The ACA Open Knowledge Online Guide

The ACA Open Knowledge Online Guide

Christina E. Wells, M.A. [cwells@washjeff.edu] Instructor of Communication Theatre and Communication Department Washington & Jefferson College Brent A. Saindon, M.S. Doctoral Student Department of Communication University of Pittsburgh bas74@pitt.edu Ronald L. Herbig, M.A. Product Support Specialist Educational Technology Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine & Science ron.herbig@rosalindfranklin.edu

This module helps you understand: The importance of using visual aids in public speaking. The dangers and ethical considerations of presenting visual material. Types of visual aids frequently used for presentations. How to choose the right visual aid for a presentation. Suggestions for incorporating visual aids into a presentation.

Developing and Using Visual Aids Effectively: Charts, Models, and Artifacts Galore Logical Fallacies
Visual mediums have become one of the most important means of conveying ideas from person to person, or from company to consumer. We encounter all types of visual presentations, each performing an important function in a specific context. Governments use visual icons, such as a flag or a seal, to exalt the ideals of their society. Businesses post billboards, buy commercial airtime, and send mail that include visual images in order to both inform people about available services or products and persuade them to buy such goods. Social movements, youth organizations, and sporting teams display unique logos to identify the group, its members, and other supporters. Scientists design graphs and charts to compress the results of their research into an easy-to-understand form. Families build or purchase tombstones to preserve the memory of a loved one. You probably have images on your walls of things you like or of people you love and admire. In short, visual images are important because they help us make good decisions and cultivate our identities. You may not think about all of the visual information around you, but it does have an important impact on even the most mundane aspects of your life. In most cases, we do not think about all of these visual images because they seem familiar to us. For example, if you drive past the same billboard advertising a popular fast food restaurant on your way to school every day, after seeing it a few times, you will not notice it consciously, though you will likely retain the information contained in the advertisement. However, if one day the sign changes to advertise another new eatery, it will likely grab your attention. Perhaps it piques your curiosity enough that you decide to visit the new establishment. This example demonstrates that as the visual context changes, you integrate those changes into existing information about your immediate surroundings and adjust your behavior in light of new material. Given the saturation of visual communication into all aspects of personal, professional, and public life, all speakers should consider how visual elements interact with attempts to commemorate, inform, and persuade. When creating a public presentation for an occasion, one ought to consider incorporating visual aids: visual material used to enhance the effectiveness of a speakers communication. This module supplies you with basic information on visual aids, types of visual and audio aids available to you, and ways to construct and use visual aids effectively.
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The Value of Visual Aids At least since the time of Ancient Greeks, the relationship between verbal and visual modes of exposition has been a topic of continued discussion. Aristotle suggests in The Rhetoric that a good metaphor makes the audience visualize the speakers words, thus making a connection between two comparable objects clear immediately. Conversely, both the Greek Sophists and the Roman Cicero speak of good delivery and speech arrangement through the metaphor of adornment: a process in which one provides accessories to a thing or person in order to add beauty to it. Earrings, tattoos, and clothing are examples of adornments people use today to make themselves

You should think about visual aids as a way to adorn your presentation and make it more appealing to audiences.

more appealing to other people; the Greeks and Romans had similar practices in their time. Though they did not have access to all the different media forms we have today, ancient thinkers still understood that providing variety in a presentation would more effectively keep an audience captivated. You should think about visual aids as a way to adorn your presentation and make it more appealing to audiences. Technological developments have diversified the types of communication available to speakers in order to activate different ways of understanding. Books, newspapers, pamphlets, film, television, photography, interactive computer software, and the internet, just to name a few of the major mediums, all provide important avenues of communication that we interact with on a regular basis. Groundbreaking research in the last 50 years, spearheaded by people like Marshall McLuhan and Walter Ong, has revealed that the ways we present and preserve information have as much influence over understanding as the content of a presentation. We currently live in an inter-medial (Plate, 2004) environment in which several different modes of presenting information co-mingle to produce an overall meaning for an audience. Designing public presentations for an inter-medial world requires that speakers integrate several different types of display in addition to conveying information orally. Whether you plan to enter the workforce, go into business, or enter the teaching profession, familiarity with producing and understanding visual materials must be an essential part of your education. In addition to the general needs to design presentations that keep pace with the changing communication environment in a media-saturated age, the use of visual aids perform a number of important functions as a part of a public presentation. Visual Aids Increase Understanding Phrases like seeing is believing and a picture is worth a thousand words tell us a lot about the value placed on vision in American culture. In some cases, showing something to an audience can be much more effective than describing that same event. Describing a scene in-depth may take a speaker several minutes and require significant forethought to keep attention of the audience, but a single image or set of images can accomplish the same goal in a matter of seconds. For example, if you were to give an informative speech about the D-Day invasion of Normandy during World War II, you might spend a great deal of time describing the scene. However, just a few seconds of footage from Saving Private Ryan (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHXTbBdcfEg) could be much more effective in conveying this horrific event than any amount of verbal description alone. Visual aids can perform several different functions to increase understanding. They can review information already presented, giving the audience a second opportunity to absorb it. They can emphasize a certain point in the presentation (like the Saving Private Ryan clip). Finally, they can provide examples of material described in the speech. In your presentations, it would be wise to use visual aids in several different ways, depending on your needs and the capabilities of our audience.

