207

MICROMORPHOLOGIC EVIDENCE OF ADHESIVE AND COHESIVE FORCES IN SOIL CEMENTATION O.A. CHADWICK and W.D. NETTLETON Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, MS 1 8 3 - 5 0 1 , 4800 Oak Grove Dr., Pasadena, CA 91109; National Soil Survey Laboratory, Federal Bldg., Rm. 3 4 5 , 100 Centennial Mall North, Lincoln, NE 68508 ABSTRACT Cemented soil horizon differentation is based on the material that is dominantly responsible for restricting root growth and retarding porosity. Chemical bonding properties of the cementing material determine whether it coheres to itself or adheres to the s-matrix. the relative amount of adhesion or cohesion of soil cement can be inferred most clearly from fabric arrangements of strongly cemented horizons. Ionicly bonded calcite and gypsum produce open-porphyric related-distribution-patterns in which the primary grains float in the expanding crystal matrix. In contrast, covalently bonded silica, iron, aluminum, and organic matter produce closeporphyric related-distribution-patterns in which isotopic cutans surround grains and fill voids and channels. Whole-horizon chemical data and quantification of cement on thin sections indicate that adhesive cementation requires less cement than cohesive cementation.

1.

INTRODUCTION Four types of chemically cemented soil horizons are recognized by Soil

Taxonomy based on the dominant type of cementing agent: petrogypsic, gypsum; petrocalcic, calcium carbonate; placic, iron, aluminum, and organic matter; duripan, silica (Soil Survey Staff, 1 9 7 5 ) . response to positive Cemented horizons develop in lead to accumulation of feedback reactions that

pedogenic compounds until the pores in the s-matrix are plugged by plasma (Torrent and Nettleton, 1 9 7 8 ) . horizons. Sharp contrasts in micromorphology are noted when placic and duric horizons are compared with petrocalcic and petrogypsic Placic and duric horizons usually have plectic or close-porphyric microfabrics with isotic plasma (De Coninck and McKeague, 1985; Brewer et al., 1983; McKeague and Guertin, 1 9 8 2 ) , whereas petrogypsic and petrocalcic horizons usually have open-porphyric microfabrics with crystic plasma (Allen,
1985; Brewer et al., 1983; Nettleton et al., 1 9 8 2 ) .

In

this

paper,

we

argue

that

differences

in

cemented-horizon

microfabrics are due to the amount of adhesion that occurs between the s matrix and cementing compounds, and that differences in cemented-horizon plasmas are due to the type of chemical bonding occuring within the cementing compounds. Our hypothesis is that covalent bonding favors adhesion of silica, iron, aluminum, and/or organic cementing compounds to the existing s -

208

matrix which results in close-porphyric fabric and

isotic plasma.

In

contrast, ionic bonding favors cohesion of the calcite or gypsum cement to itself which results in open-porphyric fabric and crystic plasma. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS We selected typical examples o f soils with strongly cemented or

indurated horizons from the National Soil Survey Laboratory (NSSL) database

) (Table 1 .

The soils were chosen as modal examples of each type of cemented The amount of

horizon; they contained a minimum amount of accessory cementing agents, such as calcium carbonate in the petrogypsic or duripan horizons. using the following chemical methods gypsum by water extract procedures cementing agent in crushed samples of the cemented horizons was measured (Soil Conservation Service, 1972): (6Fla,6Flb); calcium carbonate by

manometric measurement of C02 evolved after treatment with HC1 (6Eld); iron by atomic absorption spectrometry on a dithionite-citrate extract (6C2a); and organic carbon by FeS04 titration on an acid-dichromate digestion (6Ala). Silica was measured by atomic absorption spectrometry after duripan samples were boiled for 2.5 minutes in 0.5 NaOH (Torrent et al., 1980) and placic NaOH. samples were incubated for 2 hours with 8OoC 0.5 TABLE 1 Soils Used in This Study and Their Micromorphology Series Classification Horizon Btqml Btqm2 Bsm Bsm 2Bkqml BYm Microfabric Plasma

Chesterton fine-loamy,mixed (S76CA73-2 mesic Typic Durixeralf Redding fine,mixed,thermic taxadj . Abruptic Durixeralf (S66CA37-2) Kruzof thixotropic (S67Ak51-2) Cryic Placohumod Shinaku sandy-skeleta1,mixed (S62Ak0-3) frigid Placic Haplaquod Sierocliff loamy-skeletal, (S66NV9-24) carbonatic mesic Xerollic Paleorthid Unnamed coarse-loamy,gypsic (S74NM35-9) thermic Petrogypsic Gypsiorthid

plectic, isotic close-porphyric plectic, isotic close-porphyric plectic, isotic close-porphyric plectic, isotic close-porphyric open-porphyric crystic open-porphyric crystic

