..

.:

, ..:..,

., ,:, -.. _ket. IJ~H~O'ny.elt '. :-" ~~om~Entra~~(.'~Q~~ni:ntP,b:QQe'_;fo~,q;r.tim~,C9ti~tanUQ.lm"'. ttu;l1iQiven . ' _-', -'~~ -'.~".'.,.-.--." '.: .~· ·.·r.--·:.·~.::· -··· .....• : _._..:..~-_: ~:.' :.-:~';... ,,'
.: •.

·.'~:' '.
;;i ":_-'"

': -.

,- ,. .,-"
· ~.-",

,-- -- - - . - - - -: ..'

G(S~~·:S.fS~-.;:t6i.~·'thor-·: -·----·--:rs~¥<-1&'~.~ J=·~~(if.a"ijfs2~~b~f6sj'<_'-:.....;.(:.:,,::';~~-:~-'~. -<:-::-'

... / . '. -..

. .~·15i1.f.'(jl 213:}-:.c-';;

'7S'(l4'lpt2s:j'

.'.---. -:"''_'

iiki'..§ -(+£"'a:!~'~ ..., . '.

.

,,-~-"':T~:"'-i"~~';-'-:

.- '. . -"-'- ' ,,-'-,':-c -

- ' : _!:DdOO t1-OP +~l'OO- 1 ,+

.
'.

_ - .:

-' :- '.~'_' ':,~",,~_,-;->-<-":

'

.Thesinu®idaltrart$fe:rfun'€tiot.tGijttl}i$,OtJt;iinedj)y:~jpla~ng-s:by.j(,l)·in::G(5)_' -.. G{j~~)'~' ,

'.'.:~•.~·:.:i-~\>, ,,'-:. :
.. _:,:.. ..
:

..
,

".: _j~ (1+ tJ.~01(j(!j~~ ~:RlI6j~)

.

-';O?Sf~+,,~.~j~!.·

Q.15J1t!::p·"~~L·_>; - .--f.. /":",'. jro, (1.~-OA;1ro~t jO~1&). +

'!""-,-:,~:, ••. ~_.
I -_' ".' :

.........

,'

_.',

:"',"_.> :.-::-: " ,.;~

_.
•

'_. ~'.~"';- -

· -~".

· M·· . If I: '.' ·:A··G·N·,·'"ij·UDE

.

P'LO'. T'" . ".

.. .- ffii:l

".

.The comer frequencies.are, . .,

.....

=·~~:=.,5,:iadl sec' 'and - ·0.2: .....

1 i>'

-,.

"

'@a:~ Q)~if ~

1.!~_iaiJIsec.-:,'- . '.'

The various-te:iTns'of GOre;) afe :fisileciintabl~ it ilnthei~ndr.easing-order(jfilfU~ij(oomerfr-equei1cies_Alsoh~t;~[~~~~ t

·UiesroPe contributed

by eaehtesm and1tu:~,.-ch~n.g8Jin~-Iepe atti:ie'cemer·fr:'E~quetiici·· .-..: .. ' ,-~' - -:

....
',;:

-.'
.
":.:"

.. . --_,. -

'

..

--

-'

:::'

.', --COm:er tre()u~Jlicy _'.

.
."

-~
-

..'

- _.

. .~., .. ._-' - ~
00.15 .
jQ) 1+jO. 2(.1)0
;_._

:--",ra dlsec ..
'\
.:

-~.'
'

_.

$i:ope...':-. '_ ,:Gharimr.~(I$!I!Q,pe :!,_,:~._.:<- .

-'db/dec': .~..
dl,tiMec

-1-'

,"

-'

,'.: -

- i·
I
I

·1 -,'

.,j~':
I
",

- ~': : .

- . '-1

,I,"

...

_:ro 'c2

=: 'roil ",,1 0--

GhOG.$e a,low tr;~~u~~Cyml.su~,~.tjhal~:r <~i:ia~d.cpoo.s_e~l,hig~~_gl[J~n£r.-,C)tl~)~tl

,tha~:,~~> (l)~~

.:

..

'''-:

'Let, (J);= 0:.5 red/sec arid ffill:;20n:td/se:6 . .: .'

. let,; A;;;: iGUm)l.in db ..
,/

-. -:. -.
.;

",' ._- :.:, '"1> ...

:-.
"

->:

,"

.- -:..

.'

'~.[ ,I A= Islope from 'mc2 to -oJh x

·..·e . •....

::

.. '

'..~

log-' .+ A(i5i ._.)

<Oc2. •.. ' •. m-C2

roh];

.....

.'

.: .'

·.
·

= -40 ·

xlog··-'+ (.-1!6~5)=-28..5.<lb' '10' . '.' . ' .. ~ .

. 2n.··

. '.'

. Let the POin~ :a.,b,6a~~fai~~e and lull re~p~Kidvely on the magnitude . plot Ina·semiloggraph sheetdlQOs·~.,aSg;II~Of 1unit= 5 dbon-y~;·ThefreQueli1de$~rema!li1ced. in decades from 0.1·to. 1:00,. '. radls&anlogamhmicsca~ (o.x~;<is,.. iXthe pofmsa',b,c andd,oflihe graph.Jofntjle pOint? by.stmightllneSand rnatk the.Slope . F on the respective I'egio.tt,. .' :"" . '. ~. . <" Nore :'l~ quadratiC.factors ffie' .: PHASE' PLOT .: ··.The pha'$e'i],li1gle ofG:Um}as afti:n~o~
.v=
..1.
":'

pol~-?a~~drn~to ~uerltU*hD:,,'m,~t.;m~

...

phf;1se varies /rom rO~.t(J.18rr~But· .

Of&'js'given
-ta.n-

by, .
• '1

ceicotetor calculates.
.

t8rr'. only

..

between 0''' to 90". Hence a

correaie» of 180 "shotlfd be'addtid ..' to'P/Jase:..after~,t
,",--

LG(j")
.

. ,

OJ

=tan

-'0 2

."(i)~

90'

. -~ .0.16<o:~· .... .. 21'or1ffi'S(On·· 1-0. .o"ko.

1.

-;
. > (j)
AI
'.

_;,

.'
'.'

.: ·tP~.LG(jro) ='tan-lo.2!~,'-·.90·

..

,'.

..

.'

..,-,(tan- . 1-IJ.Oh2 '~:180"). O.,too . :".:'

'. .'
.' -" _..'

fO~;(o,

.. .

The phase aogh:; 'of Gum) are calculatea for varlous ~ikles of,iN: BtJdliSte9.in t~ble..2. ...'.. . .
. .

..'"

'_'

',,..._

',;:-: .

. +=LGoD)
_,"]. _,',

Points in

I'

',.

';

deg - 8g,~9 ~88 .: ~ - 87 .9'.~ ..,.88

phase. plot

0.5' .
1

. 5;]·

4.5
.1
.

e
.f g.
'. ".)
::

11.. 3
"

5
I·
. i :

-;~

45 Ii '..
,I ..

'.

'92

.46.8
·90

- 91.,8 ~ -9:Z -116.6 ~-116

..
,'"

10
20

h
i
"

-~

i ..

75:~··
84.:3'

. ., 46.8+l80=133,..2 -18.4+180=16t.6· . -9r2+180=17Q .. '. 8

',-

:"'147 ..3 ~~148 .,..167.3~ -168

.
;

j .k
. . .

,_.

100
. . . .

-r73.7~':"~174

.. -~ .' . ~.. -: . ~ . " On 1!besame semUog graph sheet choose a scale of 1 un~=2tJ90il,th~y-axis"O~ 'tfle rightsid¢ Of semilog' graph sheet.~ Mar_J< ca~culated phase: angie on the graph sheet Join the points by a smooth curve. . the .~
'.'

'.

.'

..

jl

The magnitude plot 8ndlie phase plot are shown in fig 3'..2.1.

.~
.~

3.26

"

\a. +-,
.....:,

.~.
,)

%. c5 --.",

~
"~,j.

..

<"l1

"e + "'..... Gl '''1 .c:: r-,

Q
I

'-.:..

_.
~ ~ ....,.

---,_ ~ \j ~ ~ ;::: ~ ~ ~
~.

Ij

:s:
C

._ ,.,.
s::

;£

~.

'Q.

...... .... ........

"Q N

.....

~ Q ~ "'.,
""-1'

~
~.

~:

.~

<:::>

on

f1')

""

...,
I

." .....

Vl \CJ

.....
I ''<:1

0 N

V> j

1,00

"M ~l
I I

V'l ('<';J

< •.t:::I-

,....... ,;!;;i

.LetljlQcbe ttte phaseoofG(j®) at gain cross-.overfreque!iilOY:.Ol'~, From the fig ~l2.,1, ge~".~= .88 'we
. .. .
0

,.;Pll'a!S'e!~Jlgitl\l,g=t8tt· +.p:~ :.180°.~88° == 92<>.

..
"

The ph~Se pl:6tJ?fOSSes '-'180:~-o~iy:tatnfii1Jlty.- The IG(jPD~I.at i infinly'is~'oo db:. .He~lCe,;g:aii11 margin·:;s+~oo.
.
.,

EXAMPLEJ.3
. _'. --

.'

.-.. ' -,..Ke~l_~

....

GlVen,G{s) =: '. . .' - '~(sd-:2) ~ . .

.... <,':

,-

(.s+8) . .
."

..

'.~'.' _.' ' .. ~ ~: .IFind Ksolhatthi~system:Is..stabr,e wirth. _

-'. ,.

sotUT·ION

,_:

"

. . Note, ~:IO~{lB25~j02@~~p;0625..' and e

'

.L{8.1J625fj!'"i},2(lJ-)' ~ ~a2oit8di8(1s;." f

.....
.'

:-

. TABLE-t·
GO~l1el"fi"~quency "

Slope· . .d:bJd.ec·

.·Chang.e J'n slope.

'.

,',

"

tad/see
0.0625 jro 1 1.+jO~5n ,.
'1
.
,,',

. .d.t>rd:~c.

1 -.
ro, " "" -_. -

,a;"O.5

=2
'

'@C2

;;;~:;:::8.· 0...1,25.

. C~oQ'sea low frequency

.

roll

such tlilat (()~< wci;' and choosee high ~q'tJencyrob slIch,tll,st rot,>Ci)~.
(i)'h

Let;
~'.

(0 ~

==0.5· rad l sec and

~'5'bi ra~;I:sse,

.
:-"

~ :.:

"'let," f:\ =!G(j~)11n' db. . Let us calculate·Aat ,m1,ro'CI; rue2 and illh,

'..28

.'. .'

At,~ At

..
.. '
.

,"

= ..
-

@J'.

A= 20Jog~
·"·ll~···

.-

1ruJ625t ..
'.

"'1LJ""
i"

... = '20!oQ

."

··05·
...

0,062:5 .: .. = -l8~bi
.!,"_,

'. ....
.

_ ..
(iJ ::::;:

· .'

ro. c1'-.A::;:: ZO;_[o."'. .. ' .

. '",:_

..' '...~{j]06iZ51'·.· .. ' 0.0625 ., ... .

jm·~'
.";" ".':

.1 :::

.2(1' tQg.·

':2

•·=-:3.Qdb ..

. ~ . AtW;=OOc2',
.

At'"

=~..• =f~e~ ~"Io XiQ~::}

A

=[... ·~i[Opef[~trHu¢1:~ffi,(Q-xlag:@C2]+A/at
..', '. .. -. (j)-c1 ,

.:

\,G.C'"{I)

c1

.')':;':--40Xlag,8+{-30.}:~._:54db
.. .

2:

.'......

.' .

<n.

Ai1lt';"'.. J ~-6(hto9

5: ~(~4) ~-10~b .

. ' Leuh~points a,b,c.d betheiPOjn~:oorres~,¢lifig tofrequendesrnj '®cf' 1m-a and 91'h respectivelyoliiltbemagf1Jlk1de~plot . . :.'lna se!TIJJog ijf~gfu:shee:tcrboQse·a-sqajt¢:.(I\fWnj;t=':lQ'mb..o1Tl y",:axis.T.beffe\qtJaiToies;anHEa~ked·indecades.--from· Qo:1 ,-,·too ~.or:il~og~lithmic.ScaJe-f.itK~ F~e:ptiil1ts,a;: ~';'C; cmr:J ol1l·the-·,gt:aJ)h;J~ojr.l'llepl)ints by·stJraigbt li~al\dm8dc.the d .

to .

.·~'9paofltJ'iEHrespecti"e:nagiom. ,.:PHASEPlor'·' .: ,

....

,:'

.:.,

'.

"

"

.',"

.,'

".

' ..

.,

..

· ..Tfue ·phase.angle ofG(irola,aafu_'_llciieJ~}ei (J)·isg1ven by; ... _. . .

. . ...'
:.

· "'.;; ·v

-Q·2·.... ,

'

1.,,1JI=..

fi>.

x _.,_: '"_.9~'; _''';.''''.n··..;·l,o·: ~ _ c:II .fI!.Ct ....

.'1t ,
... ..

18()"'

".

,~·ta,'n""10·· 1''''>;1;:.,·,·· , ...•.. ..::;~

.

'.

·111e phaSe .
"

angle:ofGij(O}
.

'-

are'¢aiqJflalerl:.fot va)10lJs'valtle5,afro -af:dlisted.imtable-2~, .... . --.

"','.

: ...; A, U

.2 ..... o.n0 r-Jt·.). . l1,~u: ~_,-'

Ul \

":.'.

. ... :

.ta·_-,1:.I'\\-I:::' ~ I-I ..,~.y.:

<t;y'

.,,;;

tan";· ."·O~t~.2:5.'~ 81'. ..

···:t;adlsec·',· '. ·.de,g,··.

..',' ":'.:, ~~.

' ,9 .. :864' 2 2:,862
. 14' " '2.&
. . '45;/'
.

'aeg;'

..

.r .'

+=

LGfjro-.). . d-eg:
".
I,

Point: in'

phase:.
e

plot .

. (lot .
, 0.1.

. .,0.1145 .-1.t45
.-5.7 '
..

. Q;07fB"
Q.71'6

.... 9£1;4 ~_-"gO' -94.7~.:"';94

t
I~· .

O,~
·1 ,2 '. 3
· ,4'

3:6
l~l2.
.'14' .
...

·~~t.4 .~" ,;;..2:2:.9, .

~34,37'
...,.45.84 .. . '

", ··qQ'-3Il·
.' '63.4;3'

. . "26.57
.

2(t56·.
'

~1!1fg~i 172' . '" . . .:~201'~2_;F2D2 .

.-. -' "-

~'l·t3~.3 ~ --1:1·4 .-1t34..4·~:-t34. ~

.

'I}

'..

.11
i

'. , 1

..r .~25:8: ~·~226··

k'

'On ~e:saroe seQ-1!I9:a' graph"~eetdttoO~~;scale'dil"liInit="ZWQn me;y..8xisoirttbeLfightSldeonhesemflog,.grn!ph·sheel , ·M~rk thecalcidated phase'8'ngIe on:t1te:,gtalph"she"et: J,oialle :poiimsbystrJDOfh CUfV!e:.... The- magniWde ~. .' ~.
..

and phase' plot.are'shgW;n irrfig.S ... 1. 3...

.'
.'

'-

. CAi.CULATiON·OF K
Plilasem'a:rgin,'i =t80o,:t"'QC'.w.
.:

'g~:j~1lme-pbase:of (i@ ),atm=.m~~ G

-,-". ",', :,.C·· .. _ .'.,' ~ . .•

When'y =-45'"
_ ,:.

'.

"

.:

0"

I.~,=·l =:45:cQ:~'18W-~''';''~'~'_. ~180~

.; " ..... _ : "

. With K~t, the dbg~in~.~'~1:35'1s:""'24;dti Thtisgain stJotllclballD!3aezero:to:rra:vewrflM'0f4S": t1IencEHoevery.point ·ofmagIlitude plota·db.g.ainf:Qf24 dljrs!trO~ltl1beadel:~d.Tih.etco.l1ected:magniudeplot.t$alltaitLl'ed'~}L'shiftfFl~lthe'ptotwithi K =·1, ·'by 24 db;upWar<is:.The,magniWde"irorrediO.Ris:inftepenl'{entOffrequ:ency. Hen 00 'tbB magnitude:of24db i:s.'OOr:rttribE!tedby tltie: terUltK 11lle value of Ki~, ~ctlla-tedby.~.aijng2010~to24db. . '.' ..' .
· . .• _ , .... " " .' ... '. -.. '. . . .' . .. .. " ... _... _,' .. '. t :_," .. _. . .... _,'

:.·,20:!ogK:::24

'.; ..K=.'t(}Z'II2lJ'i;·

K=15.B4

With> K='l, the galnnlargin~-{~32):= 32 db ..BUlthereq,uiredgain:maLYin is2db~. 'HE1;nce.to every~p,orntQtfm~gnitudfr plot a dbgaift of 30 db SholJld bB·added~ Thi~additiol1l.of30 d:n-:shils.the:plo.tupWcim The-magRittJdEH~arrecti:on isiir<ld~pelildent offi~qu.e.IllCY. Menc.e1Jhe ma:glii~uaeof3Qdb~s oontdbtl.ted by- the term K. ~TheyaihleIQU<:i6calcldate.d.by eq'Uatin{i.20logK

to30:.db.

.~

.',

1'.:29

.-~

.~

,~. -~

'~

..

.'.
II
I I I

<;:;

00.0

"""" ....... NN .... MM ! I. I 1I1

·ON

0 J

III,('::, .IJ)

0
\Q

O'N r-. l'-

000
t'-oOO

I!

"

.!

0.0-

o·

......
I

,',20109 K=30
.
-

. K=: 1o-:mo.
"-

The mag.fl'iit~depbtwitttK7_:t$.i~::ail]!:l31~ are·slhGWfrinfig;},.$; . -. . _. .-'-~ ... .. . . .

~~'"

.-.-~"'-

'::

. -.

t, .
.

t ' =.

'_'.",

.ExAMPLE

3.,4

_-

,-

.
_"

~..
-...
.::,

._

",

~ ~ _",

",,'

:, ._ ,._ '..i; . ~:':

."~.

..
".'

'.'

"

..

... :"

.
'.~'

.The~~n~soidattranSfe~furittion~OfG~) i~Jlbtaiineaby~pladnit~'byjd!tJin

':,
.."',",
-.

'?<i">l: j~!1'«i¢~t~1~~~~}. -:_

'. ..:_..--.:._:::

.-----

t~,-_;.:
...

the

give'ntm~n~r.'EUnctiorn,:;· .., , :
.
.

-.. .:'-.::', := ....' ';,':_"', - ,~ ...

'. _.' .~.'
-:

-.. ',." :....:". -~- _' - . ..

::.:'.~
,:..: .:;:.=:- ',_ -

_',~AGNITUDtfPLot,
"
,

i':

... '-:"

_.

'_"

-.

'.

The·Comerfi'eQu~·nd~sa~,·.

"1 '.' ., ,.'. ~ ., ;, .-, l' (i)c1""~' '~' ..::= • .2.Sract/sec· 'and(i)~:=--' . _',= 10 raft! see', '0.4, . .: ,., 0_1 .. ~, .
,
~:',',<>
..'

.C '.

, ".
..: " \,

. ~-

The V~1iOUS'~rinsofG(jml' a!ie;iist~intabJ~tirii ite inoreaslrig or~efo~ttelrcOm~rfrequencfes~A.fso:tlie til'bleShovts: .

. the.SIOiJe~Xintrib~ted.byeach·:re~and-the~nge.jfrtsIQpeatthe·Come:rfireque.nCY,;··'

~AsLE-1"
.j

'._ .,., .".:.' .

. TenD'
1,0

.... .~~{.
:,'" <_.
-

.,

. , .",

.'

.
.r: .
.

~:'> .:'.,"""
• • • • • •' •

"',<:.";~/-::,- ":, .
-.'-: -."_

'-·.~:;.,:r-:~~~<r1':,;"~t{··_. ~ .. • .' ••.••• ...... _ .. __ c . ~_ .: "., - • .-..::.•• -.__ ~" ,- '.: ',--:

, .. ' .:'

.. ".

."

. ". ,

.. .... ,.;

:.>

'.

~ro ..
1

., '."'" 20" •••.,j,,' ~

-: .!

"

~ '.

-.'

,,. ..:. .!,.

, .. ',
.......

I.:'.

,.

. ::",: ..... ' .... <,;

1+ jOAm

~'20

~.. .

.1· ...

", r: . :..J

b..._..;._,_~.;_..:.__,....,L,_~~...,._;...,.:,:...;...,;.~,_:...-;;;~~...;..;,..~.;.....1.._~~~+!h~~~__,_----'~;-:-:-'-~·;

.' ',

Choosea'l~w~equ!ertCy'mt$"iicWtJrralmi·

~ ID.~~,a:ncfchoose·.ahJ$l1J·rreq~~n~:,~~'$l1lCb~lt@'h_~.~:ti2.~: .. : ~~ " . ~::' ' .'.

. let, (J)r>'OJ radis.e¢~"an:d',~~~';50~r8fd/~~c~~;; . .',

,,',

',~ ,<"
'. .'