Visual Aids Help Organize Ideas Visual aids can keep speakers on-track and organized during the presentation. Charts and graphs are the most common examples of visual aids that can help the speaker organize their ideas on a subject. The chart below provides some illustration of this point:

Who is it that I am going to be talking to? What, exactly, makes them, as listeners, tick?
Displaying a chart like the one above in an informative speech about the hazards produced by the beef industry allows both the speaker and the audience to see the organization of ones major points. Large-scale production produces a situation in which cattle wait in high-concentration pens to be processed in the plant. This arrangement has several troublesome environmental and ethical side effects. The chart connects effects to a central source visually and allows speaker and audience to anticipate the flow of the speech. Visual Aids Simplify Complex Procedures Have you ever been frustrated with a cooking recipe that did not come with either illustrations or a picture of the finished product? If you have, you are certainly not alone. Many processes, especially those that we normally learn through mimicking another person or through practice, are much easier to learn with visual aids. If you at least know what the product is supposed to look like (i.e. your meal), you can try to guess whether you are performing the correct procedure. Some issues can be much too intricate and complicated to describe in words alone. For example, if a speaker were speaking about the process of water filtration, it would be difficult for she or he to cover every aspect of the process from start to finish without boring the audience. However, showing a graph (http://www.crystalclear.com.ph/images/process_big_01.gif) that illustrates the entire filtration process gives the speaker two distinct advantages. First, the speaker can take much less time explaining the order of the process since the audience can make some assumptions on their own from the graph. Second, the speaker can choose to skip parts of the process not directly relevant to the speech, thereby enabling the audience to fill in supplementary information based on the graph. Visual Aids Increase Memory Several studies have concluded that the use of visual aids in classroom teaching environments drastically increases knowledge retention. Linkugel and Berg (1970) suggest that using stimuli for both the eyes and ears allows for up to 65% of knowledge to be retained three days later, as opposed to 10% for hearing alone and 35% for seeing alone. Several explanations for this data exist. First, the combination of speaking and seeing reinforces information by doubling audience exposure to it. Second, people learn differently, so using a combination of ways of presenting information increases the chances that the audience will be stimulated by the presentation. Third, images tend to linger in the memory much better than words. For example, you might keep an image in your mind of a trip you took last year, but you are unlikely to be able to recall more than a few key points of any conversation you had on that trip.

Regardless of the specific explanation, the important lesson is that visual aids can help the audience remember the points of your presentation. When designing speech aids, make sure to choose those that present a lot of information in a simple image. These types of display will likely increase the ability for your audience to retain most of the evidence you present long term. Visual Aids Help Decrease Communication Apprehension Ayres (1991) conducted a study on the relationship between visual aid use and communication apprehension (discussed in Module 3) and found that visual aids helped speakers overcome stage