The areal extent of cement as observed from thin sections was quantified using a video-based computer image analysis system. grains (> 20 pm), cemented plasma, and voids. For each cemented horizon, and 8 to 9 cm2 area o n thin sections was divided into 3 categories: Categories were quantified based on operator-defined gray-level thresholding and density slicing of a

209

digitized video image. Errors associated with the technique are estimated at 10 to 15% primarily because of the following uncertainties: 1) measurements of void space formed by grain plucking during thin section preparation, 2) overestimation of cemented plasma due to measurement of clay-size s-matrix, 3) gray level confusion between cemented plasma and lithofragments. Thin sections were prepared by the method of Innes and Pluth (1970) and described using terminology suggested by Brewer et al. (1983) and Bullock et al. (1985). 3. RESULTS The noncalcareous duripans in the Chesterton and Redding taxadjunct soils from California have plectic or close-porphyric microfabrics with skeleton grains coated and bridged by grayish-yellow to reddish-brown isotic plasma (Table 1; Fig. 1A). volume. The placic horizons in the Kruzof and Shinaku soils from Alaska have plectic or close-porphyric microfabrics with (Table 1 ; Fig. 1B). skeleton grains coated and bridged by yellowish-brown, reddish-brown, and dark-brown isotic plasma The cemented plasma is 30 to 40% by volume, about 32% Small Fe203, 2 to 6% organic carbon, and about 6% Si02 by mass (Table 2). allophane. Voids are 3 to 9
%

The cemented plasma is about 38% by volume, 3.5

to 11.2% Si02 and about 4% Fe203 by mass (Table 2). Voids are about 10% by

silica/aluminum ratio values indicate that the silica may be released from by volume. The cemented The petrocalcic horizon in the Sierocliff soil from Nevada has an openporphyric microfabric with crystic plasma (Table 1; Fig. 1C). plasma is about 83% by volume, 72% CaC03 by mass (Table 2). 3% by volume. The petrogypsic horizon in the unnamed soil from New Mexico has an openporphyric microfabric with crystic plasma (Table 1; Fig. 1 D ) . about 2% by volume. The amount of cement commonly measured in cemented horizons was evaluated using samples for the NSSL database: placic, 24 f 4% (n=5) Fe203; petrocalcic, 68 f 19% (n=ll) CaC03; petrogypsic, 8 6 f 7% (n=2) CaS04.2H20.
No additional data on the silica content of duripans are available.

Voids are about

The cemented Voids are

plasma is about 97% by volume, 89% CaS04.2H20 by mass (Table 2).

In

agreement with data presented in Table 2, these data indicate that placic horizons have horizons. less cementing material than petrocalcic and petrogypsic

210

F i g . 1. P e t r o g r a p h i c micrographs o f cemented h o r i z o n s . A : Redding t a x a d j u n c t Btqm2, p a r t l y c r o s s e d p o l a r i z e d l i g h t ; B: Shinaku B s m , p a r t l y c r o s s e d p o l a r i z e d l i g h t ; C : S i e r o c l i f f Bkqml, c r o s s e d p o l a r i z e d l i g h t : D : unnamed Bym, c r o s s e d p o l a r i z e d l i g h t .

211

TABLE 2
Microscopic and Chemical Analyses of Cemented Horizons Type of Horizon Microscopic Analysis Cemented Plasma Grains Voids
%

Chemical
-%-

Series

Chesterton Duripan Redding Duripan taxadj . Kruzof Placic Shinaku Placic

38 38

52

51

10 11 9
3

3.5 Si02 11.2 Si02 31.2 Fe203 5.0 Si02 6.1 Org. Carb. 32.0 Fe203 6.7 Si02 2.1 Org. Carb. 72 CaC03 89.0 CaS04.2H20

30
41 83 97

61
56

Sierocliff Petrocalcic Unnamed Petrogypsic 4.