.: .~~." ...'.:.,,'- , ,
,.
.
',,).

. Let, A == IG(j{Q)lin db, . Let us c;aIICu[at'~.A ato)! ,('~C'~; :(!f)~~n?~its:, ,.

.. -

..

.:

At <> =..:. A = 20'109~~

~~tO

~:4Gdb- •.' :••..

<-' .•......... >CC.,':i' '..:-,

"
, ,'.,

:~"

.'

",

....

'.

., .,
,,

': ,'.', .. -, .. ,::.:r-,.,'._: .... -. ,..~.~~.:.;',', :'.'.' .,'. ,.::,\'"'~'_"'>':"

" IIJw,1 , '"..;
,'.' ....

.",-' :' ..:-',~-':"'~.'

, ··_,:'~···i·:·.::·· '

A100l;IDc1iA.=?,cJtog+J:=,2010S·25'·",,12db

- ,~::'

.'
·.(O ..

,
.

.:".~'.: '

.At!)). =~c2' A.=:[.. :I~~e·rrO~·~~1~·C):~'·Xl~9 +A("at ., .. )'~:·40X:lil92·1:05:~·~ ~ (fJC2:]'. 1:2.:f..1·~db. ' ' .
.', '. . ...... ... ". ro,e1" .'
G(l~' .. , : ,.', . ,.':' ......

'.A~@ :: WI..."A'=:;[$JOpefrO~'~a'tO"roh x log

. il .. ·. ....

'~(;2]

(D,~j Ai9t' "+ .,,,,

. =1,"

')'.• \\Ic2.' .:

:;~~60··xiog5?~,~.{'12J::=:' ~54~db .'.

':

10 . .

.' .

"

_.

_~.:

,.,-

,'0-'

,~,,:'

:~-,
,!;:l, "
'~'

,'"'"
~"

,._.

'~:

~:~"

'

..

"

.:

Li,

I I"

,0

..,f

'c'I',O
~......-4

'".. 0
,~~

-0,

.~ <.~::~

I!

,~'
I ,I

..r
o{"),

"0'

'1'

,0

'. . LeUhe points a" P. C dbe iheppjlFlt$ tQ«aspQflQtn.g~fr~uen.Qie.$-qll' 9?~1" (l)c2andW"b r~ly on ltI~1fl9~~.de ,plot ·tfl.a.semIlog·graph ~~eet -cbp()$.e pi$cale';Qf 1lJrliit;: 1!'p ony..,axi-s. The ~u~n~ db PiremJirted ~n,(ilecapes1mm 0.1 to .' ·100(adI.se~Qo 100~r:ithrni~~~r~j4·X""~ f~tbep~$is'aJ,·b; c.aniJd on·ttw@:i.pJi. JOIDJtl$.Ppints QY'~ str~jgbt!jn(iji a;ntJ.m.an< .' .:t~e $Ippe in ttferes~vB:regkill.· .> ,..... , . • .... '.' . . . .. '~'.'., ". '.' ..' . . ~': ' . JPHAS.E ·IPLPT .
....

~oo.

'...

. Tri~~pha~jl~ng·~~GG«O}a$,af~cii.On9f.i'P·iSQiv~nby ..

.~;:::.,..90:0"'"tall"';l ~.4°o.;·1B~-1·.O>~;@··
Ute phase' a·ngl¢·of"Gij(l)¥aJ¢~'I~~~elf()ryatiou$ ..

vat\:la§io.f iJ) ·@lld Ii.o·in1ijl;!if;.2. .

1 '

..
...

'm 0..1 '1

. !:

:tan-1. . ~O~4 m :: . . ~. "::~: ... ,'.

.~.." --,

~-1

;,.Il;"':A ..~p

..•

"cJ~tJ ....
__

(Lt
-.....

._--- .',0)

_...

. ... .

_. _. _

... ~ .~~.Qll
jj'~j . .

.'. ".
.
I .

