Database systems: Database systems overcome the these limitation of file-processing systems.

by supporting In an integrated,centralized data strcuture ,database system eliminated problems With data redundancy and data controls. A centralized database is available throughout the company and if, for example a customers name must be changed , the change is available to all the users.Data are controlled via a data dictionary/directory (DD/D) system,which is itself controlled by a group of company employees is known as database Adminstrators (DBAs). New data access methods greatly simplify the process of rating Data element, which in turns enhance data manipulation .all of the features of databases systems simplify the programming effort and reduce program maintenance. At present we are in the midst of a decades-long effort to develop increasingly Powerful database management systems. This process has seen the evolutionary Development of systems based on three principal data models, or conceptual methods of structuring data.These three data models are a) Hierarchical datamodel b) Network datamodel c) Relational datamodel Hierarchical Model sytem: the first databases systems, introduced in the mid-sixties, were based in the hierarchical model. Which assumes all data relationships can be structured as hierarchies.
CUSTOMER

INVOICE INVOICE LINE

Which assumes all data relationships can be stractured as hierarchies. Now instead of sales which contain only a single product, we have invoices which in turn have invoice line, Each customer has multiple invoices, and each invoice as multiple lines. Each line records the sales of a single product. As above the INVOICE and INVOICE LINE Files the SALES file.we can make a A data model that assumes all data relationships can be structured as hierarchies.
The Hierarchical Model

It was developed in 1960s to manage large amounts of data for complex manufacturing projects such as Apollo rocket in 1969. Its logical structure is represented as an upside-down tree. Hierarchical structure contains levels or segments which is like a record in the file system. This model depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships between a parent and its children segments Each parent can have many children, but each child has only one parent Advantages Many features form the foundation for current data models Generated a large installed base of programmers who developed solid business applications Disadvantages Complex to implement Difficult to manage Lacks structural independence Implementation limitations Lack of standards (Company vs Industry or Open) The Network Model

The network database is a collection of records in 1:M relationships which allows a child to have multiple parents. A Set is a relationship, which is composed of at least two recode types known as owner and member. Owner Equivalent to the hierarchical models parent. Member Equivalent to the hierarchical models child. Advantages Represents complex data relationships better than Hierarchical Model Improved database performance Impose a database industry standard Conference on Data Systems Languages (CODASYL) Database Task Group (DBTG) Disadvantages Too cumbersome Lack of ad hoc query capability Put heavy pressure on programmers Any structural change in the database could produce havoc in all application programs that drew data from the database The Relational Model

 Developed by Edgar F.Codd (IBM 1970 ) and considered as ingenious

but impractical in 1970 because computers lacked power to implement the relational model. Todays PCs run sophisticated relational databases

The relational model foundation is a mathematical concept known as relations (tables) which is a matrix of row and column intersections. Each row in a relation is called a tuple and each column represents an attribute. The relational model describes a set of data manipulation constructs based on mathematical concepts. The relational model is implemented through relational database management system (RDBMS). The RDBMS performs all the basic functions of Hierarchical and Network models and lot of other functions that make relational data model easier to implement and understand. The major advantage of RDBMS is that it hides the complexities of the relational model from the user. The user can manipulate and query the data in a logical way. A table yields complete data and structural independence because it is purely logical structure.

 Representation of relational databases Entities (Tables) Attributes within those entities (Fields) Relationships between those entities (Links) Tables are related to each other through the sharing of a common attribute.

Current directions- client/server plateforms:

The introduction of IBM PC in 1981 established the desktop workstation as standard in the office.word processing ,spreadsheet, and other software alone justified the use of these machines. It was only natural,moreover, for them to be tied together to allow users to communicate via E-mails and to access common resource lime printer and desks. Initially severs were set up to control printing and file access. These were print servers and file servers, for Example the file server responding to a client request for a specific file would send the entire file over the nerwork to the client machines .Today the most server are database server such as programs which run on server hardware and provide database services to client machines.Thus the client may running an application program and need to execute a query of a database.To do this it sends a request for data to the database server,which in turn carries out the query and returns the resulting data to the client. The power of the client-server plateforms lies in the division-of labour concept, The client is the front-end machine that interfaces dicertly with the user.It handles the Graphical User Intereface(GUI) and does computations and other programming pf interest to the end user. The server is tha back-end machine and handles those parts of the job which are common to many client such as database access and update. Conceptually client/sever platforms are part of open system concept, Under which all manner of computers,operating system,network protocols,and protocols and other softwares and hardware can be interconnected and work in concert to achive user goals.the goal of the open system is to achive interoperability which is the state of two or more heterogeneous systems communicating and each contributing some portion of work to common task. The client/server plateforms is that A local area network consisting of client computers which receive services from a server computer.

Database Systems: Hardware,Software, data,people:

A complete database system in an organization consists of Four components: Hareware,software,data and people. Hardware: The Hardware is the set of physical devices in which a datbse resides, it consists of one or more computers,disks drives,CRT terminals,printers,tape drives,connecting cables, and others auxiliary connecting hardware. Software: The database system includes two types software: Genereal-purpose databse management software,usally called the database managent system(DBMS). Appliction software that uses DBMS facilities to manipulate the databse to Achive a specific abusiness function,such as issuing statement or analyzing sales trends.