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fright. The conclusion seems intuitive, but illustrates a couple of important points about visual aids. First, visual aids tend to attract the attention of the audience, taking some of the perceived public pressure away from the speaker. Second, the speaker tends to use the visual aid as a focal point to deliver their message, making them less nervous about remembering the order of points. Though it is not good for a speaker to turn toward their visual aid and away from the audience, it occasionally helps a nervous speaker to shift their gaze to speaking materials. Visual Aids Help Gain and Hold Audience Attention Keeping the attention of the audience is the most important thing a speaker can do. If the audience is not involved, no persuading, informing, or exalting can take place. Visual aids increase audience concentration on the message by diversifying the means by which their thinking is stimulated. If you show a picture to illustrate your point, then the audience is not just listening to you, and they are not just focusing on the image; they pay attention to both and are trying to relate one to the other. Using a relevant political cartoon to transition between points provides both humor and a visual reference for subsequent information in a speech. When choosing visual aids, think carefully about what is likely to interest your audience (see Audience Analysis Module for tips). Visual Aids Promote Audience Identification Most people reading this text have encountered advertisements on television that display images of people suffering from malnutrition or lack of resources in order to motivate people to action (for an example, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3A86i3mTpI). Usually, the appeal juxtaposes the visuals of extreme conditions with a verbal claim that one can make a difference in these conditions with minimal effort or financial obligation. Why do so many organizations use a similar format? One explanation is that seeing images of suffering does a better job motivating people to action because it promotes audience identification. Identification suggests that audience members feel closer to people, values, or issues that resemble something from their own lives, and consequently, they are more likely to care about the content of a speech. In the example above, audiences are more likely to care about people suffering far away if they can see those people and notice that they look and feel similar to themselves. In essence, the pictures allow someone to think, There is someone similar to myself in pain that does not deserve it, so I should help them. Identification does not always have to concern pain and suffering. In some cases, showing images of people doing good things, like exercising and recycling, can also promote audience identification with proposed solutions. Using symbols, such as a national flag or Greek letters signifying a fraternity or sorority, prompts the audience to either identify or repudiate the communities they represent. Audiences can also identify with a speaker that looks like them in age, status, or appearance. You should consider adjusting your appearance to promote audience identification, especially by dressing appropriate to your speaking occasion.

Avoiding Distortions in Visual Aids Visual aids are a powerful tool for conveying information in a simple yet efficient manner. However, oversimplifying that information at times creates difficultly when audiences attempt to evaluate the credibility of the presented evidence. Thus, speakers should strive to present evidence in an ethical manner. Toward that end, the following is a list of common problems with visual aids used as evidence, along with examples, and a few notes on how to avoid distorted information.

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TYPE OF PROBLEM Oversimplification

DESCRIPTION AND EXAMPLE A visual aid can make complex issues seem too simple or straightforward to an audience. As a result, the audience can accept poor uses of reasoning without reflection. The Church of the Flying Spaghetti Monster (http://www.venganza.org/) provides an ironic example of this phenomenon. The graph submitted with an open letter to the Kansas School Board correlates global warming to a decrease in the number of pirates on the high seas. Though it may be true that the number of pirates has decreased while the average global temperature has increased, the graph makes it seem as if the decrease in pirates caused global warming. When using visual aids from other sources, it is easy to use them without regard to the original meaning of the image. For example, if you were giving an informative speech about the Seattle WTO protests in 2000, but used the image found here (http://www.citizenjournalismawards.com /images/entries/main/riots_in_ublin4.jpg), the image would be used out-of-context, since it is from riots in Dublin, not Seattle.

WAYS TO AVOID PROBLEM Test visual aids on a sample audience and poll their opinions on the meaning of the image. When discussing information in visual aids, mention the reasons for using a certain type of visual simplification. Exercise care to design visuals that highlight mitigating factors.

Out-of-Context Images

Closely examine the content around the place the visual aid is found. Ask an instructor or a peer about the use of the visual aid in your presentation.

Culturally Specific Images Some visual aids carry very specific cultural meanings to a particular audience. If the audience does not share the cultural context of the image, then its effect will likely be lost. This image (http://xirdal.lmu.de/xirdalium/ xpix/MEADES_interculturalMMOPG.gif) requires an increased knowledge about national symbols, the history of art, gaming, and computer culture in order to make it meaningful. Parts of the image may require some explanation for audiences from different educational backgrounds and ages. Exaggerated Images

Pay close attention to the results of your audience analysis when making decisions about visual aids.

When designing graphs, make sure Some visual aids can distort the facts by your measuring increments are both exaggerating data or visual characteristics. consistent and significant. Such displays can lead audiences to believe Cross-check images against other that relatively insignificant details have high examples for distortions. importance. This Mercator map projection (http://www.mgaqua.net/AquaDoc/Projections /img/Mercator.jpg) clearly distorts the size of the land mass toward the North and South poles of the globe. If used to establish the size of nations, this map clearly misleads the audience.

Types of Visual Aids The definition of visual aids has evolved over time, but their purpose has remained the same: to support and enhance the presentation. Several new types of media have been developed since the ancient orators began using visual aids. Most prominent is the advent of the computer and software applications available to create graphics and presentations. Many times speakers develop visual aids by adding graphics already included with a software application without regard to the topical relevance of the imagery. On the other hand, developing complex visual designs can also distract the audience from speech content. These distractions have hindered the effectiveness of