:~l1~·l;n
~~~,$e: ~~(j~
..

_ ..__ - .....

...... -

. ~~~9.··

e.. 57.
••

.,...

••

.-.

..

••

'1

,~92.$6$:I: e-'9~.

..2.5
4'

'10'

2'1.00 .45.;0 ·$7.:99 "75.;96

'5;.]'1

I'.

. =11·1;$

. 14.(1'
~.21.S

'":"l4~;'.~,;,.. 150

*,.,..113"

e
.f
.jl.

45.0 .
.....

. ~169.7$Ri~17tl . ., .... 2Hl.·96·;:.."i210·

tr
...j

'20
..
'.

-a2,87

.: .:', ·Qn·$&;Samesemilog ·g,r;apb~ttBet~ . a~~le .o.f1ufilfto:;:: 2O~-On1tt~.~o~; tbefl,!Jht siae-Pt ~e:mIlQg·g.raph ~A~t. . . ·;M.ark1tte·,¢fiICIJlatf*1 ~nase;aIlgle;o~1n~'Ii1!;Pa:~b~.J9in~.p()imS·.bYa .Sf':loo~c~Ne.... ..... ' ." . ,
..

- ._ .. -.,... -

~A3

..,..23~t3. ~236

-'.':

",

'.'

-'

-'

"

. ~ the magniiUde~n9pha~~pt()$al1(t$hqwll'iihfig:·;3.4,.1. .
.

.1=i-Bmthegraph.the:gaiH .

afl:d·lPmase<:r~:Qv.e;r ,ft.0quenC~~$rEJ. ot.in~!Q,be?j~$'$1::C. '. ~ '. . ..

,...
.' .'"

RESULT" '.'Gain £fflss~o!lerfreque:ll'ley~ 5 mdfs.ec~·

• :~~~~~~.~

PtJa~e::er~s..air~frequ~fY.. rn.~~at$e:c: ~5.._~,~.:,~_~. ..~.~.~ ..~.~ ~ .. ..~~ __ .~.~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~=-~~.~

."

... ~-.~ .. +-.,.~.~~

..~ ~ . .... ..~.-

.':'
•

.....

.,

- ••••

'-'.

>'

.••.••'~~~~"ilftiI:<jfl,jo~~~~~~r~, · ...
s (l+ 3s;}(1+4s)""

':$OLUT10N . .. .
The 'Sintl~f>.ida~tran$ferfunction
.'

'.

'.'

'..

of"~G<iJ) . is:9l;>>!3ined by (e;pI:adn91 s.~y:j$jJlI:Ih.~'~iv~n'lf~~~rf!,J~d1~qn~:.' . .' ~ .. '. . . .. . . .. '. .

-'" :.... ., .' . -' .
:'
.'

. -"

::- ..

":
'. ".

'-'

. -. :'/:

";

':MAGNrru:1):E- 'PLfr'J . . ... .. . '.

, ,
'

.....

,>,,'0.333 rad I_sec. . . . '.: . '. ... .. ·.i-~· ,. ...;3. . . .' .. .The·vanol,Jstei'fTl$;·ofG(j.m).are lj~e(f:iffta"l~l in 1be'il1crea~ngl<)[tler9f·f:IE;~irfrJ;!QUe~~. Also th~table·$nows1he·sI~ ·;g:,.I1I,trtblftedbyeacnte:rm~nddla;~,e. f#S~p·e-;alth~:cof1rierfrequeAay. . .. .,
(!)c_2.:; --:
'. .

.. .... ." '"1 '., .. ' TheCD~rfreQ'uarteies.are. U)i:::I~:":<=:D2,5'rad /sec,

1;

.'

'.

....

'

.'

..

__

.... ~,:: -.%-,-, ..~~~_... ..~:_.;,'¢=;'i,:~l~~i>.!

I • "

~-.

. ' -, ".

..

",....

....

.vr-."

- .. -c,

...~~~O~) ~_,:,-lj-.:y
.••• _" -" ,-', -. "---':'"

TAHLE~l'· ...".

. , 'I.', ·~:Teri'n
,20 .
jm.

,. Co~li'ier:·treqj~;en~cY'
rad/sec

.. db/dec

Sl:ope

'Clidng~'in·slope
"i

'dbidlec·

1:·..

,1+j~,·
1

ro, ,cl

",,·-= ..;5

'4

,1, . 02
...

.~hoose:a\fiequeIilCYO)~6UdhIfat.a,'II·< {Oc:lan~ ~hoosea Let.•:CJ1 =. O.15 rad/s.eci~nd

, 'Let,
:(l}h==

hiigh :fr~quenCyIDh ~~ChiI:fiJat'cQh > m~,

1Itadfsec~·

A -=IGOm):! ilril db.. : ..'_

.' ' "

At co ~ m.~, A'" [S!~P~

. ..,'

i~om~

ta

(j) {2 ~

io9 ru(Q]
Well·

t' A(1lt ~ .. C)·el)

.'" .

:.

= 40*...,
.
At ro

·0.33·,,··.. .... l:Og_ _._ +3a ~',33'db . ... .. 0.2:5·

{Oh x
. {I},rQ ~, .

,.

ill,Ii':

A= [Slope 'from {nato

log~I'I.., ]". :- A{at'iil "''''a) .

= -60
.' ,Let tn,~:pOi~tsa·,.b, cand

x:log ,-.. _ + 33 ..-

.. . ' . 1

O.~J.

=4

db

..

,.

J'

.:

(U~e tne points corre~pondi~gl frequencieso)~, OOt1'OO~ and ronrespecWe:ly~tii.h~ m~~~imi~~ to t . . pl:ot..1~::asemiloglJmph sheet dho;q5~a·s~~~1af 1.uni.t.=10:db oiil y-axjs. Ilw~qlJe:n,ci'liiSare·ma~t;!t;lJ.t1 o decades from 0.011 to 10 rad/sec.oF1llogalTithm:ic scaies 'on }i:.,aocis,.· Ff>rtlle ll(j,in;1sa,b, c and don the gra~hshe~tjoi'b e points by':a straight fine and m malikthe slope in the respeclive region. . .' . ... ., .

. PHASE pLOT
The phase angle I:>f GU0')' ,~:::~~O,(l.... 1 3m - tan"l 400 tan:"

~.

The phase .a,nig'leof:OOeo}~re

.

,.

;cah:~Jlated fCir·,vario.us v~lu'es6f

ro::fi~d:listed·im:tabJ.e-2 ..
..

~ ..

Points hill
~~--~--+---~----~~'~r-------------~'_~~----~~---+--~'~'--~'~~--~ ~145.18~-146· 0.15 30,96 . 24k22 e
0.2 . 3O~96 38.66· ..ph.flse .:ptqt

~t59.61~-t60 .

.r
I

0.25
·0.. 3 3

.36.86 44.7 60.14

71.56,·

~,O
52.8·

,.',

-_171-.85;::717~ .' -1' 87. 5;:.: -1'88 -218,32~-218

-237.. 6~·-238. 5
. .

:-

0.6
1

·67.38
75.96,

3.34.

0\
QC}

f"'<,j)

~---£==='==
--~~~~~~~

....,
.~

.~ ~

,.
.lH- .,-.

,'

......

.\,0

'O.--.:r:O

......

(-<.5

3'{35
.K.

_' _.__'

'

." -.;-- ...... CA .... ', .(

__

Z::::;;:OZw.;(

:sci ..

..

"'.
_ . _c:-.... ..
... ~ H

,_. _.-__.' .. __ .. ~ ..._. ..

!_~~:t:'-.:.
_ .. ~.. :-' ;.~-..
.1!1!..- .,'1. .

Onrthe same ~emilog' ,graiph she,et choose ~ scale of 1 unit = :20" oll1~the:y~ on the nght side ofsemiloggi'ap!h~he_et. .- :' Ma rk the calQtH~ted phase'·eJ]gl.e on ·~hegraph sheet ,Jo,i~,-ti1eoints by:a:$!11J,mth cU'l've::rh~ m~gnitude qnd: pihase pJot$~re· '. p ~llrpv~;nil1l fii9-~<~,.l.·JF,l'pm:tb~::gpi!ph !~-~iri'~ U cfO~qVer-fi:E!I:l;tlE!n~is~:un~H6·b¥ ~'ri·:i:1::-1
.
" ',_ '_''• ,_, _ • ',' _ ••• __ .: .......

_. _. _

.
.. ,., •• _ •• 'V •__ :,_ ... ._, _ ••• , •••• _,_" _ ••• .. ......

ra(iJ'see,

.'. .',

....-

,.-s

.'~EXA:MPLE 3.6' -.'

.,.

. "D1~ sjnuspidal

tran$ferwnClioo :GGw!J is;'ObtaiileO'tJY

',_ ,. '0 (1 + j2m) . ,·,-.GU(l))·=··(·,'~~··;Ai:' .' "0·'-"'5"\.' )":{1'

rep~!aCing's

iN jc6 in 0(5).' .
._

'.' -,- __I.·;.t

". ':"

~"i!rup\

+ J;", -@I

MA(;lNJlWO~p(6~T
_ ••• _ _. •• : .... ''-'''~iC __ ;"'

" . .. _-:,.' _ ···f _ '.' " .' .' '1" -. -." ';-.: -' " The .~mEtffFe~{Je!lileie$i3It-e~:IIi \::1"';;4 ~·Q25 fad I sec, .'®c12:-"",~:,:;d15i'ad7sec. 00 - ..' ~·4LradLsec_-· .. - .' ."'; •. - . - . ..' _...'. ..,. _ :? _. :, ...... - -- " c3;;;--'.0-2S···.· ." .-. -'.
•• :_' ~

.: "".

'-'1'

- Che~r;!a Jovd$q~,einCy Wi '~l;Ieh:~~+tW{<ru~l ~Tild-~hClQiSi~ ahi.ghflieqtL~nCy tQh~l1!ch tha:~ h? W. .OO~., et ~I ~ ~fl~tQih=1il PI$~c. ~ -;

'"

0.1 fadJsec

.'-'LetA~jQt)jQ)J.1indtrandJeti.L'S,cale~}aieA~f_([lil!" ~'~l;m~: : @_ll3a,nO'IP.il:

T.q.;p.LP~1 . '~:D1['.E' '_ . 5-:
._1
.

<

-.'

...

.... :rie;dl's:e~:
-

'-SlbPle' :~-- -,'.- ;p~,art,ge:.ill:~HQPe- ,

. I"

'.
,",

.-

..

,"

dbld-ec'

. '.'

','. Q,.t!,/'ljen '1:1

••

•••

":..

.._

_. ......

".

• .......

_,

- .....

-.__.

_oL'

••

r.--· . -- ,'_'

At(i)=w" . At

A-:=tGiH6)1.""2:0lo~ 5 ='*1:4 db .

VJ-=;@C1!"A

= IlG~w}.1= 20rfo:g5~. +14 db =

-. '. .... -. -._ .

,_.At ffl :~$~"~: '= [I: S"IQPierrem~cl'to ro ~ x log::c2. ..: _.: .'c1

"J~-~~;:,.")
_ -".,."

--~ ~20~~~2"~
-' .

'+ 1:4~+~db . - :
", ..... : . . .

- ._.

--.-~,",""~'A"[~frQl11Oj~iO -

;.,,~rOg::E~~~<>l=6xrOn:il~5,. &7 ~b __.

mQJ '.
=-20_109

Atro.:::;::QJ'i1~ -A~-[slo-p.eff~m~~t(}rohxllvg(9h"1+Arat~~~)

140' +8o:;O'ob-'

'.'

. . LelThe: pQ;ints e. b, c, (;I a nd ~'b'?tlie PQi;!ltS·OOf(e.POl1ldil1g:tO-flfeq_J,lenC:ies~ID~ •.~\:~~)(B Wej and {J)h respe.ctiiVe:IY·Pfl ~e 0:2;" ffi;;ilQl1iitudE:!ipl otln a·sernilbggraplh.$heet choose'a scale of 1unit = 5db on y·,axj~··The fi'!3quenoles.are rnarked in_d~d.es~trom . 0:.1:to tOQir!;lpjset.on l.og:a'lithmicl'lcare§ onx-axis, 'Fixthe points·a.b, c, d and e on ~hegmpb.Joilil the points by a s1raigtJtlfne··'. . and.matk thes!ope in the respedive region. . .. .. .'"
1

:!

s·

• !t •.

·M

~.

~ .~ ~.
.~

.~
...
'

~.
'<rl

c,·
,.D '0'

'?

10,

_.
I:

.< .S

<n

..
".
",

-. -.

.~PHASE PLOT'

.'The phase ~ngle owGgro-), t

.-'

._"

tan:'l2{!)} -: tan-1(4ru) _ $11-i(I~2.5ro)

"

.-

Ihe phase angie ofGU(!)' ),8.l'e GS!!oulated'for varIOUS'vaiues of ID anc!"Jis"ted:~~ :tJhetttbiE;l-2'"

l'ABLE-2
.
. (I)

"

.;.- .

taf1-:-~·2m .. ··.. .. deg :

.'
.

t:an::-1 4~(!); ' .. qeg· " 21.S'

45,.0
',1

tan-1

11i,.3 0.25 0.5.

i

.'

. de~r:'. .
·1 ..43,
3.:5

02$cl.

-- '11 ..'

itI:f 'LG(jlCil) "

','
,_

"i

..

','
.-"
.

J " pGiritS.·.i:.i11 .' .. l

,I"

phase plot.

_:11.9:l~:~ . . 12

'f "9.
....: . 'j h

'45,0 .~
. 75~9-6;~... '82.81·

26,56;

.. ~21.:94~..;.22 :
. . ._:_25.53~;:_26

'63,43

7.. 1

2
4

.~" .;8~i:87
'. ·86.42 88:.56 '89".71 scale

2.6.56
45..0 68.1'9 8SA2

. '.
. ':. -.

, . ~33:47 #:_3:3..
-'

'4·"8 "5·'5· ~ ----4'9·'

__ '._ '.. Tr-r"' .... _.",'

iO
·'50 On
'. .j I'.

87.113 .. '
·89;42

..

',-_

'';::6~~62~-70

'k '
.I

. _:S5.7f;"'-86

Mart:the calcurated phase angile on the·m8iph sbieet, Joill thepoiints by :ai smoO~~GUive.The. magf1l~hide andphase plots are
.shown ln fig 3,.6~l,·

th,~' ~amese.~lldgg~ap~~treet:c·h6osea
"

bi ~anii:::10o:0nY~iSb~iijlerig:h\tside aUlle sernilog. :glirph $heet~

3.7 .POLAR PLOT

..

..

. . The·.·polarp.Fbtofa'sinnsoidaltramsfe1i fu~ction GUj(o)·isa:pl.ot of the m-agrHtude'ofG(JOJ)vetsus the' phase 'angle.of G(jill) oripom~:coor(linate~ as .is-varied from zero 1Q :iUfinity. Thus: the polar pIbt isthe locus of vectors IG(j"m)1 LG(jm)" as .. 0'is varied from zero to in'finitJ. :ThtqJOlair plot is ,also called Nyquist ,. 0 .plot.
'~I

The polar plot is usually plotted on a polar graph sheet. .The ' '-.270 polar graphsheet has concentric circles and radial-lines. The 'circles " tepresentthemagIDtu~and'~he ra<fia,;llines represent the pha@ angles, ~. . ~. Each point on the polargt'flp,.h hasa.magnitede and 'phase: angle. ·The.:' .: ' .magnitude-ofa point isgiven by the value of$e circle passin.gtlrrolj,gh _18 O,:-::;:PI-'-'.----:--f'<-----"--_..__:"'"'---'-7=--"-. thatpoint andthephaseengleis givenbythe radial.line paSs.tng~furo~~ ~80ij".. . . that point In polar graph sheet a.pesitivephase angle:is'mtasured:in ..... ' .. : antlclockwise from the reference axis (0(;) ;airlOa neg¥itive·angle:'·]s':.·
0

..'.

..

+90n

measuredclockwisefromthe reference axis~{OC).

..

..
.

". In order toplot the polar plot magnitude and phaSe of G(jm} are-computed forvarious values ofro andtabulated. Usually t!bechQke~ . 'Fig 3,20.: Polar graph . . .of frequencies are 'corner freqlI,¢nCies; .and .frequencies. atqlllid cOffl:er ~eque:rldes~ Choose propes.scalc .' .for themagnitnde cireles. Fix ali.. pointson. polar grapifsheet and jOiin' thepoints 'by smoothcurve, . Write the :frequency,oortespondIflg"'100 'each 'point 'o(the;ploL.:~ : ... " . ., .. .

i_gO~

,+270.
I'" "

the

.Alternatively; ifG(j(l)~an .be expressed in 'rectangular coordinatesas .. . . .GGm) ",; GRUm) +jOlj~). .'.
where, Gijm)
=

Real part of GOro-) ;

. -OIUoo) = Imaginary

part of GijOlS.

then the polar plot can be plotted ill ordinarygraph sheet 'between GR(jm)and Gliffi) by varyingorfrom o to eo.In .order to plot the .polar ploton ordmary gmph sheet, themagnitude andphaseofGsje) are . computed for various values of ffi. Then convert the polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates 'using,' P ~'R conversion (polar to rectangular conversion) in the calculator. Sk~tch the polar plot using rectangular .: coordinates ..

For minimum phase transfer function with only poles" type-mmrber of the.system determines .the · quadrant at-which the polar plot starts and the order of the- system determinesthe quadrant at which the
·polar plot ends. The minimum phase systems are _ systems with all poles and zeros ..on left halfof s~ . ·plane.The strut and end polar plot of all poleminimum phase system are shown ~n fig 3.21·'& 3.22 . respectively. Sometypical sketches of polar plot are' shown -in table-S, 1. .

of

The~'chan,g:ehl shape of polar plotcan be predicted due to addition ofapole or zero.,-

-,

l..Wben
2.

a pole- is' added to a system.the polar plot end .point will shift by -90°. When a zero is- ad~d to a system the polar plot endpoint wm shift by +900•
Start of type.:3,1 . _.
.

system

t.
_......... Start of type...Q

Endof$rrI order syste,m

.E:nd of' 4th

order:system

'. StaI'1t oftype-2-'

. system'

system

,End of 2n<l

End.of.15t

oroer system - .
Start of -type-1t . .system

... oJder sYste,m.

. Fig

3.11.~Start of'poiar

Plot.of all pole minimum phase system. . . . .

Fig 3:.21 : Start of polar plot of all pole -min~mU'mphase system. .

..:l~LE:-3.1 : Typical Sketcbes of Po~ Pl~t ' . T,me.: O,·Ord.,er :1 ..

·:

:. l' . - . O(s)::: -. _'_' .'.

. l+sT
..' . 1. -1.

_i

G(jm): '. .=.. ",-, ,:;:;. : .. 'l+jroT . _j]+ro'it2 .ttan,,:"lwT . JI-Hn2T2. As m 40.,
G{jm) ~

','.

L-tan

. .', . .

-1

·,roT
. ,
.

_-- :0°'

lLO" .

-'90°

""..... . '.. ~ kro incr,easing .

., . o.
..
"

,':~)~

.. As ro 400>"

G(jO) .-)- OL,~ 90°_.

Type : 1,.. Order:

G(s}=.

. - 's<:t +sT).'

.1

~1800 .:
0>

.As w .~ 0,

GU(O)~··a)L
•

- 9ft

.... .~t" .6 '(f.j

'

As

00, ~

.a),

G(jre) -+ OL -ISO"

As co ~ oo~ .
.....

GUm) -+ OL-180°

-".'

... ,

----~~------~------~------~~--------------~ _
'~~"-"-

---- -

..

....

__ ,-

-<0""

- -_._

._.

--

'G),
_,-

, II .

'GUID) _.' ..: -- ~".J~.'-. - -.. -.: . - -. . ": -: (I-'iijro1D·",(1+ JroT2}(l+ jtoT3) .. . . -. ". 1 .. 1 ." .
:-

"-"+~,=,,",,-'_'__----~~~.{)O'

.'

..;.Jl-~·@iii~·~:1~Tr--.Jl·:~if1~~~;~·t2·· Jl~M;iii~;~·i~r3'·. 6l'~" . . '. '.

=. -

.,.

'.~.

..' . '.

',. __ ../.\~ ..•. ". . ....- ,·e0.'f;\ .~t· ~90o

. "(1+~2tlHl~'ro.~{Ht-i"(o~)
~o_

.-~.. - .:~

_:-

.~

0_._" L( .... tan

~1

roT1 - tatI.

.... · 1

. '. . . .
_ '",
c

O"H1; --" tan

'~'l'--

o)T~J'

As. m 40"

'O(jt») ~ lZ::O~~'.

. A~sro -406, ... ; <.?:{J~

'tfpa .. ~'"'

t:?_ §z ~~?~~.... ...."._".'.." " _... __.. ..... .

, .' ....

'__ .. il

.•: .'~, .,n\,..d··'··. b .. .•.j'' ......dT.I:."e!F ...• 3::·.'

.'

~'

... _

.
.G{jm)=.

d~')2.(1+j~tl)(1~ JroT1)':'m~j--lg6~Ji+~2Tfitan~lroTl i'+~2"T?'L.~~~~T2· ~

,. ro2~1
.

+ (fj21f)(1 + (j)11f). .
.

..

L( -180 - tail· (t)T~ tan .....

...

--1.

-1 .

. ~'.

',,'

..'

wT2)-

As· ('j)
:As m

(),

d.(j(Q) ~
GUm)
- • ."II "

ooL':___ 180"

~OO?
.. "'.:.:.-

4 OL~· 360"
,.
i

type. £_2,...Ordet ..!,!;··

.

.. , '···C,(0'Pj.
():1' \~ _,__..

~ s\{\~:· 1 _:_'2.'· .:7ft.. ..

.
__ .,-,.__

'I

I'.

.... ..,.' :O-(Jroi (I f jmTd·(l+ jroT2-) (1 +jroT3f

'GUm)-"-' .'-

;'

... :. , .: I .' .,' ". _ .. ... 1

·@=O·:·

.'

. ::~18d:

=-";""---"'~'----';-""""""'----'II::'::lo~.Qo

..

'.~ ~;-~~1~,cf~1+·ID2~;L~~'ID(f}lr'.1~·~,2T?~·tlm~1~T~~~.~l~~". J~~~fTj '

_ '. 0)2,.

'(1_+C01'f)(1+ro ti)(1 +olrs).

2

. .:

1· . ,'. '.

.'..__L(~

18tr' ~ tan .... \oT

". .

,...

tair-l~T1""tan-10{[:3) '.

As

(J)

-+ 0,- .
'~OCJ,

G(j~ )-4' 0:),.(---, 180~ G(jro) ~ OL - 450" =OL - 90"

As Co.

I. . G(5)=-S

. : ..... . 1.

1 G{JW) = ~ = .. '.,,= . . .' Jco o)L90

..

~L·- 90
ill

1."

:As.~ .40, '. G(~}~· As

ffi

9'.JL - 90°
OL. -:-,90
0

.' S
(jJ'?'O

--+ 00;

G{jro) ~

_90°'

~.... : l+sT':'. G(s)~~· - . .-' . sT:.

".. 'G.-.'( ==.. 1 + jro.T ~+ - .. j,'.""-),,' '1 I -11...... jsr . jOJT ".
v• ,.. •

=.- ...

roTL90"
0c

1.

90'" +,1 =-I L -',1+ I . roT

.As

IJ) . ~ 0)

0,'
.

G(jro} --+. ooL - 90 + 1 . GOm), ~ DL - 90'" + 1 ;;'27fl .:

·1 .

. ~.As

.---?, 00,

. G(s) :; s

GOO) » = jO) = m.L9{J" .:

.'

:OO!

·c'
m·
('Il

0)

. .....~ co ~ '0, ' As As 00.---+

00" .

G(jru) ~ OLge~ G(joo) ~

",0.". . :.....
!

'0

oo.L9,O"

-1800 . m=O .

80"0.

-900

.G(s)_:: l+sT .

:~.O(joo) = 1+ jciJT = 1 +,mT L90"

As
OJ

-40,

G(5oo) ~ 1+0L90~-.

AsO) --)-co;·

GOoo).~

1 +cO;L90"

ro:;;; 0 . -1

:QETERMUIAIION Of GAI'N M,ARGIIN AND PHASE MA,RGIN FROM, POLAR PLOT .

_-. • . .. '.' .r _ . ._ .

.The gainmargiD isdefined.as the inverse of the magnitude ofG(jro) at phase crossover frequency. :The pbase"cros:sover freq'.eRcy is. the frequency at whichthephase ~ofG(jm)is 180°. Let the polar plot'~ut the 1800 axis at pointB and the.~agnitude ,circl'H>assingt'hrough the pointB be 0B' Now -the O-aiI1margi~, Kg = ifGB,. If the point B lies within unity circle, 'then th~ Gain margin. is positive otherwise negative. (If the polar plot is drawninordinary graph sheet using rectangular coordinates .fuQl. the.point B .is the cutting point of GOm) locus with negative real axis and 'Kg""" 111GB!where Os is tbe . magnitudecorresponding to point .B):. . '.. ... .' .. .
'Gum) artgain crossover frequency.The.gaililcrossover:frequency

.. ' the plta~e margin

isdefined as, p.hasemargi~

.

T " 180'°·+ +where'$·

,

is the phase angle of .

ofG(jro) is unity.··

isth~fr,equen6;at which the

• -41 • ~_ ...

magni~ude:.

Let the polar plot cut the '\ffiitycircle at point A asshown in fig 3,23 ·and 3 ;24:. N6~ ~art4'1? yis givenby L~O~' Le, if LAO]? is below'~ 1800 axis tbe:n thephasemasgin is positive andjfit_'~ 'IS above .... 80° axis then the phas.emargin is negative, 1 .' .. '., .".
r-

·fu.e':·pnaser;

-'~

:t. '»:

0;.... -180 ...-..~+=..,._~,......~~-----r--·O() p '.

.~'.

. .. ". . 1 , Galri..margln, .K~~ ~.,

r·c-go?·

Gain ..
OI;.,~~~

.;

r'r't:;Ir'OlIlI."'gk" =. "",+,,:::1 .~
.
"

'",.. '

1
.

_900

. PI1asemargin, 1 11,00° +%t ==

Fig 123 : Polarplo: showtngpo:sitille gain margin and phase margln:, . GAIN ADJUSTM~NT USING POLA!RPLOT . . 'To [Determine Kfor SpedJjed . Draw GM

. . ;,lla;:H:;rnargln,Y = 100°.h 't'g:: . ...,' :+

Fig 3.24: Polar plo{sJiow,lng negative gain . . andphase matgin:" ....,

.margin

GOmj: locuswithK

=L Let it cut the -"1800' axis, at

point B. correspondingto a gain ·of.9a' Let the. specified gain: ~1i30o_' ._.,,-A+-+-"''f'"''-~~T-~-""""?_.·~·oQ margin be x db .:.Por this gain margin, the GU-co) locus win cut .1 ., '-180° atpoint.Awhosemagnimde is GA, ., . . '.' 1 .' "' "1 x· . Now, 20£og-', = x- :::::;:. log-' =GA . GA .20

.. 9'A
•

I.
= lOi.j2(J
• - I ,,~

-90" .

••

Now-the value of K IS given bY~K=_1k.

..

,', . "

,'..

'.

. .',
-

.'.

G'
.

Fig :$.25 : Pol~rplotfor diffe~rli

values ofK··.

..

,l(~ K >1~ then the' system' gain should be increased, ,To :Determine K rot Specified

".

Os
.

1-270" ~ ..
,',' - '. '-. .s

..

.If, K··<" I, then the' syst~im gain should be reduced.

PM

pointB. (The gainat po.int~Bis GB' and -specified phase margin bex" . .,
For a phase margin ·of x", ;let

, ·.Draw 'G(jw) locus with K ~-1 ;:' et it cus the unity eire-me L

equal to .unity) .. Let the, ..

'..'
be the phase' angleof':
. " .=

at

:.laOo--t---t--:r---.--~-.----.:--.-----+-~.

cr,

~ s: .",
:;:"

~gp;

GO!))) at gain crossover frequency,

:. x~ =.: 1800 + ,J,; . .'t'gcx
.:::}.'J'f s=

">

x" ...:.180°

Frg 3.26: GainadJitsiinentfor

.

'.",:.:~~.