14 1

3
2

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The micromorphology of cemented pans indicate two different styles of In the placic and duripan horizons, the s-matrix is

soil cementation.

retained as an integral part of the cement because it acts as a sorption surface for aluminum and iron oxyhydroxy compounds, organic carbon, and/or opaline silica. In contrast, in the petrocalcic and petrogypsic horizons, Measurements on the the s-matrix is expelled because it has little chemical affinity with the precipitating calcium carbonate and gypsum crystals. volume and mass of cementing compounds indicate that less iron and silica is required to cement a horizon because the s-matrix is part of the cement. More calcium carbonate and gypsum is required to cement a horizon because the s-matrix is not an integral part of the cement. The placic and duripan horizons are formed by sorption reactions between the soil solution constituents and the s-matrix. In acid soils, iron oxyhydroxy and organic compounds coat most aluminosilicate clays and primary minerals while in calcareous soils, silinol and aluminol groups are exposed on uncoated mineral surfaces (Sposito, 1984). In both cases, exposed -OH or -COOH groups on soil surfaces can form covalent or quasi-covalent bonds with hydrated iron, aluminum, silica or organic compounds in the soil solution (De Coninck, 1983; Chadwick et al., 1987). adhering to s-matrix components. Thus, the cement accumulates by The partly hydrated, covalently bonded

cements are poorly crystalline which results in isotic plasma.

212

The petrocalcic and petrogypsic horizons are formed by growth and interlocking of authigenic crystals that have little affinity for the surface reactive groups on the s-matrix surfaces. relative weak surfaces. electron acceptor -OH and The 02- portion of the C032- and -COOH groups on the s-matrix S042- is more reactive with a strong electron acceptor like Ca2+ than the Cementation occurs as crystals cohere to each other through

chemical intergrowth and physical interlocking. The s-matrix is not held in place by adhesion and is displaced by the increasing volume of crystic plasma. 5. REFERENCES

Allen, B.L. 1985. Micromorphology of Aridisols. In: L.A. Douglas and M.L. Thompson (Editors), Soil Micromorphology and Soil Classification. Soil Sci. SOC. Am. Spec. Pub. No. 15, Madison, WI, pp. 197-216. Brewer, R . , Sleeman, J.R., and Foster, R.C. 1983. The fabric of Australian soils. In: Soils an Australian Viewpoint, Division of Soils, CSIRO, CSIRO: Melborne/Academic Press: London, pp. 439-476. Bullock, P., Federoff, N., Jongerius, A , , Stoops, G . , Tursina, T., and Babel, U. 1985. Handbook For Soil Thin Section Description. Wain Research, Mount Pleasant, Wolverhampton, WV, England, 47 pp. Chadwick, O.A., Hendricks, D.M., and Nettleton, W.D. 1987. Silica in duric soils: I. A depositional model. Soil Sci. SOC. Am. J . , 51: 975-982. De Coninck, F. 1983. Genesis of Podzols. Acad. Analecta (R. Acad. Belg.), 45 2-65. De Coninck, F. and McKeague, J.A. 1985. Micromorphology of Spodosols. In: L.A. Douglas and M.L. Thompson (Editors). Soil Micromorphology and Classification. Soil Sci. SOC. of Am. Spec. Pub. 15, Madison, WI, pp. 121- 144. Innes, R.P. and Pluth, D.J. 1970. Thin section preparation using an epoxy impregnation for petrographic and electron microprobe analysis. Soil Sci. SOC. Am. Proc., 341483-485. McKeague, J.A. and Guertin, R.K. 1985. Fabrics of some Canadian soils in relation to particle size and other factors. Soil Sci., 133:87-102. Nettleton, W.D., Nelson, R.E., Brasher, B.R., and Derr, P.S. 1982. Gypsiferous soils in the Western United States. In: J.A. Kittrick, D.S. Fanning, and L.R. Hossner, (Editors). Acid Sulfate Weathering, Soil Sci. SOC. of Am. Spec. Pub. No. 1 0 , Madison, WI, pp. 147-168. Soil Conservation Service. 1972. Soil Survey Investigation Report No. 1. Soil Survey Laboratory Methods and Procedures for Collecting Soil Samples. USDA, Lincoln, NE, 63 pp. Soil Survey Staff. 1975. Soil Taxonomy: A basic system for making and interpreting soil surveys. USDA-SCS Agric. Handb. 436. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 754 pp. Sposito, G . 1984. The Surface Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press, New York, 234 pp. Torrent, J . and Nettleton, W.D. 1978. Feedback processes in soil genesis. Geoderma, 20:281-287. Torrent, J . , Nettleton, W.D., and Borst, G. 1980. Genesis of a Typic Durixeralf of Southern California. Soil Sci. SOC. Am. J . , 44:575-582.