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many presentations. To keep your presentation on target, it is best to develop your speech before the visual aid and technology are incorporated. Developing your presentation in this way will enable you to convey your message, letting the visual aid enhance rather than overpower it. Once you have prepared your presentation, you have a big decision to make: how will you entice the audiences visual senses during your presentation? Knowing the many choices available can help you focus your attention on which visuals will be most advantageous for your presentation. The following segments of text provide descriptions of several types of visual aids, along with suggestions for use, in order to help as you select a visual aid to deploy in your presentation. Three-Dimensional Visual Aids The most common three-dimensional visual aids include physical objects, models, people, and animals. Each has its own advantages and limitations. Physical objects can be helpful when used as an aid to an informative speech. Remember that you, as the speaker, should select objects that will enhance understanding of your key points. For instance, bringing a perfectly ripened piece of fruit would enable you to show an audience how to pick the freshest fruit at the market, and bringing running shoes can help an audience pinpoint the most important considerations for buying a good pair. When using a physical object, be certain to show the audience the important attributes of it in order to better illustrate the key points of your speech. Thus, the object you choose must be large enough for the audience to see without passing it around. Models are representations of other objects and can be important aids when your presentation involves something that is too large, too small, unavailable, or impossible to present physically. Examples of models include a prototype of a new product or scale model of a new building. Using a model while giving a persuasive speech or sales presentation can help argue your case, increase customer sales, or boost investor support. One of the strengths of models is that they allow the audience to formulate a clearer understanding of a complex or unorthodox idea through the visual medium while listening to the presentation. A skeleton is a good example of using a model to illustrate human structure. For instance, if a doctor wants to show her or his patient which bone is fractured or broken and where on that bone, using a life-size skeleton as a model will allow the patient to see the fracture or break more easily than a two-dimensional diagram or drawing could provide.

Occasionally, people and animals can work well as visual aids. For example, it is much easier to explain a new dance when someone can show the steps and explain the techniques simultaneously. Properly learning how to groom a show dog is easier to explain when the dog is present for the demonstration. When using people or animals, the speaker might also become part of the demonstration by showing the processes or techniques while explaining them to the audience. However, be cautious about the use of these visual aids, especially animals. Specifically, they do not always cooperate with the speaking environment, but they also can easily distract the audience while you continue with your speech, especially if it is your cute, cuddly new puppy.

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In addition, you have to remain conscious about the opinions of the audience concerning the appropriate or ethical treatment of animals during a presentation. If you must keep the puppy on a leash during your presentation and being tethered causes the puppy to howl, some of your audience might find the leash harmful to the animal and thereby lose interest in your presentation. Two-dimensional visual aids Historically, classrooms were outfitted with a chalkboard for instructors to write math problems, new vocabulary words, or other important information related to class content. In addition, hallways containing bulletin boards usually are decorated with various advertisements. Both chalkboards and bulletin boards are examples of two-dimensional visual aids, which are visual representations that exist on a single plane, either physical or optical. This section identifies how these visual aids are used during a presentation and how they are defined. Two-dimensional visual aids come in several forms: Dynamic or Static, and physical or electronic. Dynamic Dynamic visual aids, such as chalkboards, dry-erase boards, and flip charts, allow the presenter to add content as the presentation progresses. They are more applicable to business presentations, which allow for questions and clarifications, and will unlikely be the best choice for timed classroom speeches. However, if a dynamic visual aid would best enhance your presentation, take special care to incorporate it effectively into the speech. Chalkboards can be used to highlight main ideas or list the objectives in a presentation. Because it requires a bit of skill, you should practice writing on a chalkboard. Do you recall that screeching sound when your grade school teacher would write on the chalkboard? To avoid making the same sound, hold the chalk at an angle. In addition to that screeching sound, writing on a vertical plane is quite different from writing on a horizontal plane; so, practice to make certain your handwriting is legible. If you choose to use the chalkboard as your visual aid, write only what the audience needs in order to understand your topic, explain each key point before moving to the next item, and then add your next point and provide explanation. Preparing your visual aid in this fashion will enable you to control the attention of the audience. The modern version of the chalkboard is the dry-erase board. Similar to the chalkboard, write only what the audience needs to drive home your point. The most visible difference between the chalkboard and the dry-erase board is the use of color. Colored markers can be used to reinforce audience focus and draw attention to important points. However, prior to your presentation, make sure the markers work well and that they are designed for use on the board; a dry-erase board can be damaged by using the incorrect type of marker. As we continue to grow in the computer age, some speaking situations will have an electronic version of the dry-erase board, such as SMART Board Software (http://www2.smarttech.com/st/en-US/Products/SMART+Boards/default.htm), which enables the speaker to use a digital screen to present information such as drawings, graphs, or text digitally and save it for future use. Those large pads of paper that you frequently see in business presentations are flip charts. Flip charts are great because you can prepare them in advance, focus your attention on one page at a time, add information as necessary in order to keep the attention of the audience, and then