" I~ the polarplot, the radial line corresponding to q.gCX ~iIf cut the locus' of G-Gro).with.·K = l at point A and the magnitude
c('l:~·,esponding to that point ,be

. requiredphase .mafgiit·' '-.. "'.

GA

3 42

. ""'B- -1), (··G,

.

":EXAMPLE-'3~7 ~.
. .

'.' . . The open JO~l-ltranSfeffLilldiotl ofa.unity feedback·system is. given by' G{s) = 1/5(1 +s) (1'+25). Sketctrihe polal'llllot and .~.·1d'eten1:li:~e.ilie-giailil margin a nd phase margin.. ' .

..'·SOLUTlo.N .

' ... Given that, G(s) = l_1s(l-t;$} (11,.+25)

Puts =,j(i)..
~~'::~~~', .

_.

1. . .. .G(jQ)} =.. (·1····· ')'C-I+'" i?..,", · , .' . ', Jm- + Jm - I. ':J"'l! J

'_r

:':)" ..... Theoorner freq:uericiies.are-IDci

.:; 112 ~{).5'radlsec; and [(Q'c;2 1rad/sec. The magnitJde and phase. ~mg,leofGaio) Bfe ~:[ca:rpu(atedfotthe comerfrequencles ,(jIndfo.f frequencies around corner fnlquenGreS ;qndtabulated. Hltabl.e-1. Usiing pdfarto . :~.:revtaflg:Ularco~v,erSiOl',the po.1arcoordjria~$ irS:ted ;,n1:abl'e--1are ,converted to ~ngular coordinateS and tabulated tn tabf~' ~~2.T;h~polar plot using_p(il~r·coordina.t~'is.s~etehoo on a polar grap'~'Slh~etas shown in fig 3,.;, 1.',Th'e polar plotusi~g ~:fe~ing,ulatcoo{d'nates- is ske~hed on[;~,"ordmaty·graph sheet as shown in fig .3:.7.2. .' ..' .. '.'. _' ,.'
.' . .

., . .1 ..G(jffi). = Om) (l~ j~) (1~ j2~)

= toL9G6
.'.'

"'h~
1
2

.1' . m2 'Ltan-1oo
,_

41+4m2

Ltan-112ro

1· . '. 1 ==. .... '. - L -$OO':";'tan- 00 ;.[ID~(1+:m~)(1"'f~2). '.:"','

tan- 2m .. '

. '. ':""
" ".

.'~IG(J~)l;

..

1
.

[. . .ro··~(1+:'ffi2H1+:4ro2)";

:.-'~., .

oi·41+'4m
,

".' 1. .;:;-'----:~""""'"""====== 0)2 + 4r..o" . QHb+ 5(rl +4<04

.
.

.. T4Bi.E~t;'Maghitude
. radJsea
'.

and pbase~

:,of 00£0)

at .. vari~us frequencies.

.
·0.35 2,2
-,144 ·0.45 ~0.5
. I:

..

0.6
0.9 '

t.O
.0.7
.. 0..3

.' . IG(}:oJI
L~)

·1.8" .':15{) '-;1

I .

.1.2' '.;.156.-·
_ ...

-162

-171

-.!':

- deg.
" . .00

498

·.1

'1

'rad/sec

eL35
, '-1.78 .:

:0..4 -1.56 "-0'-9.':

.

... .45 . 0 '.' ~1.3[7 .-0.. 1 6

.

0.5
-1.14 -0.37

0.!6

J'
,

0.7

to.
,-0 .. 9, 2 0.09-

~.89
,;Q~14

-0.7'

-1.29

. iRE~SU-lT
GaIn margin, Kg ,== 1.4286 Phase matgiitl; t =. +120

3.43
300°
~330°
20<)

.,.,340°

10° -350°

3,SO'"
{le.

'~10°

340°

-20

. .,..30°.·

. '.:t20'" "-400:

.
.. ::

40'"
..,.320'" 310°,· .'

.. ..,.50" .. !j
.:~(}Q .'

_:_310o

-iso"

ll0"

. 12{J"
-240"

130

-::,2300

"l
.~

.';,1

-, ,"1
: 140~'
.';i

·:1

'no~' ::l
_12~();O L-.:::"",::,,~~~_,;:;;,,"";';:""'_:;:;::;....~_~-.:...~=~_";:~_--=~=::'_...l,~:""'''';:;;~~~''::'~~'''';;;:4;:::....1 --210" . 150" -200° 160" -190" 110"
-18{)0
.~

.l80"

-170O,tg-160° 1900 .-. 2000

. -150,0'
210'"

'.'~

. II

.!

B.

3.43
3{1"

20"
.,.,340°

10°

~330°

-350"

{l".

3$0°' '~10°

340"

-20

. .,...30°.·

. :.:20'"
40'"
..,.320'"
I

'..:..40° .. -:

310°,', .'

.. ..,.50" .. !j
.-

:~OO .

_:_310"

-zso-

ll0"

. 12{J"
-240"

130:;>·

-:,230"

. ):

..

'".._r"

...... 1 .'~~

-+

9 .. '

,-..,

'0

-8

I·..... ~J.

Ie ,8

-!"-:',

.'.

3·45
..

:-, .

EXAMP.LE

3.8 ..
.

_'

..

SOLUTION

..
'

. '. (~iVen·Iiat;,G(s) :::11s2(·1+~}:(1+~~)

. " Put: s

. '

.',

=.' jd:J,:. . :'.

' .. ",

G(Jro):;;; '., :'2

'. {jIG11:I)
...

:.>

'.

11'"
.'
-.'

(1+Jro) {1+ J2m}

'."

.'

"

The c;:omerft~q~enci~!1i fill cl = 0.0 rad/sec and IDa.=1' rad($e"C~, 'm:agnitud~' and 'Pha~e'al!'gf:e:.9,f',<3 (]<O) are ::' arie' The .calculatedfurthe comerc~uenQiesancHl"iequencies around comerffequenci~s,~l're tabulated intable--'fHslng th-e'polar~(Y: :reaangularconversian;lbepolatroordinates nStedtl1 'table-1afeoonVe~to ;racta'ngular cOordinates"and 't=lbulatetl l,n,tabl'Er:::; 2, the poJariplot using;polalr,~coordlnates·rfSs.ketCIJ~Oi ena pOI'ar.g~h $hee(a:$' :~hQwn !iri fig 3,·8.'1-.The'poiar.:plot·us.ing·:: redan;gular coordinates is skeitched:on-an p:rdinary gr:aplils"he:et.asshawn 'in ftg 3.8.2., .' ..,.... . '.:
.;G(to)

..

-... '

(jel). (1+j'm:}.(1+j2@,l, ',; 1

. '"

t .',

t'
-"

ID2~1'80° ~1+(jJ1L:tan-1r;lJ 41+4m2·'·L'tan~'~2ID., .

. ":/

(~(jw);;;; .,
CD2

J1+

.1.

:.' .. ' (iJ2' ~l+4002,' '1 1

-?(~'1;80'~tan~Joo,..tali!~'12M) " , . . :.: ' .'.

lG(j(D'}I= ,",
. ' ..

, ....,:

'. . .

, ::}~.~ .' .

.
o. :-

.,

... __ :-

"

0).2'J1+cr/Jl+,"4m,2
.~ ----:----;======;::===:

"ro2:~(1+Q}2)

f'1l-:+4m2) '.

":

'..

. ,,~!
.,

4' . . . LG(jm )=. -1:~oo::-,ta:~:_1m :....tan-12,m.

m2 J1-+:osro2+%

..

l)'

.. , c

. '. 'TABLE-t:. M;!gmrude:~d":ph:ase

.
,

plot' ofG(jm 0,6

~tvan0l!ISfieqti~ndes .
. 'I

'0.55

LG(1n). .

deg' " . ~246

,I--.

~2s1

'I

1.9'

,-:256 " ':-261

'-

1.5

0.65, .

0.7'.

'I

'O}5

1.0

1.1
'-265'
'~269' .' '-273

0.3

00

..

",'

.: .l"adIsec .'

0..45

. 0;5 .

0:.55
.1:..84 . .1. 1.. 8 4

'1.0
'0.09·.

J9~)

3.01'

.. 2.36

',1',2,".

to

0.. 8

,! 0.29. I:"

RESULT
Gain marglin,~,~.o ,
Phase.

maJYin,y=

":91)0 .'

"

."1

"3.46
3,00 -,330
Q :

.-,3400' ,

200

10" :_3;SOQ

-io-

35'0'"

340'°
'~20<i"

,JJOO

-30'0

.4iQ" ' ~320'o

6,QO '. -3'00°

,,-,.,
"0' T

N
'1""":"""1

~28'Oo·.

8(1"

'--'

--".:p ,.....
8

....

v
. """"'"

---

-.__,

-s

100°' -260°,

110",· '
~2,50~

l~O<> ,
:_24D"':

130<>:

-23-0° .

·2'30° '':''130°

140° -22'0"
, , ~I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ __

,.:,'22,0" ·-140"

==~~~~~~~~~~~~
200"

160"

3 ..47

:"

-.

EXAMPlE3.9
'"Iha openlooptransferfu~:diOn ",' .",.,'
G(s)" ~ of'a ur)i:nyteedback . systemis given, by,

~ S3{1+ n.005s} j(1+~O.OOts)'.. .'

,

.'(1:+ 'O.2S} (1+"(),Qr25:s) ,.. . '.. ..

..

Sketch the polar plotand determine

the phase margin .

.:."SOLUTION!

.'

.' . (1+ jl12ro)f1 +,mo.(J.2S(!]}· .. G(Jffi) == . .. . -" ... '. . -- ,. ,... . '. . {}m)3 (1+-jO.OO:5m) '(1+jO.OOb) .

_
IG(Jm)~-,
.. '.

.,~1+ )'2~ta~~10,2ro ,Jr-~+-:, to.,2m

'41+(o.:605m)2

(-O"""""':~"""'2;-5rn""',)-;2'

Ltan~1o:025m Ltan·J10.,001m,
\.

·.ro3'L·27QQ

Ltan-1,O.00500 Jl+(o.ci~1ro)2

. '. \~ ..J~+(O;2~-)~:':J1"'." ,(O.'O?5~/~.. '" .' ','

.a13

J~ {O.005IDt~~1+ (O.OOb.}2 -+

LG(jm)= tan-102m +~n-1.0.'OI2~ffi,_ 2700.,...tan-\O.O,o-Si»- tan··10:001w .

. The magnitiJd-s'and ptia~s,e,8n,gle 'of G(jro) are. calculated for various frequ,encjes and' listed, in, Wble-1., UsingtJ1e po:lartO rectangular conver$ion,ihe polar coordinates, iisted in talbi:e:-1 are converted to reCtangular CQOrdiliat~ and ta:b:ul~ted·in'tabl&'-2. The,PD'ler p!lot us,in§' :pe'la-lii' Doardiiii1a~s'isskerone(i (jn·S: po[arg:r;aph. sheet as shown in fig 3.9'.1', The '" polar I110tiusiingl rectangular coordlnates ·i.s, skemhed on,an Elrdinary,gfaph'sneeti3$ shown in fig!·3:92. .

0.9 0.950 ' Hl .. ~,~.~~-----+~--~----_" , lG(to)lI1.4 1.2 ".1.0 LG(fro),.deg

,"1.1 . ·0.8,"

1.2 ·0.6 .

~ 1.40.4

'. '1;."7
0,2

I.

-259'

.!.

-258

;_257'~256

:-255

-24~·,

'

rro~.,~r_aillse_c~'·'_'__ __

~(jmr
11i-·G,-'1iu-"·-)

-r~O~' .. ·,__O._9_5·_.~'~1~.O~;~··_·.~1~.1.~~ 9 __ __ __ "~~-~_1_A._~~'·,JL_·_1._.1~ 1:_.2 __ ~O,'27 ,~O.25, ~O:22 -0.1'9 .-0.16 ·:~O,:1:2 L:O:07 ~
-. . -1.-37-"1--.c..;...1.-17-F·-O:-97-·~.-. "+-1 -0.-,7-8-' -i--015='8-~'I~O-.38. .. '.

~--+-j

I.' O;.~

. RESULT
Phase ma rgill " jI

= ..... rr

':.

,"_

..

....j-20"

,'. ......;40"
I·.··

.40

-320"

.,..310"

50"

60°
":"']0'0'"

-z4u"

i20"

BOe, . -230'!

.'2200

140" .

.-1400

-220

-210'''' 15_fl" _

-2·00" 1600

.' -"!90" 170"

-180"
180"

.-170° .'. 1900

~r6l:l" 200"

·-lS·OQ

210~

I.'

mi'> :
• I

~.

! •...

~~ '~.,

,"
.

5
Q
\,j.

.
.

,..

i...
~.

'

••

..

.
, I ., ,

...

.,
~-

...

....

'.

",

,
•••

.
.

.
I ,

II
• ••

",:
I •

. .

. .

. .

. .

I I

····111 '1'•. ' .... · II _

.
.

~
.

"N.,

§; .
'r.)
~"

'.:

: ..

"

...
,~

..' .

..' .

. .

, . ,-:z ..
"·-'8 ...~

...

"

'.·0

"

..
.

o·
•. ,:,,",",,">

o
......-I

..

..

+'.

.1

•...

;; .i~r'." _:;: <; : ::~

,.

·8
'~'.

'-"

0'.
. '",

:§§
..:
.

;.'

. '#
•

..

.:~ ..,.:.:. ;.:

• I '. ,

::,"

::

o.
P'"""i
..,___",.

o
1-

.~'

........ ··11··.·
'.~.

, .'Ii

:~,:

-' '··: I· ,g'-"~.. -.

'-s
.,-;,

'"

y:'

"

.:

..

-. ..
8

'. .

. .. .

.0 ....L . ~
.

M.
.,

~:,

:11··

,~.:
~.

...

:
.

•.....
'

'l1li"
.. .

.::
.

~
.

;-'!:-

- '_P

0,

.. .
.

,
,

..........

..

..

.'

••

".

'

...
.
,

~'
. !'~ .

._
. ... . .
.'

..

••
,

..... I'·
;' .
'

Ii· .-, S· ':.0. . 0··

'-"

'&' .

..

. ~~

3_L?}_
, . 1f1he

.__ ' ...

EXAMPLE 3.110

open loop transfer

fiunctfon 'of a unity. feed back' system [s :giv,en

by G($~) 1Is( 1 +-s)2. Sketch the poil~~ plot a nd ~

.:

df~tent\inEHl1e gailnand phase ma'llilrl.

SOLUTION
Given that, 'G(s) ""11/$(1+s)2_ .
.
.

Puts=jco, ..

'.

. .',..GOro}~

':' .': j~ {1+_jPJY"

.1

='

:'1. . jn (1+jm)(1+'jo)

.: . ~. The cometfreq,uetic¥, IS (9C1 =.1 fadfsec.Th~ magnitude and phas-e:aJ1lgt~of G.(jID)are,calculated for COrner irequ erlCY , and.frequencies .around GOm~rfFequencY and! talbuJated iifil1iatile:-1.. S1:ftg.pgl!aritO-rectangularconversion the polarcooifdi:rnates '. .U :Ii:s~ed 'tS'bfe-< are converted ton:!dtangularcoord~ntateS'andtabufated 1 In 'tabl£J";2,. The, polar plol ~sjrig polar coordlnstes is' sketched on apolar 'gtaph sheet asshown In fig 3..1O~ The po'(arplot us:ing iF~ilgular ·coordin.ates are sketched on an . 1. 'olTdinalrY91lfCJphlstleetas shown·infig,3,,102. ": - ' .

- .()) ... ··"1+0)- ·2 ,,;.. 11 IT! 'J1+'" 2L'ta n -1m. L9'O'~" C--;-1' "ta- --1. .. '<ro, .•

.-~{~1+~2r~
•
"

---'-'-:"'~~ ...~ ..........

1i .

Lf-90<>- 2tan-1iOO~ .
.'

'IG(-~(i) )1=. . ..
.'

1.'.. ~'.'. 1 . . m(1+ro2} W +.(1)3

.. LJ3(fm}::= -90· ~ 2t8n-1m

''fAB'~ .. : .M~itOde l

aUd.p.hras:e..of (;(jm). at v:a:'rious£reqoe,ncies - .

. " .. ._' ...-..ra..,....:/~sec~:_. __:..; ............... .....;-_O_A~· •

.-~)I" ,

.I

!F-O_·~.5_- ~_O __,6~' ~O_.7_· ..- +1 ~O""",.;,8"""~o+J .;-_O_.9~. ........ _ '_' ~:--1_.0=· =--If-1_'.1~---I 2,2, . 1..6 1..2 1 . '(1.8.OJf 0;5 0.4 ..
-1'.

"~

LGtjo)
.

-_ . I,

"

I'

deg

~1M: --143 .j

._...

I·

f-

_.

":'15,1

-159':"'1:'67

-.: '. -174-

11. :"'180

'-185

I ··1

...

.~

'OA

I·

0.6
. -1.05

0.7
-fi.93

,0.8

'0.9

1.0 ~.5 0
I

11.11

. '.'~W»
'Gj(;o)

-1..53
.' J-1.5B

J ~O.96

...,1_.28

~n, : ., . . _:_O~-6 78
_-~(J:181 0'.06 '..1

,4).58--{J1.36

I 0.03J

-0.4

RESULT
..

. 'Galn .margiril,K";2. g.

. . Phase margin, i' .21"

.....

3.52

320.0 -AOP
, I

. i'_310°, :'-:50
0

-no

SOP

,', 60° , -300°;

,

100"

UO'" " _:250~',

,
120,0

--=i ..... ,;.i,

":240."

_:_240°

,- ~lioo ~

.ae

130°_ ---230"

/
140
0

,-220° : :_200,Q' 160" , ~gwo, , 170<> ,

-18t)Q

iSH"

--170" 191)"

-i60"O~-· ,,'200" ~ "\10.

-,150°

2m

3··,53

....
, ::+;---! .

.. - ....
~~-

--

~'--.:'"

j_"

L~~'

.. . -" .. ", ·O~.:~":"'~.··

".

-~.'

'.
"., ..;,"

'.'.,

..

~.
,

_',

..

...

~~':-.-

"

,-

'r

..:......"

.:.-.J..:._'

~
'_ 1-

.. :~-:

~'t

~., '~~ ,""' .~

"_'

. . _,
...
, """.-.:.

';' :~+--~~--:

,.,.
I~

','';''_,,''

Fig LIO.-1.;, Polar plotof

dUro) _::_ l/[j_ro (I+jroi]

(usx.-ng

rectangular coordinates)

3 54
.»

Oonsider,a'unityfeedbacksystemhaving
. . . .

an open loop transfer function O(s) == '

':.... ,s{1

_ K '. + O.?s)(1+ O.05s}

.: :'Sk~tch the.pallar plot-and d~terminetbe value Of'k

"

i .. ,"f:i"'t: ·'·SOL· U'T'JO:t.·

••• , ...• I :._

-..

so that.·(i)

Gain margin is 18 db'{iT) :Phase margin is 6'1Y;

.-

-_ .....

'

.Giventhat,- G(s);;; ... ' .. ,K: ..,· .'..... he polar plotls sketched byta~ding K'= 1-•. ' T ,. . 5 (H·O~.2S) (1+'0.055) , .'. ..'.. ':' .
..;,'

.:.purK = 1.and s = Joo.in G(s ).. . : GUm}=. ,.. ..,. 11.. .,' .' . :' . '.' .'. . Jm. (11+ JO.2oo) (.1+ JO.05m)

and phase angle of . . GOro)a:re qalculated frirvariolJs 'ITeqlJE)hciesand ~abl;llla\edin talble-1. USil1lgpo!'arto rectanguf,~rconvers!ori the polarcoordlnates ~ Jistedin·mbJe ..tare COIIVf,lrtadto rectangi.Jlar·coardlii[)a~eSand' tabU!~atedin table-2. The: polarplbt using. pol ar coord inates' is sk~t6hedo'ri:apola.r·grap'h·5hoota,s.,:shO:Wn·inrfi:g j;. 14 :1. P'oiar pbt· us,Hi~rectanQiUlaieoordinates: is's'ketohea-on'an:citdiMry :.grapii·streefas·shoWn fn-fig 3:; 11"..2;" :... ;._.. ' ..... ' ... '. . . . ". . '_..., ~'. . , .... .•. ",
(i) c2

The corner frequencies are roc;= 110.2 = S'radlsec and

=1/0.05

= 2D radlSec_.The.magnitude

-(.
G _ire)

=.JM, (1'+ 1·2ro. )(1 + J:' " ., ',' '0' 'poSm)

b

, 1·

11 _.----IF~~==~~·--~~======--~·~---

;:oL90 J1+ (O.·2(oi~L:tan-:-~:OL2roJ1.+(O.05w}2 Ltan-1 Q:O!)w'

-= .

Jl+ (0.2m}2 41.+ (O.05m)2

QJ

.'

".

:'

.. .:

., . ,,' '. ." L(....:90· -tan-lO.2oTh _·tan,..10.05m) . .. .' . . and LG(jco)~ -'9(J°- tan;'·1 O.2m.; 18n-1 uo5ill'

:.IG(jm }[='
.' .' -.

~l+

(o..~(i)f41+

.. .1.

. . ... .. (0.0&,0)2

·"~--~ro~··'--~'~---~---r~~~'------'~--2"'-·-·.. rad/sec ~~. L~) 'deg.. • .., . ·m

~d/sec . ~ .
!

~I.-,-----r-----.
3'
4'

.' 0.5
.t_

. - 0.3·

. O.2-~·;'

.... 8: 9

~l01
6

'-'117.5<. 7
0.:07

'..:.129.4"

0:-1"40,· 1"1
'.

5
.0.14

9 0.05

·10

.j'

0.1
':"'1>57· .

LG(}:o) . ·deg-

.1

0.04,·

0.0-30 -:-1-84

OJJ2 -1'95

.-149 .

~1&t- .'

-176

-180

-.

..'TA:BLE-2 : R~w and: Imaginary Parts of·G(jm) at Vanous ~'Jrequ.ettCies . .

·.ro red/sec 0..6 .0.. 8 1

2 -0.23 -0..44

'1

.-0.23

. -0.23 -1.21

. -D.24 -0.97

3 -.0.19

I..'-4.15...

4 .'

3·,55 '
ill

rad/sec . G,I()n)
-~

5 -0.-120
-0.072

6
·.=_O~092'
o_;-, ••

. "11, :

.:

I'.

14

-. -:.

.:.: -

~J)67
~.019

"-,0.050

--0,04
O·

~O.030 0.002

-0.019-

q(jm)

-{).Q39

1'-0._0034:,

0.005'

',lnttu;l'polarpl~sllowri in,fig 3.1:1.1 aad 3.11.2th~rearetwopIOts,. ma~ked a'scurve~l and rurv,e-IL'Th:esetwo.locii'~re , ,sketchedlrMthdJnerentscalestodiearlytlete:rminethegainmarginafl~·phasemarg~n. ' ,' ,,

Fr~m~hepOlarpia-t" with, K :::: , . 1

, .. _Gail1 mali:gim, Kill '=, 1:10.04 :::;25:, , . Gaill margin in db= 20 lu!) 25 ='28
·

db.

Ph~1Sem:~rgiill1, 1~ 76"'. '

Case (i)

..".

11:;~t Gam) cutUl¢ ~ 180'!" llxi~ ,~tpoint,B ~nqgf.l~A QQrreSpo~ing>to that pok..t be,GIB, From thep,ol.~t:pIQt ' I 'G~;=0.04. Th,egi;linmargin of28~dbwmn K= 1lhas;,toberedecedto l8,db and so IKha~tobei~creasedto av,~lue:9r~rman
one.
.
,

. WUn"K:::

.; Let GA beth~:ga[n a~...80"for a gain mfu;9in of 11-8 l db. ' l

ogl

'n "
,A

;=;

18 20'

'. =>, ,

The . value' of K IS gwen , by, K ~ -- ,O.04 .. G """~..,

' ...

,', ... ' ,',.

',..

GA'

(112:5-

3..125 -,"

•...

Case [ii) ,.
, .. ".-'" j ,

With K·: 1, the!phase margin is 76°. Th'rS' has'tobe reducedt() 60"\ HenCE!gain has to be' increased. :
tell

'(I~
.'

be lhe phase

atG(jrulfoi:' aph~se'rl'largi;n
::;::-12Qo
, ,

of 600

. ,:.,.60"'=:180=++ga. "~". In tfne ,pollarplot ile,.,..120" li:ne,~t'1tbe IOaJIsof GO(i!l)at pointCand uuttne unity cirde at point D.
.
,

+gc;Z= 60° -180"

Let; Go =: Magnitude

of Gym) at p,aintC.

G~ == Magnltude of GOm J_at point O~

..

· From the' polariplot, Gc;= 0.425 and Go == 1,.

, N!o·~·'K''''
, '''¥,'

-, '~Gc- 0.425-2"' '53' ..

Go

1,.

·3'"

RESULT.
,i'

·(a~,When
,.'

K :~1,(3ain mBiligin, ·K'II .. 2$ Giaiin margin in db, : . ,= '28db

(b)
(c) ,

When K ;:;: Phase margin. y ;;;. tBe 1

!

"',

Fora,gainmargio of1-8db,K
1

== 3~12.5

(d)

For a phase,margin ilf6il~.K

= 2.353

3,.56

::20" -40"

3tOO

" -500

3000 . '. ":"60° ..

'.,..70"

290'°

-.
;.n.

... 8

, 2800 -:-80"

Q,

o .;-'
.......
'--'
r"""'.

C'i o
,......j

.~
260<>· ·· ... 00" 1 9 ~ ......

--

-210'"

-20W'

15n°

160

-19W' 170"

-180°
180
0 .

'"'-170"

1'90

-1:60

200

. _"_',.,'"

-15:0° 2100

.3.57

•
"

gil}'
, ,

_,
~,

" •••

,-

I I

':

,,'II,:
:~

, I ,IL'
"",~

"~:
..

.f

:,' '.1 '

" .6, " '

,15
,I
i:
I,

, !,
.
.
"

!:
I'
'I'

'f{

..

,.

l2

" 'A_

,11

I_.-Z'~· .

I~~ ,
,
'

~t'

L3
.<1

_::l< ' ...

\
,

::

II '.
,

, I,~
,

"".
,

.
'

:
,

, ,

,
'

,i( , ' ,

I.'.

",' ,SE'. ~
., ,
';
"

" .

'

"

,"

-Fig 3:.11.2: Polar plot

0/

OOro),= 1/jO) (1+jO.2ro) (1 +jO.05~ID),,(usingrectangular'coordinates)

3.58·
IEXAMPLE3.12
. . .. .. Consiidera unityreedha,ck system having an open loop transferruncti"on, G( s) ""'.
. .. . . .S

..... .. ., ... _, . Sketch the polar (1+0.5s) {1+4s1 .

Ii<

..plot and determine the value of K.so ilhat (I) 9ain m.arg!il1is 20 db and (il) Phase margi!n Is;30~;

. SO LUTIC1N
Given 1I1at,G{s) == Kls (1 +O.5s) (1 i-4s)
The' polarplot is sketched by takingl K :1 . .. PutK

= 1 and s .:;;roin G(s).. J

:. G(jm) ""

. . JID

-.:-. . (~+ jO.5m)

p+ i4ID)
. . ..
. .

_.. . The·COmedrequen:cies arero,c1= 1./4 = O.2Str:ad/:sec·and 1lli;:2 = i/(t.s·=:~rad/sec. "[he· magnitude aJl')d.phaseangleof G(jdl).are calcullatedforVC!rious·frequencies and tabulated in table-1 ..Usiing pd!arto rectangular conversion the pdlar coordinates· Usted in:ta!bIe-1 are converted to rectangu'laif _coordinates and tabulated in table-2. The polar pl,ot using polar coordinates is sketched on a po~ar·graph sheet as shown in fig 3. '12.1. The polar ploiusiing reciangular coordinates is sketched on an ordinal)' . ;graph sheet as shOWlil in fig 3.12.2. -

G{jw)

=-~..;........---j'<o (1" jo. 5<0) -{1; j4m }+

1i -

1.

-:-roL'90P_~1+(O.5,ro)2·Lta~-1o.5(f1 J1_+(4<bf Ltan~14w . . __ - .... L(---,-90C-tan-tO.5m-~n-14ro) 2 ~~1+0.25ci J1+116ro . ._ ._.

1=16m=. '

-'

1.

.. :.1Gd:oJI
.LG{.") 1m.·

1 = -(l)-~r1 ·=0-,=2&-o=·:::;::2:-;'?":1=+ =~

.=='2

= - 90'0.. tan . ..' ~. .-105·

ill

AI _ -Ian -1 "+W'_'
OJ;

,1~~E-2
.-

:.RealRa~. ~nd -Imaginaty partS of G(jm) at _Vatious Frequencie~

..

r-ra:seG

0:3,

-··lioro)
L
'GtIjD) , From

OA
-1.21
-0.47

0.5

-1.8
~1.09

~,8S:-_
-~.2

I 1
!

0.6

0.,8 -0.35

1'.0

112
!

~o.pl
-0 ..06

...;021:
0.05

~O.14
0,05·

Rle polar

plot, wiUn K 1"

0.02

. Gi;1in rnarqln, Kli =.1/0.44· = 2.27_

.... Gain margin in db,: 20 log, 2.27 == 7.12. db
Phase m~rgill, "t = 180"+ .

'+gc

=180 ~165Q:::1$'
0

30':>

Hl~
.-351)" .

:3:5:0°
-10'(>'

~330"

·340<> -20"

330" -30"

7+.0" ~40c
4.0"'

-sro-

50'"

:~.

280" -,gO"
..

·+~I

.",

~ ~ 8
0

,t.

'd'-

8: ---

.~

H-++H-~~-+-r+++-i-+-!O++++++-:I-++++H-I

270?

-90"

'.p
........

--

~260"

120"
~240Q' ;

130'" . -2300 I .

.'2J~O" . " ':"'13.0"

140~ .

-220" ~21O" l50" '~200" 160

0

...

~19{)1O 170"

~1!WC 180"

-no

-;'60'"

i.90"

20D"

·-150° 210"

Fig,3.12.2: Polar pia/of G{jro)

' ,

1/U0 (1+jO.Sro)'(I+j4ro)], (usingtectangular'coo,.dinat~s).

3.61
Case (i)
'.
GB
""

With K 1, Ilet G(jro}cuttlhe-1i -SO"axis afpoiRt: B and gain correspond.i:ngto that: point be Gs. From the polar pl'O!t, OA4. The gam margin ofT12 db with K 1 has to be,mcreased to 20 db and $0 K has to E)e decreased to a value-~ than
• •

.'

LetGA be-:tbeg:aillat-180"fura
~I-

gain margin of20,~b.

."

. J,fOW,

. 20 .'log -G

1.
A

= 20
. 20 ..

logl -- =-. -'= 1 GA 2{}

.. _ l

'1 -. ~"" 10'=0 10 , .~GA, • 'A,

'G

;;;;;~""O.1

1!' '110'

Theva,iiue of K ls given by, K'~ G!'I "" ._.OJ = 0.227 . . Gs 0,44 1

Case (Ii)"
.

With K "" 1, the phase margin Is 1S". This has to be' increased to 30" • Hence the gain'has to bedecreased, Let ~gc2'

be the phase of G(j(\) fOf a phase margin of 30 ....

'f1lc2

. .: 30" =180"+<pg~-

'" ';"30" -18'0":: -150" 'of G(joo} at po~ntC. .

'In the polar plot the -150" nn~ outs the locus of G(jm) at pelnt G and cut the unitYcircle at point' D.. Let!

Gc ;::Mag'lilitude

, GltJ

= Magnitude

Of G(jm) at po:intD. .
Gc ::;: .. and O~, 1 2~

Prom the' poliar plot,

. Now, K~_D,=~---=O.49 .' G.6 2..04 -

•• 'G'

'1'.:'

.'

RESULT
(aJ . .Wl1en K . (b} (c) . '. (d)

= t Gain-margin;"

Kg

= 2..27
=
15e,-

",

...

Gain nia~ginindb ::: 7.12 db

, When K.:::; 1.Phase m~rglin, "f Fora gain margin of.20 db,. K

= 0.227

Fo:ra phase margill of 30"'".~ =' 0.49

3~8 NICHOLS P·LOTThe Nichols plot is a frequency re.~ponS~·plotof the openlooptransfer function ofa-system. The Nichols plot is a graph between magnitude of GGro)m dbandthe phase of GOm) in degree, plotted on aordinary graph sheet. .' '. .. In order to plot the Nicholsplot, the magnitude of GOm) in db and phase of GOO)) in deg computed for various values of'm and tabulated, Usually the ehoiceoffrequencles are. corner frequencies. Choose appropriate scales fermagnitude on y-axis and phase on: x-axis, Pix' all 'the points ordinary . graph. 'sheet and join the points by smooth curve; and mark frequencies corresponding to each point.

are.

on

In' another method, first the Bodeplot of GUm ) is sketched. From Bode plot the magnitude and ~ _phas:e'for various values of frequen.cy, (0 are rioted tabulsted, Using these 'values .the Niche ls plot is sketched as explained earlier.' --

and

the

3,~'62

D~IE~,MINAnON

OF GAIN MAIRG,IIN AND P'IHAsE'MARGIN

Ffm"M iNICHOLS .PILOT

. The' gain margin in db is given by the negative of db magnitude of GOm) at the. phase .crossover frequency, (0 pc •The Q) pc is the frequency at which phase-of G(jru) is -1800• If the db magnitude .'of Gum) . . ". .. . • .' '. .. .. . at rope. is. negative then gain margin is.positive and vice versa. . .. Lete ga be -the phase angle of Gtho)·., at 0- cross over frequency co . The (b.gc. 'isthe -frequency at aain .' .'f • . -, !J. "'"""1, ge . .which the db magnitude ofG(jro) iszemNow the phase margin, 1 is given by y =l~O'°+<pgc.lf~w: is. less negative m.an _:_800 then phase margin is positive' and. vice versa. The positive and negative gain. margins 1

are illustrated

in fig 3',27.

:~Gnro~
iii -db
!Positive . PM .I
.I

. +d u'l

,~i'
I

IGgoo)1
i~
db

1-

.... db ._
. -3600 -:2'709
.

~360l)

~270°· ,..:... 18Ct

_¢-go; -9'01;

Q!}

4l~ . -18:f)P

-90°'

Or.:

Fig 3~27 Nichols plot showingphflSe margin (PJvf)and gain : GAINADJUSIM

:.

margin (OM).·

ENT IN NICHOLS.. PLOT"·· -

- . In the openloop transfer function, G(jru) the constant K'cennibutes only magnitude. Hence by ,changingtll.e: value of K the: system gain cantle adjusted to nl'eetthe desiredspecifications. The desired

specifications are gain margin and phase margjn,

\
to satisfy a desired

speclfication, then draw the Nichols plot of the system with Kr=l. The constant K Gall add 20IogK to every-point of the plot' Due to this additiontheNichots plot wJH shift .vertically up or.down, Hence shift the plot verti cally up ordown to meet the desired specification; Bquatethe vertic,at distance by Which the Nichols plot is shifted. 2010gK and solve forK,

-hi a system transfer function, .if the 'value' ofK required to be.estsnated, in order

to

Let.. x

change in db' (_X. [Spositive if the plot is shifted up and vice versa),
x

Now, 20 log .1<.= x_..

=;>

.g

16 K=~

20

::::)

:.K=·101ll'

EXAMPLE 3.13
.._C'_; , . ~,,' OIilSluer'a unity· f'ee d'"'~ k .1X:IC.system ih" aVlng an open " Icop trans f-er,i,unction 'G'C) .::::; ..S
-' .. _. -. .:'.
.

2: K(1+10s). . ..

(1+s) {11+' 2:s) .

•... "k~"~1>;. 'th ;e N" h0 I C'~ .• Ie

-.

s:

plet and deteml.ine:the value of K ~Q that(:i}G~in margin is 10db, (Ii) Phase margil1l' 1510".,.·

S·Ol,.UTI,ON
. ,. Given tha~ G{s) . .. .

=.

K(ft 10s) S20+ s}(I+ 2s}

c_' • • __ .' .. _ '.

3.63

h.l~~.~"'f\O.

.b! Flg_3,,13.1.: Nichols plot 0/ G(;ro)

= (1m

y (1 + jm)(1

K(Jt Il~ti)) __

+j2ro j .

. The sinusoidal transfer fu l'1u;tionGUm} ls obtained by leWrng t6s

=J&~A:lsoputK

= 1~

:. jG(Jffi)!ilmdb'''' 20 log LG(j~J

','

'. ,[". ','

~1+100a)<!'
i"

= tan- 10m~1800 .-,tan- m ,_tan-~~C)

1 l

..

1'(lII21/1'+ (i)2

~ ..•,

' .• '

1J1+40:1

'.1'.<'

' ~2 ' .'

];'
,

The magnitude.of G(j(!»)in db ?tRdpha~eofGU(o.)llil di;l-Q arecaloujated for various y.ali:Je~ofro aOicUisted ih the following
.table, The Nid1,ols.p~otofG{joo}with K=.1-fS~ketdied as:snown: in nil] 3,t3,1
..! .

"

ro rad/sec . db·

'.

I'

0.;,2
. 34:1

0.,4

. £1,6

0. .8 14.3.

,to

1,5
. 1.4 ". ..... 5,.3.

3.0 .

4.0,' .
~.22,5

~)I

L~) deg

25.4· , ·t~t3
..

·to

f -15.2 ,.I
. ..,.232'

-150

~164 . -181

.:...194 '-2,04

~222

i -244."

~250

'From~he Nichols Plotoithegain margin and phase margin of the sySrel'l1'When iK= 1 8ra,

.Gain marg:ini= ,~ i 9::5db

. Ptlase'margin=~45~"

. Gain adjltlstm@nt fur ,r~qtiifed gain m.argiin .

.. For a gain margin-of '1i db., the magnbude of GUm) shoulcl be ·-10clb, when the phase 'is ~180o). When K.=1; itlie . 0 .magnitude of Guru) is +1:9.5d1b corresponding to phase angle of -1i80" ..Hence if we add-29 .. db to every potnt of Gum) ,llM.en 5 .1Iile~plotshifts downwards and n'WiU cross -1iBO"axis at a.magnitUlqe·of ~ 1Oqb. The' magnItude obrrecti0nis 'ind,;epend~ntof freq!jencyand so ttTjsgain:'CatJ be eootributedbythe tem1lK. let.tJj'JliS; vallie of K be K1;Devalue' ofK, is calculated by equating
t'111 . U '29 2VlOQr..lto. .

., u •

5'~b'

.'

..

"

.'

..

: .'
-,,29.5

."

..'

-. ,

.. .
.

og, Gain adjustment for requiTed phase ma'rrgin .

.

'1"

K'

= .. 20

-2aS

~.

Ki'= 1,0. .21} . ="10.0335

!Jet;4gc2.:l:phase'OfGQ~')i atgain croSsti'verfrequeriCY'for~j phase ma:rgin of 10 ' ..... Ph:asemargin, 't2;; 1;80° ','.$gel ::. y2:.,..1800:.=10'~ -.180~:::;: ·_;,l"lO~

0 ' .

+t~,..

,When K·'!=' 1,1:tiJe magliJirude of GUm) is +:23db co!:reSpOm:fringto a phase of -110"'; Butfufaphasemargi~ of 10'·;,this gain should be made' zero. lienee if we add ~23db toeveri poirntofG{jro} [locus then ihe plot shUtSidovmwardsand itwm cross "'-170''axis at magnitude Of 0 db. The magnitUde correCtlonis independellt: offrequel1CY a'Mdso,thrs gain can be conbibuted,bythe terril K.l~etthisvalu~rofKbe~. TtJ,evalUe ·of calculated.by eqlUa~ng.2,eJQ{f~ to ~23db, : .
,
"

,..,

'.

'.,

'.

~Js

. "K· 2·0"" 10' .

"

-:23 ._
20 .= '

O'.. '. 0'7·

RESULT'
(a)
'WhenK=
,

1, .

.Galltinargin . PhBsemargil1'.

(b) (c)

For a gain :margin of lOdb, ,K

Foraphase'marginof10",K=

= Kl
~

":"19,5db .- 45° .
0.07

~. 0.0335
=

s.e:
The closed loop transfer function
---=

of the

system is given by,

G(s} _. == M(s) R(s) . [+0(3) H(s} .

C(s)

The sinusoidaltraesfer
.. M(jOJ)=-

function is obtained by replacing. s by jru~ .

. GUru,)
'. .

. ' ..

. '.

.' I +G(jm) HGro)

Let, M(jm)

= ~a

where,

M= Magnitude of dosed loop transfer function . a ";,, Phase of closed loop transfer function. .

The magnitude, and phase of closed loop system functions of frequency, m.·.The sketch of magnitude" and phase of dosed loop systemwith respect to m is dosed loop frequency. response plot, The magnitude and phase of dosed loopsystem for various values of frequencycan be evaluatedanalytically . or graphically. The analytical method of'determimng the frequency response involves tedious calculations. 'Two graphical methods are availableto determine the .closed loop frequency response from open loop frequency response, They are,:. , . . 1. M

-'

are

'

and N

circles

2. Nichols chart

3.10'M AND N.CU:iCLES

The magnitude of dosed loop transfer function with unity-feedback can be shown to' be in the form ofcircle for every value of Mo_ These circles are called M-circ1es.
.

.'

'.

If the' phase ofclosed loop transfer function with unityfeedback is'a, then it'can beshown tan a willbe in. the form. of circle for every value of. a. These circles arecalled N~clrdes..
. ,

that

. -The M and N circles are used to find the dosed loop frequency response graphically from the open loop frequency response GOO)) without calculating the magnitude and phase ofthe closed loop transfer- . . function' at each ·fr:e,quency. _ ": . . The M _and N circles are -available as standard: chart. ··The chart consists ·of M and. N circles' superimposed on ordinary graph sheet. Using ordinary graph the locus of GOO}) (Polar Plot) is sketched, The locus of GOO)) will cut the M.;.cirdes and N-circlesat various points .. The intersection of GOm) locus with M and N circles gives the magnitudephase of the closed loop system at frequencies corresponding
to the cutsingpoim of G(jm). .

and

-'

The M and a for various values of (0 are tabulated. The magnitude and phase response of closed loop system are sketched on semiloggraph sheet by takingo on the logarithmic scale-on x-axis. [The closed loop frequency response bas two plots. They are M V s ro and a Vs o]

3 ..66 ,M-QRCLES .. .Consider theclosed

[001'

transfer function of unity feedback system, 'M(s) =

G(s) -'. 1+G(s)

Put
Let,

jco, _ .:

M(jm)

= ..

G{jeo) .1 +G(jim)

GUm) ~ X

+ jY

where,

X = Real part of Gum). Y = Imaginary part QfG(jm).

..

, M(" ) _ X~jYjill ~.

-:-

~X2 +y2
.

Ltan-1 ~
-

" .::::

~X2'+ y2

l+X+J~_ Let, M

H~(1+Xi+¥:2Ltan-Il:X

~(l+xi

+y2

(-1 L tan

v . --1 y.)_ --tan ~X r-x I

I

= Magnitude
..
,.M-

ofMGro).
-

~X2 + y2 .

t: ~(l+ X)2 +:y2

On squaring the above equation weget,

X2(M2-1) + M22X + M2+ Y2 (~--l)=

0.\ .

......(3.30) .

When M= I, the equation (3.30) represents a straight line .. When M =1, the equation (:l.30) is, .
X2 (1-1) + 2X + I + Y2(1-1) Hence whenM>

=0

. 2X+l=O

X=-1I2
= -:1/2

I, equation (3_.30) represents a straight line passingthrougnX

'-

& Y. = O.

When M;:: I, the .... equation (3.30) represents a family of circles.

_When M

* 1,.eqtiation (3,30) can be rearranged

Nii

in the form of'equationof a circle

as shown

below.

x): (Mt~]) + Mi2X+

+ yz

(h.11-1)

Divide the above equation throughout ,', x' +.

M2
I !

by (M2- 1).

M" 12 . 2X···· 2 0 .+" y-2' = "" M -1 ·M ~l .

2 '-~

3.67 . .-Add
'.

. .('.M.·2 -1)"-. ,
.
'

.M

'}. on both sides

.

of the aboveequauon:
_
• •

"

.I •

.'

. ..

_(x-+ ",,,2 lJ1 +y'Z;:. -(.. M2 . )2'.' '., M2 . 2

~Yl - -. .'. '.

..

M ~1 .

..... ,..(3.31)

The equation of circIe~ith centre at' (XI' ¥l) and radius r is given
(X - Xj)2 + (Y - Y

Y = r2

by, .
''''2)-' .•.,; ( "-.,.

On comparing equation (33m) and equation (3 .. 2),. it 'can: be con~lu:de:dthat the 'equation 3 (3.31) represents a family circles withcentreat (___:M2fM2~1), 0) and with radius.rr ~ MI(M2....,.1)Jor· . various values of M. Thecircles given by equation (3.31) are called M-circ1es. -: . When M = O·
. Centre = (Xl' Y1) . M2-_ Xl~'-M2'~1 =0 Y1 =0
'._.. 1\(2

When M = Centre
=

00

(Xb.Y1)

x, = M2 -1
Yl=O(l

:._M?

_M2
~. M2 =-1

. Radius, r =.

M·..,.]

2:

.=

Radius,

f= .

.'

M2 ~

Hence when M =0, the magnitude 'circle becomes a point at (0',0).

Hence when Circle becomes a point at (-1,0).

1M . Moo. M = 00; the magnitude.

rvf' ~ 2'.M ..~ _!_,_ 2_ "'" 0

.

From the. above analysis it is

.in the_form of circleswhen - (-1/2,0). -.'

the magnitude of closed loop transfe~' function wilt M -,*1 and when M:= 1, the magnitude is a straight line. passing through . .

clear that

be ..'

Forvalues ofM less than 1, the magnitude is a circle to fueright of the straight line corresponding . . to M-= 1. It is observed that the circles for M<I passes through (-lf2,O) and (O~O) n-the pegative real o axis, For decreasing values of M, the ·radius decreases .and the circle, -becomes a point at (0,0) .'.

When M

= 0.·'

.'

For values ofM greater than 1~the m~gnitude'is a circle to the left of the straight Iinecorresponding to M'= 1. It is observed that circle passes between the points (~l,O) and (-112,0) onthenegativereal axis. For increasing values of M.the radius decreases and the circle becomes a point at (-l,O) when· M ~. co . The family of Mcircles are shown in fig 3.28.' ..

Complex plane

Recta:ngUia.r coorcsnates
M=O.7

.X

Fig 3.2'8 : Thefamily of constant M-:Circles.

Consider the closedloop

transfer function of unity feedback system; . .

'.

.·C(s).=, .G(,s?· ~ M(&) R(s) 1+ G~s). . .' Put S.= je, M(jro) ==. . __ '" . . .. 1+'G(Jm)

...

'..

GUm)

, Let GGO))= X

+ jY,

where,.

X = Real part of G(jm) ..

..y = Imaginary part ofG(jro).· -,.

,Jxi:
:.M(jm)=-.X+jiY .,.+Y .<!J

-2 L

...-1 Y '
Wi

~ .,JX~+y2 "L(tan-1Y_ta.n-l~)
'. ~(l-txi +y2
+.

~--

. l+X+ jY'

i(I+ X)2'-t-y2 Ltan-l~ .1+X

X I+X

X'·

I-tX

. . Ph f '.:: "-i Y : . . -1' Y. Let, o.=Phase ofMtje) : :.a:~tan--tan .--

Let, N = rena,
.. _.".(. '-1 Y .:,.N = tan tan . .. Y x:~~-1'1;-X!)"

C.'

..

. _ ta~ tan-I-x' ...~: .. Jan: ...,.tan

(.

'Y)'

(.

...N-·.

1.+tan tan - tanl tan . " . X . ".

'(",-IY)"(",

.. ':"(Y]=' '--',
l+X

I -1 +.···X··.··· Y -... v Y') .' x

'-1'.. +'-., X-·

.' J'ID+~

Y(.l+X)~XY

Y Y ""'X(]+X)+y2 l.+-x·~ . X 1+:X . X(1+X) .

Y+XY-Xyy - X+X2 + y~ =.X+X2+ y

,r---------------~~
:.Note: .
,. . (A," B) - tans, ,_;_ tanB tan' -. :'. ' . .' .' l+tanA x tanB

yi

On rearranging the above equation we get, X +.X2'y2_.--' Y + N .·.X+X2 +y2 -.-.:::::.0

N
. .' _. -,

...'--.) ==o======i .~
.

' " .. 'n'1 -,h.e a'b oveequation t

. ".

add e term ~ + -_-' _ on both sides .. _u the

,I

....

~ + ~ + Y - N + -4 + 2N

~ --2

--V . l . (

1)2 = -4 + ( .2N )2 I' I

1.

42N·

I (1)

..2

(X'
'.

. __:.' 2 +:(.y _~)iI2~.!.+ (2Ni (:X+!)2 ' . 4

2N.
I!

+!t X)+(
. _

y2+

(2~~~)= : + (2~)'
t' .

. .(3.33)
.

The equation of circle with centre at (XpY) and radius r is, (X-){l)2+ (Y-YiY = r2

..... (3.34) .

. On comparing equation (3.33) and (3J4), it can be concluded that the equation (3.33) represents a
family ofcircle 1 I .. with centre at (-1I2,1I2N)- and with radiuis ,4 + {2N)2 for various .values ofN.: The.

circles given by the equation (3 ~3,O) re: called Nscircles. a For any value of'N, the equation ofN-cirdes issatisfied at two points {O,O)and (-ill ;0). Hence' the. Nscircles pas~es through these two' points for all values of Ct.. (N:;;; tan :0:.).

Consider the equation ofNcircle,

. When X= 0 and Y= O~_

Consider the equation of Ncirele,

When X =.-l.andY==
y-

0, .

(X+i)'+(Y- 2~J=!\2~l

GJ +h~S =
1 1 1 1 -+--. ""-+~ 2 2 4 4N 4 4N

~+ (2~'

(x1' ~r+( 2~J =!+ (2~l' (-1+~Jh~r= ! + +

11· 1 1 -+~=~+-2. -4 4N . 4. 4N2 .

(4~)2 ...

._

...The above analysis shows that the equation of Nscircle is satisfied at pomt~(O,O) and (~1, 0) .. '. When cc= 1800 the circle becomes a straight line passing through real axis. It is observed that n the circle for a_= H _r80oabov,e the real axis will be a part of circle for a ===. e- 0' below the real axis, as shownin fig.3.29. The family ofN circles are shown .in fig 3.30. .

also.

. (-1,0)
.

.
_.ij).

a=91-180

.!

Fig 3.29.

3.70

CompleX. plane Hectangular coordinates

Fig 3.30 : Thefamily of constant N:'_.cirrdes;

3.11 NICHOLS CHART

N.B Nichols transformed the constantM and.N circles to log-magnitude and phase angle coordinates, and the resulting chart is known as Nichols clulrt.
Nichols chart D~nsist ofM ~d N contours, superimposed on ordinary graph. The M conrours are the magnitude of closed loop systemin decibels and the N contours are the corresponding phase angle ',' locus of closed loop system, The ordinary graph eonsistof'magnitude.in db marked _on the Y.:axis and the phaseindegrees marked on the X-axis. ' on the ordinary graph. The Nichols plot is a graph between 'magnitude of GGO)) db and 'the phase of G(jm) in degree.plotted on an ordinary graph sheet. To draw-the Nichols plot the magnitede and phase angle of G'Gro) are <calculated for various values ~ : of ro. Alternatively the Bode plot. of GOm) is sketched and from Bode plot, the magnitude and phase of
, ,

The Nichols plot of open loop system can beplotted

in
-

,.

, GOm) for any frequency ~n b_eobtained.

.

.
--

.:same asthat of

Using Nichols chart the closed loop frequency response can be determined graphically from the locus of open loop frequency response. "\¥hen the Nichols plotof GOm) is sketched on Nicholschart, the' locus ofG(jro),wiH cut the M and N cont<?urs at Var!OIlS points. The cutting point of locus ofqOm) with theMccontour gives the magnitude of ,closed Ioop.frequency response corresporrdingto a frequency

GO co}at that

point.

-,'

The cutting point of locus

of-OOw)

and ,N contour gives 'the

phase of

response corresponding . to a frequency same as that of G(jm) at that point. . -

The magnitude

closed loop frequency'

Mand phase .

:!:3 .. !!_71_·

~~~~
=0=

~_:_~~~~~~~~~~~

...

angle a (N tann) of closed loop system are tabulated . The closedloop freq uency response c.onsistsof twoplots. Theyare magnitudeMVs ro and phase angle a Vs OJ. Bence usingthe tabulated values.the . . bode' plot of dosed o.f closed loop system can be drawn .
.Thefreq ueney doma~ specificatiens can be determined ftom Nleolsehart,

.
.

Fig.3 .31, shows various .

freq uency domain specifications of a typk:iID Gum) locus ..Also the. Nichols plotdrawn on a Nichols chart . can be used for gain adjustment. . . .
ESTIMATION· OF FREOUENor DOMAIN SPECIfICATIONS USlr.GNIClmOLS [iHART' -.
'. .
.

---

'.

TIle resonant peak is given by the value ofM.co~tourwhl~h is tattgeni to' G(j<o) locus. frequency is given by the fi:equency- of. Gum) at the tangency point,· :BandWid~h . The Bandwidth is given by frequeacycorrespondingtothe M -contour, \.
.' G~ln Margin

The resonant

intersection point ofG(jm)&nd. -3 db :

.Ihe gain margin is givenby negative: of magnitude of Gom) in db at phase cr-ossover frequency, rolle: At .phase crossoverfrequency the phase. of G(j~is -1'8,0° .. . .. '_ . Gain Margin, K~in db
= -1~(jrID~.)tridb

The phase margil'll,,']Fs given by ,¥·~180o. +$gc where $ic is the p~ase of G.(jw} at gain crossover i . frequency; ~t gaincrossover frequency the magnitude.dfO(jo)) iszerodb. .... .. . GAIN ADJUSTMENT USING NICHOlS (HAIRT
Determinath;m 'of K for Specined Gain Margin

K=l ... etermine theameum of D to be added at $ ~--:-]80Q thatdb.: ..so magnirude of G(jro) locus .at -180° is negative of the specified' gain-margin ..Let the db 'gain to be added be. x db .. The gain coatribution .is independent of frequency and so it. can be achieved by choosing proper value of K..The value of K is obtained by equating 20logK to x db.· ..' .. '. '.' DrawtheGtjm) locuswith Now, 201ogK·~ x
...' K '::...... -lQ20
~, '
,

gam.

.Determination. of Kfor Specifi,ed Phase-Margin

Dra~. the G(jID) locus with K- 1. The phasemargin.v
1

.~

=1:80" +~g~where+g,,' phase of G(jro} at gam crossover -f= .... encv .... 41&:.!..~i-] 800'.:For specified. phase margin, calculate -.;kB~and from tIre. Nichols . .. ...'""i u .. . := -Q~~ '¥ plot-determine the db ga;in at·o/ee • Let this gain be y db. For the specified. phaSe margin; this gain should be' made zero. Henoe=y db sltoUld be added to every point of Gam). This is achieved bychoosing proper . value of'K, The value ofK is obtained byeq·riating ZmogK to' -y.d!J. : . Now, 2010gK =.;"..y

is

=> . . togK ==
. .

. 20

.s:

3·72
+32db
'~'

;1

,
,

r,

,',"

_'
,

r"gdb
.Galn ,Margin
,

,I

M=M,
i I

,.

,:t ~ _. ,.,_. '

ro=ro"" ',,'
. -r

bandwidth

-t2db
, , , _180'°
14,

0. .9"-90~
,~

Phase~8igin

Fig 3.3J;~ Determination of frequency domain specification from Nich'qls Chart,'

Determination of Kror Specified

Resonant P,ea!!:: ,M ..

" Draw GG~) lo-cus "with K = 1: U'sing a tracing paper, truce theloeus of G(}ro). 'Ast~ndard tracing paper, called Nichols overlay is 'available): Then shIft the locos ,vertieaUy,'op' or: down,-so that, M ~,Mfcontouris' tangent' to GUm:}locus. Measure .the vertical sruft in db. Letthe shift ibe± 'x db. (+ for up'

th,e

and -for down),,'

,

'

"

"

, ' Now, _201ogK=±x

'

K = lcf

X +_ 110

Determinatiun .of K for aSpecifi'ed ,BandWidth

Draw the G(j@) _locus with- K = I, Determine the open loop gain. G(jm)' aim = o,\. where,m~ js the '.specified bandwith, Determine -the point of inteesecfion of-Jdb·M-contou:r and this open loop gain' on the , Nichols'! chart. Let this point bepoint.A. Trace 'the G(lO)).locus .. Shift the ~}(j(l)) ,locusverticaHy up or 'dOW11t so that it passes through. 'point 'A; '~1easure the, vertical shift in db. Let the shift be ± x db (+for 1,IP , and -for down). ' " "
",. N0W, 201ogK=±x "" .x 1 ogK= ±-'
, '20

=>

:EX'A'M'n'LE' ,"3 .., ~4 i !Ir""."" I· ;, I" I:"

, The open
determine the followfng.

ioop transter
'

function of tmityfuedbadk'system

is, G(s} =K,e~\25/s(1+0.25s} (1.+0.1s), USing:NiCholschal1,

, "

(a), the vallue of K so that the gain margi:n

(b)

The value of i< $0 t~at the phase margin ofth~"systerilis 40"

of the system

1$4 db. '

values of
ffir

(c)' The value :of iK so ~ha~, esonan;~ pea.k Mrof the system is1 db. What are titlecorrespandil1g r

(d) The v'?!lueof

K. so th:atthe

and ro'll?

b~rndvvi!~th {\)tJ:olthe systemis1i .5 ra.d/sec:'

'

,3.73
SOLUTIONfirsHhe actual bode pliot of Gum) willi K::::l is plotted on semiJogl-graph sheet TI1emagnitude ofG{jro) in db and phase , , of GQC')} for various frequencles are calculated and Uste:dIn Table- t. Theciroice offrequeneies are chosen such that the i , malgnr~udeplotextends iii the range of40 db~to~14db and the phase plotextends in the range om'" to:~180"_ ,

. _, . -" GIV~n ~hat. G(5) == , ' " '" . , -" , s{1+0.2,5s)(1+0.1s)

Ke-O•2s

'

t.et, ,K:"" 1 and put,

= jn,

TABLE-I: Calculated values of

I
,,

I'G(jro) I,
0.05

anp L'Gijm)', ,0.2

14 -0.5
'I
I

co radfse~ [GIP)I
db

0.01 40
,-90 !

I 0..02
,
"

0.1 20

1:..0' 0 ,I
i ~t2:1
, ' ,

2.0
"':'7 -151

4:..0

34 -:9'1

26
...:91,

G
I

~16

LGfJn)

-93

deg

" ,The ma:gni'bJde, nd phase plotdfBode plot of GijOJ)are stJOV'I!11 fi:03.14.1 From the bode p,lotthe' phase' and firequency' a in far various values ma,gnitudes are noted and tabul~ted in tablle·;2. {The choice ,ofms'gnitudes are 20,16,12" .... i.e, in steps: of 4-db; wn:ich iscOIwenient for-Nich6Jsploton Nid1ol~schart}. Using the values listed in tabllr2 tlle locus of G(jro) on Nichols chart ~ssketched as shown if! fig 3.14 .. . 2 -

~96,

-106

-203,
'

of

TABLE,-Z:: Values of, fG(iID) I' aDd LG(jro~ NOiled from .... 'Bode Plot ..
I

(O

'rad/sec

0.1 20

IG(ioJI
db,

I
,

0.16 16

I
I

I.

0.25 12
:i

0.. 4
,8

Q..!54

'1.0
:1" r

1.. 0

,2_2
II

,:1
,

;3.0 ~12 i,

4 .
,

o
I

-4
I

~8
7156

'~,~) deg

-90

,~102
J
.

-11-0

-120

-1:36'

j
.'

-180
"

,I

-Gain Margi:nand _Phase Margin when K = 1 . ..: -.

'".

'...

When K :::1,the GUm) loCUlscuts i11e-1180° axis at -1'2db. Hence fue magnitude atphase crossover f'reqlllencyis-12db. ' .',Gain Margin, Kg= -1:GOoopcnillclb

:..:'

-"

= -(-12)£+t2db.

, When K = 1, the-phase of G{jj~) is -120° corres!po.nding to magrdtuoe -afOdb. Hencethe phase p:t galin crossover frequenCYis-120". ., ;',Phase, marg!in, y =; 180'0 + $:~c= 180" - 12'0" 60"_ ,

, ToJiudK
,

'for a ,g,ain margin of4db

' ,

When gain margin ls 4 db, the locus of GOlD) shuul,(j cross the '180" axis ,at-4 db. When K '~1, the mag,nitude ofG(j@} , is -1!2db coITE!spondhig:toa phase of 180" ..Hence ffweadd, ~4 - (-12), == B db to every' point ofG(jro) then the p~otshifts u~[ds, ' endcrosses :-1,80'"axis at ~4 d,b. Ttus magniiitude correction is 'aChieved by ,choOSingappropriiate value of K. The' value of K is , obtai'ned by e,quating 20 .Iog Kto 8 db.

3,·74.
.', 2010gK ""

20 db

tog·K=~ . 20 in mg·3.14.2~.·

K=1020 =2.5

The G(i6:!}, when K= 2.5Is.s~own

....•...... I(for p""",, margin of40· . Tnfind ,

.Let ~.~ be:the phase of GOro).atg,ain crossov~~treqUencywhenthe pfiase l'lJargin fs40~.
.

-.'

t '.
g',.
.

. :·$~="2~
-' -

: :. Phase

margin;

j'z ~

180 +ljJga
Q

180'" ~40o'-'180"

=·-140"
.: .

t· .' Fr~~ theabol/G calculation it is e,vjden~that f~r ~ phase m~rg,in b!40",.the magn,itUde of GOw)~hould be:0 db ( . t cOl1respon(jllng to a phase 01-140", When K ~ 1, ~e' maglilltud~ of GOm) IS -5db col1'~spOlildmg~ to a phase of -140g ..Hence'
tft'Wea~d +~dlbt~everypointof.G(jm) laCU~tl1ernthe plotsh:i11tsupwardsa~d cms_ses:~t40"ax~s,at·Odb. This magnitude f;correctlonl'Sachleved bych:oosmg appmpnate ~Iues of K..Tlhe value Iilf K IS obtatned by-equating 20 ['og:K.to.s db. ~:. . .

~
[

: •.20Iog.K

=5
, .'
.

'5'

. =>
.

I'og ·K··=~
.'

!'::" .
,,;

rr. 10 find· K 'for. a resonant . . .

t,
:

,..

2'0

=>
.

K = 1020'"".1.78

The 'Gum) il.ocus.,·when K; t.78 is: shown linfig 3.14.2

pe:ak of 1 db . ' ..

r &.1=0:25 db contour.
e

. .The resonant peaik" M, is gliveliil by M-contourwhich Hence when" K= l,.lBsonantpeakiis

istangentto
0.25 db.
.'

Gum) loCUS. When K= 1 .the G(jw) loousjs·tangBnt to

.

For a resonant peak of 1 db,tJhe M 1 db contOllr s~ou:ld be madetal1l9,entto G(j,ro) locus..For this, G{k~) locus can be ;' shiftediv-erti~lIy up or down so that it becomes tangent to M l' db contour, In this. probilem the G(jOJ)locus is shifte(i verucally ', ~.. pto make i!ta,Rgentto M:~ 1 db 00 nllo UL The. shifted GOO})~ocus ~sSh,OwTIin fl~g3.1i4.3.· . .

~.
. S(J

; it mE!keS',(Jn impression on nicholS' cha.rt

. Note: the G(jw} lOcus 6 1on.f!J.tracingpaper afldshiftthe' uecea toais Nichol$ ch$rt vertiCally! fhatit istaf]yenlto required M-contOu{";.By keep/ng/he traCingpaperatthe sliifted position dalken the trscea faClJS~safflet: .
. '. . .

~:a~.

~enK

over.the

.' The vertlcal shift lsequivalentto adding! a ma:gniitud~ of .20 fog K to everY point of GOoo) locus. From the shifted locus '.ofGOro) it lsobserved that '+2db ;5 a.Oded to every po,int ,of GUill) locus. Hence the value,of K is obtained by equating 20 .Iog K :-Wi-2.db.· . . '.

10nK=-' -.
tit
.

2
.

20

K=1IQ20

~.

= 126-

.._.

.'The resonant frequency, (I), is g ivan by the frequency of Gum) alithe mngency ~dnt. The mag nlt1Lldeo,fGijm} is 0 db at . me tang:ency point of M 1 db contour ..The cOliTespondin!g'fr'equency isnotedl from 1ihebode plotofGOro). Fromme bode plot .h'~reQueriCY atOdb is 1.0 rad/!se~. Henrethe' resonant frequency; (Or 1,0 rad/see, .

10

find

of GOoo)corresponding to the meeting point of.GGffi) kicus and M ~ -3db' IIOOntO'UL From the bode pJot find the magnitude,of GOko) when.OJ;:::: 1.5 rad/sec. From fig 3, . 4] it is obs.elVed that magnitud'e .1 .of.G(jOJ)is~4dbwhenm= 1."5rad/sec.. .
In the Nichols chart; find the point

soo that mig"'" 1.5 rad/sec The bandwidth, robisg:iven by the frequency
K

.t!heG(jro)' rocus wUthK ~,.fig 3.1.3. .

= 1 is .shift:ed ve-~ically'down

wnere.the M ;; -3db contour passes throug,l!:I.- 4db line. Let thisp,p~nt beP ..Now so tihatJs passes througl:1.pointP. The.snltted GUm) locus is shown . .

. 'Note: Trsce the G(j(o) IOClls.·whenJ( ~ t one tracing paper andsh.fft the'raced IO(:l1soverNich:als c!Ulftso that is passes through point P. By Ifeeping the tracing paper atfhe shiftedpositioh, darken the tra'Ced tocus, so that ismakes an impression on .Nicl1ofs chad. . ....
The vertical' shift is equivalent to adding a Imagnitude of 20logKto every polnt of G(jm} locus. From the shifted ilocus (Jf GUill) it is, observed that-6db is added toeve:ry point of GUm) locus. Hence the value of K is obtained by equating 2010gK .

to-l6db; .

2010g K == ~6 db

6 Jog K=--. '.

. 20'

=> .

K =1 0-6120 = 0.5

3.75

.,..

i·-

·8

.~

M·:e .-:....... ..,~ .:+

N._
.

......

.....
'.._:..

0'· ~

14'").

..... c:;:;.
~.

~ +. . 0. "
~-'

--,

~ ~ :.~
<;S

-r

tal,

~r

-i.o...t
~.

N·'""",, ,o·~
'0.

b() -~-

........
o

...
N
\0

0- "CNOao. .~ ...... _._

0·'<1" OOOC'l t 1·-1··1

'.

o
M 'I

o ."7
r

......
·J

3.76

bi'
d;),

l8t--~+"'"~~'~-+~~~;:""""'~~4--"""I-4--~~l""';,

__ --+-~_;:..,..~--

........... c

24}.;.;_,.--"-rr~==--+--7~l~,__"",....;.....t-""~~---...:;.;::!fi..C-~~r--..~~=~ I

.~

~
~"

-..

'K" g

.; l:gG~·. --l6ft .. .

<.

'''f1.

-'Y --____._...;._-~

. LG(jm)

in. ~eg :-+

3.77

.__

ifii~.,

in .d>

l~ri-·-...

........

4...._.,.T-·-....:-~~--=~:;.....;;.~..,.....,~_.,.;'-"+._.,;_...:::~

..~ ..-

........ _.,...--~-

.......... __,

LG(jm) in deg-+

EXAMPLE '3,.15
· Alinity fe~~back~m has open loop transferfunctioo, •.G(s) = .'. ; 2~. '. Using NlichOIScnsrt, d(rte~jne the . . . . . . .' '.' ' s(s.+2Hs+5}_ ..' .' ... , .closed loop frequency respon~e and esti:mat,e. M~ (Orand rob" . .. .. ~
. . . ".

SOLUT'ION
GtvE!o :that,' , .
G(s)

.'

=,__ . 201 _...., __:_. _

5(8+2)(5+51
"

· The 1lrarnsferfunctlonG{s) is. cOnv'e~ to time constantor ~e

G(s) ."", , ',' ". 20 :" ,

forrn,",

.,

5 .5»:2.-+1 ) xSf'-+1' .( ,2· . 5 . '.

·(s .).
,. ,

"

,20

s 1+·"';" 1+...,..,., .t: 2: .', .5.

('5<) (5)'

1(2 x 5)

= ~~~~~____.___

~- 2 ,Q.Ss}(1+.0.2s}.'. s(1+

Put;' s=]», in G(s) toget.G(jO'l}. :. G(jru)

= '.'
-

.2 '

jm(1 + jo.5m):(1+jO.2ro): .

.'", ,...

2
,,' . 2:. . '
.

. . .

"

_-"

~ (fu~.~ooJ1+:Q.25iu:!. Ltalil-1.0.5ro,Jl.~ O.04~2t::fun:-'~ 0.2m :

..= ill,4' ,', ". "-2 ·1+,O.25ro

.

..j,', ""

,',.. 0 ' L(-90-'tan '·1+0:04mi: '.'

.. " .

-1 .', -

0.5ID -'~n

-v .

.:

0;2ro) , .

...
The magii1itude'ofG(j~) in,db .a.nd·phaseofGl]ro)fqrvariousfrequencies arelcalou:t~d!and listed mlable,.1.·lhe ,choice of frequencies are chosen such thatthe magni~ude plot extends; iinthe lra;ng,eof 40 db to '"'-14 db and th€! phase pEot extends In ' .. the rah,geofO to--'180".. . .' , .. ,
U
"

Usingtable,.1. the actual: ~e'plotofG(jw)

is ~I~tted on semilog
LG{i.fO} . 2,0 '-4

gqtphsne-et:'~s ~h~nin
.:.

fig 3,15.1.:,..

TA8LE~1:. CalCulated ~alues of

00,

IG(jm) I ,and
0.5

rad/sec .

0..2'

1.0 5.. '

.

3.0
. ,~t77

~ :4.0,
t, . .~19Q

lG(jm)l:db

20
...cOO

.~

1. -110

: ,--1~

--157

· The rnagnjtUde and phase pIot of bode plot Gijm} are shown i:nlfig 3.115.1 From the'ltuxfeplot, th~IPhaseand frei:;uency rorvariiQus'val!Ues of magnitudes are, noted andtaollliated In table-2. (The choiice of tmagriitudes are 20, .16,12"....;.ii.e.• ins.teps .of 4 ,db,wtIich is convenhlnt for Nichols ploto:i1 Nlchols chait).' , '. ... '.

of

Using thevalues listed in tab~e-:2,thelocus OfGO(i))is:sketchedonthe.Nicllois,ehart:as

shown in fig ~.lS~2.

3;,79

,'e'
~'

"'::--.'

'~

;;,::
~ ~ ~

'.~
+ -..
'

"-.:.-

'!::l
'C"'"'i

~ ~ <, ~ ~ ~
,~

2.6 II'
'N

.....

-..

or. 0..
,~

f"..

0 -._,
'~"

"'"',

0-

on
0

.....
~
0.
o:-q'

~ 0 ~ ....~
""'0;

......
'14'i

.~
r.:t.;,

-,
,0

0"

o
<"1 I

-.

+:.

'"-~

,..,
~-

r..;
~~"

-,

,~

.: '_""lO~:
PhaSe ".: :L·G(jro}.in deg"""'+

3.81.

.~

c:;:; .......,

~ ~ ~
0

.;::;:
~

d .....

'-'

-~

~
~.

e
Ii

'A

"§' ~
\!).
'~

S'"
0,

~ ~
.~

:10:::
C)

......

,t.:l

.1>..

'14) .

.:;::
'~

;:;:t.

'-k,.
oN

~
0
'"tj

.....
0··

~ ~ .....

'-.l

". ...,

......
~
"~

yo) .

r-:;

."".

.00

Ii

... (gjtft.:{1lii1fJter.j~{1!re~lleiJiijjjSe

AnalysiS)

TABLE~2: Values. of IG(jro)l and! LG(jro) Obtained from 'BodePlot

. ill

fad/sec

. 0..2

0.31 16

0.5
12

0.74

1.05

.11.5
0 "':'146

. 2.0 .' -4 -156

I
I

2.6

186:0)1 .
···db -.

20
'-'98

8 -118

4 -1·3(1

-8 .

-11.5 -180

LG(YD)
deg

-102

~110

· The locus ofG{jm} drawn on the Nichols chart cuts the 1M-contour and N~cQntour various points, The meeting points of Gfjm) l'OCU5 and various M-rontollrS are notedL . .. .. . . .
. The phase a corresponding' to the' meeting point are notsd from N-COiltourS passing throuQ!lh the meetirn:gpoint (It a . mee~ing. point lies bet\¥een two N-contoufS.tlill:~n choose an approximate value, of a). .

at

The frequency correspondiogJo ~h~ meeting point are nutted ffom·bode plot bytra:nsfarring the jGOro}1 corresponding to, : meeting pOilltto bode plot The VahlJeS1of.m, Manda are listed in.tabl&-3. .. . .. .....
. .

The values of M and'o are the magnifude,an'd pbase of closed loop frequency response of

Gal!) with ~nitYfeedbai:::k.

TABLE-3~'Values of M and a from Nichols Chart:

w , rad/sec
M ·0,36 0.25
;

0.62
1

I
I.

I;

1.0 .2 35 I'

1.2 .

"1.6
4. 78
I'
I

1.8 3 102

2.0 2 120

2.. 1 1

2.3
0
,

2.4

2.5'

2.8
i

3.0

3
50

-2

-3
155

-6
·165

-8
175

db
Ct

12

21
-

1'30

140 --I 1'51

I

deg

.Using the valaes l~stet1in tabl,e-3, the' dosed lOop frequencY response plots are sketched as shown in figl ~.15.3: The dosed loop frequencyresponse consists of tWo plots 811101 they are magnitude plot, M \Is ill and phase p~ot, a Vs a.i . . From the closed lcepfrequencyresponsethevaiuas
.

. . · Resonant pe~k,M,=+4: db.

. '.

pfMlr, @randO)!)areno,ted .:
.'

'_:

Resorlant Frequen9Y ro
Bandwidtlh,
'.

(I):

= 2.5 red/sec

::;

1.6 radfsec.
.
.

3.12 .FREQUENCY RE$PO.NSEANALYSIS

USING iM,ATlAB

In general, the open loop orl~l(jsed loop transfer function 'of Let, T(s) be a rational function of "s"';as shown below.
b '_M 11.. M-I' 1... M~2 . ~ b b s. os-::... T(. ).= . N+ vIS.. N~l. + V'2 .N-2 +... ;.+, M-:-IS + . M S. . . . a(ls'. + ats· . + a2s+..." .... <IN'_IS+ aN +

a syste~'is
..

denote? as T(s).

. ' .: For frequency response analysis, the transfer function T( s) is declared as a function
. following commands,

of

using the

. Ts=(bO*sAMi+Ql . *sl\(M-l)+
'.

~----~~~--~----~--~~~~~----~------~----~ s=tft's')" '. . . .

.1.

... +bM)/(aO*sAN+al
',"

*s.A(N-IJ+ ..• +.aN); ~.

'.'

·The coefficients of numerator and denominator polynomials of the transfer function are determined
using the following command.

[num._cof

den~COf]=t-fdat~{Ts)~·I·

3.83·
J . . • . .

The gain margia. phase margin, gain crossover.freqncney determined using the following command. _-

and phase crossover frequency et1inbe

-.

In

order to
.. w·' ~
.

draw Bode plotthe .

'

frequeey range .
.

can be

specified Using following commaads.

. .

lO9isp,ace(ds~
. j

de;: n);

whel_"',e: dsrepre'sent5 "srar'e decade as 10 "-. de ~eplf'e~ent.s end decade as l;ad~

......•

...

Method I -:.

•.

n represents

-number

of poi rrts ,toO

be calc.ul ated

between lOds&· 10d~ .

The Bode plot can be plotted using any one of'the fcllowingeommend.
bodeCrs , , k ') ; bode(TS ~ -wJ;
bode (rmm_cof., de_n_cof); ; .. bode (num'-':c,of ~ den~cof"w)

ae :u.o· . M tL. d 2 :- ...

The Bode plot can also

be pt:otted

using semi log plot command

as. s~own

below,

, [M~!l .p'has~-w] =:, bode(TstwJ; I.Mag-dB .-:;;; 20"'!-1 o·gloC·""ag):, :

~.:~ubplbt (2,.1,1); $,emi 1ogx (w, Ma.9dB~'k_r)~
1 . 1

subpl ot: (2·. 1,.2) ;semilogx(w'-p'hase,.

'k') ;_.

In this method the magnitude and phase can be scaled by. drawing two .lines at two specified upper and lower values. For dra:\\'in,gthese lines, one dimensional. arrays .consisting of same values has '-to be created by multiplying the specified value \\ith one. -The length of the array should be same asnumberof frequency points for which the magnitude and phase are. computed· (Refer program J.3-). . ..
-POLAR PLOT . The polar plot
Vii
..
_.
..

·can be plotted

'

using

the followingcommands.

w~start

.:!J'LS1::ep

.: w_encJI;·

im:~ w] = f1yqu;s't(nllrrL.c-oiF,d-en......cof~w); .. z . == re + .i*i1nl; r.·= abs'(z);'thet:a .antgl-e(z) ;'....

:.[~e"

POlar(~he~a,r~,wJ)~1 . NICHOLS· PLOT ..

. The Nicholsplot
.

of open loop transfer function, .O(s:) can beplotted using the following commands ..
]' .= tfdat.a:(Gs);
"-

Enu:m._cof _d,en_cof

..

.: ax;: S ([ph_start ,.- ph_end ~ mag_start·,

mag ...end]);

'. '

. PROGRAM '3.1
·write

..
:pr.og:ramto

3.84
by

the

followi ngt

a'MATlAB

rans -Fer functrion,

draw t:h-e ·a,ode plot

for

the

ope:n

loop sys'!:,em gQvenned

G(s)""sl/(1+0·.'2s) (1+0,.025) %prog'ram . "to plo,t

Bodepl

o·t

c'l ,e,ar' a.l1 · .( Tc

S=:tf("S');

disp("The
.'Gs=(sA2)

I ((1+.0

given

t:r',ans··fer
,;

functiOn

is, ')";'

~.?*s) *. (1+0. 02*s)). '.

· w=l o9sp~ce(...; 1,21200)

bode (GS ,'w)'

grid

The given

transrerfunctfofl

"5,.
. sA2

Trans fer tunctiion :

0'.004'

511,2

-i-

,o..22·s

+1

:~. ~ ~ : ; :: . ~~:. ~
.

:.:

'·90;

-"

.
:

,":.

~:: .
'

.. ..

",.

:.. ~ : .:'

..... .

~. ,', ~

..

_ .. ,

-:-

.Fig. P3.J: Bode plot of the open loop system given in problem 3.1. The sode alot: Of'.pflogram· 1..i'·JS '.shown in fig p3..L _\

PROGRA.M 3.2
I.

wri te a MA,T~B pro-gram. to' .dr.aw the Bode .P1at and to cal cuTat.e -gai:n margi n , phase. margin', gain crossover- ff"2eque,n,cy' & pnasetr·Qssover . frequency f~ojr' the :open·. loop. sys tem governed' .by.the .f;ollowing transfer function.
·6(5)=10/(0 .. o4s3+9.55.2+5) .

..

%prrog.f'am,'to

fi.ndgiai

n&

phase

margi n.S

us; ng

bode

plot

tran.sf,er function Gs=10/((O.04*~A3)+(O.5·sA2)+s)

,gl r'i! d

clear 'all ' clc s=tf("s,r);. di sp CThegi ven

is,·');

b o d eCc.s, "k')'

[GM;~M,w9Ciwpc]~m.rgin(Gs); G~d~=20*log10(GM);
di sp("Gai n ,Imargi n ;n ds,

');

. GMdB .

di sp(· phase m~argi n 'i: n de_g,'); PM! , disp("'Gain crass over frequency in radilse~.~) ;rwgc di Sop "phase cr-ess over :frequency ( in rad/sec .• t); wpc

OUTPUT
The given Trans-fer transfer

tunccton 75,
10'

Funct ion:
.......

\
. ...;.

a. 04
,Gain margin' in.

'-_._-- - - ---_- -- ..... _._. __

............

sA3 + O. 5 sA2 + s

as,
deB,.

GMds

L9382'

phase margin

in

·PM

5.2057 in rod/sec,
wgc': . . 5.000()

Gain cross over frequency

Fra:jl!QllCj

!~!!C)

.'

....

Fig P3.2 : Bode plot of the open loop system given in problem 3,2.

3.,86
I

phase -cross over rrequ,ency

in rsd/sec..
WPC

4,.4629 p3 ..Z.

tne

sode plot:

of

program 3.2 is

shown in

fig

PROGRAM 3~3,

I
I

Writ,e'

!.
!
.1

'the

a rAAT:LAB.program . to draw the Bode .plot fo1'1.owing tra.n,sfe,r functi'on. The_ program'

plot

in

the

range +10 to G(s)=(75(1+0.2s)/(s{~z+16s+100» .

magn;:tud,
and phas e

fort.he open loop system governed by . ,e. shouldt:ak ~ar'e of'drawiing magni'tude -5,0' qB.•, and phase plot: in tile r,ange-60to·-180deg.

'%,Bode

plo t .'111't-h
a.l]

sea 'l.i ng

,.

cl c ~=tf('s'); , disp("The' gi'ven r r ans fer- function is,'); Gs~(75*(1+0~2*$»)/(s*(sA2+16*s+lOO)

.[num~cof den_cof]=tfd,ata(G,s);

c l ea r

%determ!lne' nuae r-a to r -and %c6efficiel1'lts of G(s)

denom-;1 naeer

w=logspace(-lr2J20~); MagdB;20·1og10(~ag); .'

[Mag~phase;w]=bode(num_cofrden_coftw);'

Mscalel~10~ones(1~200); Msc~le2=-50*ones{1,lOO); ; subplot(.2 ,I,l) ;.se!m.;l'o'Qx(w. jii,agd.B ~ '-k-', W I MScal el r 'Ie.' ,w,Mscal e2 .• 'k') gri d; ' xlabel('FrequenICY ih'-:r,ad/sec'),j ylia.be:li('M,agnitl!HiE! in dB"); pscale2=-180·o~es(1~200)'; sub~lot(2.1,2);semilag~(w.phas~,'k~.w,pscalel,I-~f;wIPscale2,j-k·) grid; _. .. xl abel ( , Frequency in. r'ad/:S ac '); yl abe 1 (' ,P'n.ase li n de,g
J) : .

psc~lei=-60~ones(1,200);

~~ .

~OOL---i·~·~: ~~:~:~:-~::~:~~.~-~~~~'~:~::~~~~~ __~.b~-_~-:~': 1 11cF . 10 10 .. i(;f

'fl~equency In ~adlseo;

Fig P33 : Bode.plot of

the open

loop system given in problem 3.3.

3.87 OUTPUT

".

"'

The given. zrensrer

rrenst'er funct ion :

tunct ton is,

1"5
50].-+
S"

+ 75'

1.6 .sAl' + ·100s .'

-PROGRAM 3.4cons ider funct.ton . G_(s) ",,2'0/ (s~+}·s2-tiOs)

·1:he_-"tiritnsfer·

'.

of

open

loop

syst.em

~iV"en below .

.wi; teaMArTLAB

rsnsfer functii on 'of cl osed loop. system with' unity feedback, to' plot the Bode plG'tof c'l osed Tocpvsys'tesr, a'nd .to - ca'lculate .resonant .' p-eak" r-esonant frequency and ·ba.ndwidth. .:
:ttl'.

program

det,ermi file' thet

. c1 ear

clc' S=tf('S'); ., d·;s,p C" to,e 91' vein olpen. lOOPI Gs=20/(sA3+(1·SA2)+10~s)·

all-

tran Sife r'

f-uncti

[lin

G(SJ'

i- s , ') ;

di.sp (,~The'

. .., c-los,ad loop t r ans f er fu!nct:i·on· M (5) "151' ") .; . Ms=feedback(Gs,l) ~%d,e-t,e:t'm;:rie-'numer at or & denojri nato r [num~~of d~n_cofJ=tfdata(Ms);
%spec:;'fy

w=l og.spac~(~l; 1):~

%coeffi.ci ent.s of' M(S) 'frequency .r·alilg:e

grid·

bode(M's.w")

[Ma.g • phia.s.eii w] ""b-odie (MS .·w) ;

[pe,akMag • k l ='max (IMa.g) .~

pe ak i'n

d-iisPC"R._esonan,t

'. dB,,");"

MP=20*10g10~p~~kMag) di sp (' aescnant

frequency

.
in

.i

r',a_d/sec:;')";

wr;";~"(k)

n=l; . wh-iie 20*1Iog-(M,a:g:(n»)>"",-3;n";n+l; ·'.en:d '.di sp (' Bal1dwi: dt:b ; n raajset 'itfb=w(-n)' .
I ');

OUTPUT
The g'iven open 7oopr:-ransfer rr ansfe r.f[Jn.ci: ion.' 20 tunct ion G(S) ·75,

The closed
Transfer

loop' transfer

function 20

M(S)

ris,

tunct ion:

sA3 + 7 s..... + 10 Z

--~-----~-------~-~-5
+ 20

eesonsnt peak

in as, .'

. Np';,;",

.ResolJant

frequency'

in :.'rad/sec1 . Wr ...

1.6768 . sa'ndwidth in. rad/$ec~ wb The' Bode p7at

oT program' 3.4 is

2~4421

shown

W'

fig p3.4..

. d:I .'

01-· --.-.. --..;;__-_

-p
i.

..
.

.;... _.....;:.-..-~.,..,. •. ;

.. ~.. ,,",.::::-~..",.. ':

; :.:: .
: ..•

:;~:-~-", -. ...• =-_.

. ""-.:--:-

:B. -to L

-s .
:a
::e.

_:'
; .. _

:
:;

~ ; ..:: .:.;~ , ;;i

.'

; . : :'.:
~: ;;
.

~ ..'
-

Ii

<= .• 2)

: .. ; .. ,.":..;.~ -.. ..

: ,.:

.:
,_ •••• ", ••

-10 .

.• ~.~.

-:

~H-.. ~-

~,.i ~'.~ .•

.
n

. -40

•.4,'5

Q~~~~~=.~==~~~~~~~~.~~~
'---"'--.;o,--~""-'-'--'-......._ ........... .._._~-__....t..,..._....,......_~..__....___.'---'-......_,__. : : :

; .. ~ .. : ~.-._

:;

·.d

•......

:••.

i..·>"
"

--

~.~.

I :~L~::>::-~::·-<.J:irI1t,It:·~~:-;:·:·::~:.:!:.:r
~~ . 11 . ~
fBllJRliC"f'

IB:llm::1

·.FigP?4: Bodepiotof the closed loop system a/program 3.4..

PROGRAM' 3.5
writ.e: "a MA.TLAB program ·to draw' the polar p10·tal"ld to ca'lculatre gain margin' and phase margiinfor the open ·.loop·· system. governed ,?y .the following transfer f.unictiolll .., .

.G(s)~1/(s(1+s)2)
.

,.

%P.ro 9 ra:m

to

d r'aw

po 1·ar ·plot:

. and

cO.mpl:ft:e

ga i.n

&. phase··margiris

dis.p('The ,given t ransf'er-: Gs=1/(s*(1+s)~(1+s)) .

.[hum_'cof' d_,e.n_cofl';"·tfaata(Gs); w:::;0.4 ~ 0.01
[r·e.;.i

s=o:tf -( ':s • ) ;

cl ear c te

all f'un cttcn is,·); %d:ete,rmine·

%S;~,ci."fy

%detilo·minator:· coef f , . of
. fr·e;quency··

numerator

and
G(s)

m. w] ;;:;nyqui st(nu;ln __ f , d'eril~cof I·W).; . co

':

4;'

rang,e.

%d·etermine· "the %:i m'agi nary parts

%compute gai n, &

r-e.a'l- and

of.

G(jw)

[Gliir PM1=margi n(num_c,of •. den_co'f) i:' d;sp('Gain~arg.in. ')iGM . '. disp(,Ph.ase. margin i,I1".deg, ')jPM'
"

phase

margi ns

..

,z=re:+;*i:m ; r=abs{z) '; :t'!i e t an Q! le (-z) ;

. %coQ;rai n a t.e s. 'to pol ar(thet,a ,.r', 'k ')

'%c,onvert rec:tangul ar

pol ar

a.=

OUTPUT
The given
Transfer

tr.ansrer
function';

function

is
..

-J

(i.iin

marg7'n,
GM "".'

2
phas e margin

in

deg"

PM·.~

21.3877
...

The Po7ar p Iot:

ofprografJI

3.5 is

shown. in.

fig

p3.5.

~so

30

270

Fig P3.S ;~ Polarplot of the open loop system' given in problem .3.5..

PROGRAM

3,.6
..
.

write. J' f'JI.ATLAB program to draw the polar plot for the open .1,oop.syst.emgoverned by .the fo 11ow~i transfe:r. f'unct i 011. 'a) In the frequency . range 0.6 1:0. 8 rad/sec "9 b)ll1the frequency range 5 to 18 . radjsec:, .
(;'(5) ""'1/ (5 (1+0.25) (1+0.055))

. %pi.og:r.am
cl ear
(:IC

itO

dr'aw

po'lar

.plot:

f'cr

twO,

d.iffer,entfrequency

r,anges

all

- s=tfCst);

. di:sp(iThe

given-·t::ra.nsfer funct t on ~Cs~lf(i~(1+O.2*s)*(1+O.~SWs)). Inurn_cof

.w1=0..6 den_cof]=tfdata(G,s); :O~OOl: _ 8~ . '.

is,.); rmi n e . In ume rat:a r ,-& . de~noElti nato r . of· G(s) _ %spe'cirY· fre,quency . range!

%d ete

%coefficri·el!1:ts

[reI:F im!., wi] =nyquist(n'um_cof . ;z;l=r·el+i *i ml;

~~etal~~ng1e(zl)';

rl ... bs (.zl); a

d·en_cof. wI); %'determl; ne th e real and ~ %imagirnary part of_ G(jw) %convert . rec.·tangul ar %co,ordilnate.s- : - to polar .. ~. . .
I
.

%dr'RW

:~;frequency rarngel
frequen"c.y

polarplo,t_

for

w2=
[riel

5;:

,-i m2 ,w2] =nyqui

0.001:

1;8;.

S1:

(num~cof_,

. . 2=re2+i*im2; z

thet~2=ahgl~(z2);

r2=abs(z:2);

dem._coT, w2) ; %de1:ermi ne th,e real and .%; mag; nary part of G(j'W) . . %co:nvert rect,angrul;u .. %cooFdinates to polar' . %draw pol ar
plo t;
.ra.1'!1ge2·

- %s):);eci'fy

range2'

subplot(2.1.2);polar(theta2.r2.·'k');

for

%f'r'eque.rllcy

Fig P3:.6fi: Polar plot in thefrequency range O.{;to Bsad/sec.

,.

Fig P3~ : Polar plot in the frequency 6.1;

r_ange'_5 to 18 rod/sec.

Fig~3.6 .:Polar plots of theopen loop system given in problem 3. 6.

"OUTPUT' rhe g"iven transfer
rrsns fe",. run ct ion -:,o·.:01$A3 + 0.25 sA2 + s'
The polar p lot: or program 3.6 is

tunct ioa

75,

,.

-~-------------------~shown .in . fig'

.1

p3_,6.

._-:)
.pROGRAM 3.7
·wr;t.e a_MATLAB pr'ogra.m to draw the polar plot using' !rect.atngular,·to .pol ar coordinates. for var-ious values. of K fia,r 'the' open'loop' system. g:overl1ed by thefollowing' t.lransT,er :funC1tiol'll ..
G(s):=K/(S(1+s)-Ci+2S) )

%pola'rplot'fiJr eli:
s.=-tf"(

'var+ous

valluesof

g~irt";-K

. . -GS,=Kj (s··* (-1+5) "" (1+"2*5.))

,K=:l; d, sp C ~ whe.n K";l.~ t:he' 91van

[nl'um~,cof

".s "');.

tran.sfer·

funct:·i on

"S

')

;.

den,_cof] =tfd,a.t:a (65" ;.:

for

;=1:"3;

end

if . 1=1; 1K=:1; [rei J'i ml] ;=nY'Qu'ist( [num._co,f .if - i ==2 ;.K=2; [r,e2-',:i m21=ny,qu·;_5.t-([-nutYI_coT iT i==:3.;K=2S; [r·e3,im.3)=n:y,quis1:([num_c-o"f·

'. .

de:n_cofl,
de!n_tofJ

den_col.f.J,

K);·e·nd.·~
K); egd:; .

,K);,e,iid-;
• ~I

ax; s ([ -.5-----:-1-. _,S 1J);9

x lab.e
'text:(

plot (re! ~i mil," -·k·' ,. re2

text(~3.B,-2.7 ~K=21) •. ·t:ex:t(-l. 8. :...2".1, ' K;25')

1

C" Rea.l '-a::xi 5 "),; . yl abel ( ..I.magi nary -3_ ...8 J" -·1.3: I' " £<,;;:11) .

ri d

im2

t.

'

k ',re3

,i 1m3 ~ :"_'k')
j

axis');

..........j..

....-::; ~.:.~r::::.':::. ~: ~J;~.~:~r;~;~r . ::

,_:.:'!:::_n:' :.. :::
:.
J_

..,. .~.~>:,-<:j ;:_;-,,:::::: " -.

,/'
. -3. - -- - _..- - _. _. -

+ -'-::i'".' -'".. -~....._.... "."·.. ·f··.".'.':'.".... j -., ----.~ --:/

:

K~"

. ~ K::2'S,':

:.
.... ~.-: ... -

~
..... ; .....

4 .'

.;/-+.-.~-'.

n~. ,

".1 :...
'.

of:
;
.

..,.
1
...

/ _.: ."".51....0----1..:. '-4 -s

.'

:
.!-i

':
.Heal axis
..
'.'

_~_'.__.u- ..........,..._-..__--__.__._~~ -1-,2' ·0

-Fig P3. 7:'Polar plot of the open loop system for various 'Values of K' ..'
_OUTPUT·.· When K=l, the given transfer function is, .
Transfer tunct ion: ..
.
-'

.:

PROGRAM '3.8
write a MATLAB proglram to 'draw margini.for.·the o.pen:looP.5yst~.m
. G(s)=lJ(s(1+s)2)

3~:9Z
.

the polar p'lot and cal cu'late gatn margin; .. nd phase a gover:ned. by t~e fo~lQW;?~ transfer funct+on.

%pirog :riilm "to'd

rawrn;

cbo.ls

plo1: em nichols.

ehae r

cl ear' all c lc s=tf( ii s·".); di :Sp,(iTlile give:n 1tran,Sfer f'uncti o,n' i's G.5=2 0/( s A 3+(7* sA2) +1'0* S).[ rium_,cof .

"

.:

);.

d en_cofl="tfda
-:15 20]);

.. 1:a(Gs)

In; cho l 5 (Gs);

%det.Eu;"ni:i e n luite:rat:o r n %coeffici.!:un:s of ·G(s)·%specify the range %verti·cal a:xi-s' .

&

d.eno·m,'"ato r' and

axis({-lSOO

of' horizontal

_.~.....

.
. _-1.dfi;

··ni
.

,0"

•••••••

-100

. -135 O~Lnop Filam ~

-45 _

Fig P3~8' : NichOls' plot of (he Qpen loop system given. in problem 3... . 8.. 'OUTPUT The 97 ven trenster Transfer
. I

:tunctiion

is~

tunct ton :

3;93 . 3.13 SHORT ,QU_ESTI'ONS AND ANSWERS

. Q3.1· -wirq{ts['l'eqaency.

response ?' .
are real' luindion of . -

. - The m~griit~de and phase funcnon of sinusoidal transfer function of a system . fre,quency (J),and so.they.are called frequency response, -

.Q3.2

Wllat are advantages

,0/ frequency response ,analysis

r,

1. The absolute and relatiVe s~abil'ity·ofthe dosed loop syst,em can be estimatedfrom the kmJOwledlge,. of the open ~Ioopfrequency response, '" .
2 .. The practical testing of system can be easHy- carried with aV:~li-lable' sinusoloalslqnal generators· and precise measurement equipmems, .. . . .3.. The transfer ·runction of eompUcat~d functions can be determined experimentally by frequency . response tests. -._ _. ..

4 .. The- design and parameter

.

5. The, corrective- measure for noise.disturbance and parameter variatlon can

,6. Itcan be

-..

adlusunent
.
.'

can be

carried more easily. -

be easily

·carilied.,

extended to oertain non-linear systems, -.

of the system in frequencY

. Q3.3.

Wha.t are jr~.qlien-~yd~mainspecij1e~tio~s?

The frequency

domain specifications. indicates the performance

4..
5.·

domain,

and they are,

. . -1. . . Resonant peak, Mil '

2. 3. Resonant. frequency,oor Bandwidth, rob

Gut;.off rate
Gain:

margIn,

Kg

6.

Phase margin, y .•

Q3.4

D'ejine Resonant Pea'k?

The maximum value of the magnitude of. ctosedioop transfer function is caned Resonant Peak, .

. 3.S· Q

What is Resonant frequency?

. Tbefrequency at which the, resonant peak OCCUIiSES called He~onanffr~quency. is the maximum value oi' the magnitude of ctosedJocp transfer function. The resonant p~ak '

Q3.6

,O(!fine Bandwidfh?
The ~andwidthis the range

'Of frequencies for which the system gain Is more, than. -3db.

Q:3.7

What is

Cllt~OfJ rate?

The slope of the log-magnitude

curve

near

the

cut-off frequency

is called cut-off rate.

·Q3.8

. Ij,~fil1'e gain margin?

The ~gaj;11maFQlfn, Kg is defined as the yalue by Which gain Of the system has to increased to drive system to be verge of in5tabHity. ·It isg~v8n by the reciprocal of 'the-magnitude of open loop transfer function, at phase 'cross-over frequency, .~pc"When expressed in decibels, it msgiven by, the negative

be

of db magnitude of GUm) at phase cross-over frequeli1~Y'.. . . .-.

Gam margin,

Kg;:;;; IGoro)I(i)""ro~.

l.

and

K , in db
g.

..

= 20 log ~IG{j(O)~_ . 1!
'_.

II

~"'_"'PC

= ~20 -.. IG(jru )11 log ..

Cl=(j),pC

Q3~9

Define phase margin?

The. phase margin, 1.is thatemount of additional phase lag at the g,ain cross-over frequency, rog~ requ ired to bring the_system to the verlge of Instability. It is given by ,-180°' + 4>gC' \.!Ihere 4> [;C the phase is of GOro).atthe gain cross over frequency,

--.t!!4
Phase margin, y =1:80°'+ <Pgc:';
Wh·ere,¢.~• LG(Jro)

I ~_

t!J="'gc

Q3JO.·

What is phase and ,Gain cross-over frequency?

The gain cross over frequ'encyis the trequency.at which the magnitude ornle open loop transfer .function is, ILmny. The phase cross QverffE!qllency is. the frequency at which the phaseef ~h&.open .loop transfer function is 180°.. '

QJ.Jl

.JVri.te· expression for resonant peak and resonant frequency .. the

.'

Resonant peak,

.'

Mlr

=.

2C,·'if-t;2.-

. ~.

. -Resonant fre'Quency,

(iI,'

= ffi£li~1 ~2~2
,

-.

".

, Q3.12

.:'Write a short note on the correlation between the time a.rld/requ.,e:ncy

response?

· Correlatlon exists tie~eenti:me and frequency res~'bnse of fi~~t ~~60f'ld 'ord~r systems. The 'or frequency dornalnspeciticatlonscan be expressed in terms ottne nme d6rria;inpafamete~rs~' and ron' For a peak overshoot in t~me domainthereis a corresponding resonant peak. in frequency domain. ~-. :. - '. : ~ -: ~ ~ .: . · For higher order systems, {here is no explicit correlation between time 81]d frequency response. BlJt· if there is a pair Qf. dominant complex conjugate poles,. then the system can approxi mateo 1.6· second order-system and the oorrelstlon -between time and frequency response Can be estimated.· -". .....
·
'.

'.

-.

.'

'.

be

. Q3.! 3

The dalnpi~g ratio and natural frequ,eneyof oscillation of a second ordersystem sec respectively. Calculatethe.r'esonant p~'(lk~{In,d res()n{lnt/l'eqil..eltcy_?
k: l!r'r=· esonant . pea", u R-

is ().5 and B'rad/

.'

. - .'

- :2 ';;VJ~<;2
OJ,

rr»: . .:.... '.

1 1:

C.

2 ~ (O.S,)~1- (0.5)2

'1 ' .. =. 154

R'e'sonant frequency,

"".o.J·nJ1-~2

= 8, x ~1":"'. x 0.5 2

::..

S.657 rad I s~c

:Q~.14

What ls Bode plot? .

The bode, plot is a freque;ncy response plot, of the transfer.rundioll ota systern.Jt consists of two
plots: Magnitude- plot and Phase plot ... The magnitude plot is a. graph between m~niitude of a system transfer function in db and 'frequency, ro. The phase pilot is a graph between the phase or argument of a systemtranster function jn degr,ees and th,e freq~uenGy, (I)'. Usually, both tile picots 'are p·lotIJed! on a common x-axis in wh~chUlje frequencies areoxpressed in logarithniic scale. . '. Q3.15 What is approximate bodeplot?

· In approxsnate bode, plot, the magnitude plot of first andeecond order taetors are approximated by two straight Ilines, which are asymptotes tosxact plot One straight Ilin~ is a.t.Odb; for the freqU;ency range 0 (!'\: and the other straight ~Ilne drawn with a SJope· 'of± 2iOn-;dib/dec'forfreque·r"cy range roc is _to co. Here roc is the comerfrequency. .

to

Q3.16

Define corner frequency? The magnitude plotcari be approximated by asymptotic stralqht lines, Thefrequencies correspondinq to therine'e~ing. polntofasymptotes are calledcomerfreqeeney.Thc slope-of the magniitude plot. changes at evelY corner frequency, .

Q3. ~ 7:

What are- the advantages

of Bode Plot?

1. The magnitudes,are expressed in do,and so, a simple procedure is available toadd magnitude of each term one by one.

2.

~he.app~~~imattl'bQde '~ot~n be~Quickty'Sk~t~hed'.a~d~the' corrections frequenCie~; to get the 'exact plot. .

can

be m_ad~ ~t

~orner·

3. Thefrequency
4:
.

domain specflcetlons can be :easHy ,determined ...

The bode plot can

-"

be used to analyse
.'

'

.
.

-.-

botb open loop and closed loop system ..

-

Q3.18:

.. ;Wh:at;isthe· freqlU!ncy?

Vllm,t

.of erior ,in theapp1'oxilnilte

...

magnitllae .plot of « first order factor at .the corner

..

...

..tne error in the. ap;prmdmate magniitu;de plot ofafirst Qn;ter faGtOf at ·the .corll;1erfrequenc,y i$±.3rri dbf wtle.1i6·· is multiiplicity factor ..PosiUv,e error for numerator factor and neg:aliV'e error for denominator m.
factor ..
. Q3.J9 . . H'hl,ll is ike valueo/'

..

corne, /liequency?
..

ei7Qr in theappTaxiinate
.. .
.:

."-gnitade plot ofa quadratic/actor' with (=1 ~ the . .. - '. . '. .

. .. .'.

The· error is ± 6db. for mequadratlc ~rPllr for denominator factor.·

factor with ~;::;1. Positive error for numerator factor and nega.tiv€:

Q3.. 0 2

DT;aw·t~ Dode.p.lm otG(s) =.-;;-..

..... ,5

. ....

: ..... · ..··.. K

\.

.:Let s .=: JID', - , .. ,'... K .~~G(jfU)_ =(jro.t

The ma'gnitud~.ofG(j~J'is unit)twhen 00;:· Kl1n. . The magnitude ·:pfot. is. a,.straight line with slope ·of :"':20n db/dec and passing t~rough Phase plot is straight line ·parallel to x-axis at -90rro.. .. .. .

00

Klll1 .• The·

-,' in
-. db

+:20~.:··· ,. ~.... .... ~ '.

..
0 -20n .

. :.$,
:--

x. '.

..

' .:

,.
..

. O.1K!l
.

Kr:I 11)KO
.

1.1

ffi{log scale)

.FiC·Q3.2{} r Bode plo; of iJ'lt;~gra!factor, K/(jro)" ..

QJ.21SketchJhe Let s = je,

hode piot of G(s) = 11(1+sT) . • ... ...... '. 1... ...G(jro ) =.' .. . -l+-j(J)T = T···· .. . ·1
. ·1: .
. ..

TI1e·cornerfrequency,·1D1';!

by 'two straight lines: one straight line .at Odb tf)'e·frequency range 0. to ,coena the otner straight line .with the .slope of -2{)dbldec in the frequency range .(1)c io~ .. . c . .. .. ThepJrlCilse of G(jm) varies- ~from ,0' ra,,90n ase is lIai,ried from 0 to co, Hence, the phase plot is a curve
The ·rilagn:ituge piot is epproxlrnated ·passing through -45°' at the comer frequency.
-

in

'.

-.'

-'

, ,.~-90°t--'---~--'-~---""'~;

_45

0 :

";--=c--~

to
.T
,

to,

'(log scale)
'

Fig 2);21 ,: Bodepio: ,o/thefactor. ,t ..' ," ,', .' " ,'1+ j@1 Q3~22 What is polar plot?' ' 'the polar plot Sifl~sOidal transfer 'function Guro) is a pilot ma,g~nitudeof GO(£)) versus tile , phase ·ang~e/argumenf of Gum) on polar Of' rectangular co-ordinates as ro is 'varied fromzero to ' rnfi~ily .: Q3~:J3

01a

ortne

What is minimum 'phase system?

The

rnialmum. ph'ase sy:Ste;ms'are- Systems with minimum phase transfer ·functions. In minimum phase' transfer {unctions, anpo,les and zeros wm lieon the, I~ft haff of s-plane ..

Wliati8 AII~P'as8sYSli!mS? The a~ipass systems am-systems' with all pass, transfer 'fun:ctiiqrts,_lin ,aU pass transfer functlons, the, magnitude is unity at, aU frequencies ~ and the transfer -run~on, wilt have anti..symrnetrtc pole'2,ero ' pattern (i.e.. for every pole in the lief! half .s-plane, thete, is a zero in tlhe mirror rmage, position with ' , , , respeetto imaiginaryaxis).'

Q3.25

What

ts ft()n~mini:lfI1lm,ph.asetra»:sftr:/unction?
"

, A lransferfunc.tioo :whi:ch h'a~:one or more phase transfer funcnon .' ,Q3.26 '

zeros in the fig:ht ,haif sl"pfane is known as non-minimum

\

.In mininmm phase system, haw the start and ,end of potar pint ,tire identified?
For minimum phase' transfelr'functiorts~ w~th'only poles" the- type number of mesystem det,ermines the quad-r,antin which the potier p~otstarts, andtne order ,of a ,:system detef;m~nes the-quadrantln

which the polar plot ends.

'.

, ~Start oftype-3 system

'*:"
,,:*-:- Start of typel-O
system

End of3 ' order sysmem

, ,d

Ei'D:d,of4>!i or~er system

Start oftype-2
system
S.'tart, .•.

'system

'

0,

f type"

, End of2"" " order syssem '

ID

t"

i ,•

, I, '

~ .

End of 1'>1 order 'sys,cem

.Fig

Q3:i6a' :Start

ofpolar plot' of atlp'Ole'

jihaSij!

minimum

iyslerrr

, Fig Q3..26b : End of polar p/o.i ofall pole ,'minimum phase' system. '

3·97
Q3.2"7

Fig Q3.27: Polar-plot ofG(s) = L~(1 +si). As

(I)

-+ 0"
00,

G{Jro) "'-" 1LO

As
Q3.28 .

eo -+

.SAetc'h ih.e polar plot of,

"

G(jro) -+ DL-:- 90" . 1 O(s) = .. ... ~..." 2 ... "

s (1 + s1jJ(l + s T2) (1+ sT3)

• _

,,_

,_

The gi:\(el1 "system,is"-all pole minimum

'!I.

phase system. The type

number of the! system is 2 and the order i~s Hence, the polar 5,. protstarts in second quadrant and ends in fourth quadrant.

_90'0 FigQ3.28 : Polarplot of type-Z, 5 th order system.

Q3.29

·What is Nichols pla.t?

'. The Nichols plot is. a frequency
,graph between magnliitude graph sheet. .'-_ "'

of

response plot of the open loop transterfunction

G(jw} in db , ," ,. "

and the phase of GGw} in degree, plotted all a ordinal)' .

.

of a system. n fS a'

Q3.30

What are Ma.nd N cirdes?

"

The

magnitude" M of ciesedlcop transfer ~unction with ulm'ilLy feedback will be in the'for~ of drcl!e complex plane 'for each cOhs~~mt alue of M. The family vi these circles are called ;M~tcle:~. v

tn
"

Let N == tan U,. where a' ts the phase of closed loop transfer functior1lwiith .unity feedback. For each ,constant value of N, a. Glrde can drawn i!nthe complex plaine. The family ofthese circles er,e caned

N-circles_

be

Q3.11

How closed Ioop ft:e:quency response is determined from, open .loop ir.equency and' N eirelest

response

using M

The GOm) locus or polar plot of, open loo;p' System"isslk:e:t~hed on the standard M! and N circles chart. . , The meeting postt of M_circle with' GOoo) locus, giyes the magnitude of closed loop system, (the frequency being same as that of open loop systsrn). The me'stlng pOint GUm) kicua with N-cirde-

of

gives the va!lue' ofphasebf

.

.'

closed loop system, (frequency being same as that of open ioop system).
-.'

Wk«: is Nickols ,chart? The Niehol~s: nart.consistsof M and IN' contours superimposed on ordinary graph. Alon'g each' c 'M~contour the magnitude of closed loop system" M Will be a constant, Along each N-tontour, the phase a of dosed loop system will be' constant, The ordinary graph consists Qf magnitude j,i1 db, marked on' the y-axis "and the' phase in "degre'es~ marked on x-axis, The Nich ols chart is used to fi nd .
the closed loop frequency ,Q3.33
response frcm 1ihe open loop frequency response.

Howthe closed loop /requen.cy .response is determined fr01~ the open J.oopfrequencj1 response using Nichols chart? ' . . .' Tille GOro) locus or the Nichols plot is sketched on the standard INichols chart. The meet:ing point of ,
M-contour with GUO» locus. g'ives the maqnitude of. closed .loop system and the m~etjng point with NI-drde gives the arqumentrphase of the- closedloopsystem. '

Q3.34 ' ", What are the (ldvant~ge,_~,of Nichols chart?

1.. It is used to find closed loop frequency response from open loop frequency response.

2. The-frequency dornainspecftcauons

can bedetermlnad

from

Nichols

chart.

3., Tfu3 Igain of the system carl be adjusted to satisfy the grv,en speeiflcation.

'.

'

3.98 ,3.14 EXERCISES

E3.1 Sketch the bodeplotofth~elo11{mting ,'ph:ase margIn, 'a:nd' gain nuugm"Q) G(s) .c) G(s)
open loop transferfimctions

and-from

thoe-plot deter,mu,e the '

10'()(1+0.1s)ls(l+O.2s)' (1+fJ.5s) ,

d} _G(s)

= S].($+JO)((s+5)~

(s+O,,1)

'bi G(s}';;;;50(1-J1J.Is)I(1+0.01s) (l+s)

.eJ

G(s}:=; 410 (1+s)/(1+5$) (sl+2s+4) ,

1l)(1+$) rT~/~(l+O~2s)

= 30(J+O.ls)ls(l+O~Ols) (1+s)

}).,(;(s)"=

£-3..;2:

-_ The openlaop,tra~sfe(:fu~cti(Jfl:

of a_£yst~mjS' KIvett by' ,G(s) = Kis(1+,O.,5s) (1+o..2sj. 'Using bode.ptot ,find the value of K so that (i) The gtdn inarginoftb'e system is 6db- and (iil The-phose maiginoj the' system is 25(1. Sketch. the pola/plot of-the following margin, and gain margin: a) 6(5) = 10, (s+I)I(s+UJp b)G(s) transferfunaions and from the plot, determine the phase . ,

E3.3

_ c) ~;bls ( s + 1) (s+5)
+10s +100) ',d) l/s (s + 4) (s +8) '

= 20() (s +2)/s(sl

E3.4,

"Th,e open 'loop transfer function a/a system is' ~ven by (;(s) ~:Kls (sl + s + 4). Using polar plot, -determine the value of Kt so th-at-pbtISe' margin is 506~ What'is_ the corresponding value of gain margin? __ ' A unify/ee:dback_system lUIS -a(s) "'" Kls(1+0.1s)., U;s~ngNichols chart find the value o[K 5'0' that - resonant peak, :M~=1.,4~ Find' the ,correspondingva'l"ae «1/ wi'" The open looptrans/er ... '...

E3 ..5 'E3.6

junction oj unity jeedback system is, .tG(s) = K/(1+0.05s) -..,

'.

-.

(1+IJ.lsj(l+O.3S).

',"

, Using Nichols chart find thevalue of K so that g.ain margin of the sys!em is lO.db. W~at is- the ' corresponding value of phtIse, margin. , E3.7 E3'.8 'Using chart-de:termine theclosed wbose, open loop transfer Junction is;G(s) unity feedback Nichols responseof'the = 200(:s+1)ls(s+10Y~

loop frequency'

unity jee.dback

system~

'A

system: haS

ope»

loop

tra.nsferfimctio;~ "a(s) = 541(1+0:1sj (Sl.+ Bs

+ 15):,

dosed loop /req:uen.Cy response. l!.!om ihe closed loop response, determine" the resonant peak, resonant freq.uency and bandWidth.
Using Nichols chartdetermil1ethe
"