flip to the next or a blank page. One reason flip charts are handy is that they allow you to keep your staging area (the space from which you will be presenting) clean by flipping the pages over rather than tearing them off and tossing them aside. Additionally, they allow for easy transition to the remaining points in your presentation; rather than using valuable time erasing the chalkboard or dry-erase board, you simply turn the page for a blank slate or to your next set of prepared information. In addition, by using colors that contrast with the paper, the audience can easily see the information you are presenting. Using multiple contrasting colors enables audience members to differentiate various areas of importance to the topic. Finally, flip charts allow you to retain

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content for future use or to include sections into a subsequent version of the presentation. Using a dynamic visual aid will require you to write while keeping the attention of the audience. Thus, you will need to practice to ensure that you talk to the audience at all times. If possible, write most, if not all, of your content before the presentation in order to maintain your focus on the audience. When drawing, be sure to keep your lines as straight as possible. Finally, write legibly and large enough so that even the person in the back row can read the material you are presenting. Static A static visual aid, like the dynamic, is prepared in advance and presented when needed during the presentation. The difference between the two is that dynamic visual aids can be added to and altered during a presentation as needed, whereas a static visual aid is unchangeable once prepared. Static visual aids can be prepared for any size audience and can take several forms. The following paragraphs outline and discuss examples of several static visual aids. Graphs simplify and clarify statistics by showing the relationship between two sets of data. The two graphs shown below represent the same data, yet they are different types of graphs; the prior is a line graph, and the latter is a bar graph. When choosing a graph for your presentation, you should choose the style that best represents your message and is easy for your audience to interpret. Like all presentation aids, although the visual image will provide information, your speech content will contextualize and synthesize the information on your visual aids.

The speaker using a graph intends to reduce the complexity of numerical values and statistical trends. In particular, graphs are useful for representing successive changes in data. For instance, a graph could be used to illustrate population growth trends between two census periods. The type of graph used depends on both the relationship between data sets and the speaking situation, and simple graphs generally allow the viewer to understand and absorb the information more quickly than ornate graphs.

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Similar to graphs, charts are great for summarizing large blocks of data related to a single variable. For example, the pie chart above summarizes the enrollment of distance students who attend an academic institution. While several types of information are available about student enrollments, the main purpose of this chart is to show that the fall semester had a significantly larger distance education enrollment than in the other academic semesters. Frequently, speakers use several charts to simplify information when too much data exists to compare on a single graph. Diagrams, maps, and sketches are types of drawings that a speaker can individualize for a speech. The illustrations below represent the relationship of the primary additive colors used on a computer monitor. The circles show overlapping areas where the colors mix to create new colors. The second image shows the colors adding value to the diagram in a way the audience can interpret.

Diagrams either demonstrate the relationship between a whole and its parts or outline components of a process. Maps usually represent a specific area of the earth or the built environment (i.e. a country, a city, or an office floor). Sketches provide a preliminary, non-specific outline of an object or idea in visual form. Because they can be hand-drawn, you can use as much detail as needed to explain your key points. Drawings are most useful in speeches that require you to inform an audience, and depending upon the topic, using a drawing for a demonstration in your speech might prove most effective. Be sure to practice drawing in advance, particularly if you plan to draw while you are speaking; while you find your artistry skillful, the audience might not agree if you hastily scribble a drawing while speaking.

Overhead transparencies project images onto a large screen. Many classrooms are equipped with overhead projectors, and to use them, all you need are the transparency sheets. However, keep in mind that even this simple technology will require some preparation on your part. As with any visual aid, be certain that you test the projector and transparencies ahead of time with the same lighting to ensure the audience can see them. Specifically, create transparencies with enough contrast between the background and text so that they are not washed-out by the light source. If possible, avoid writing on transparencies during the speech because handwriting can be difficult to read, which will distract the audience and detract from your presentation. In addition, avoid

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pointing to the transparency on the bed of the projector. Instead, point to the screen using your inside arm or a laser pointer. One final tip: number each transparency and keep them in order so your speech will flow smoothly. One of the most effective ways to evoke emotion from the audience is to incorporate a photograph into your presentation. However, speakers often encounter one major obstacle when using photos: size of display. To avoid this complication, test whether the size of the photographs you plan to show are sufficient for the speaking environment. The most accurate way to ensure the photos you plan to use will be visible to the audience is to view them from the back of the room yourself. However, keep in mind that the cost of using photographs can add up, especially when having large prints made. Presentation software and digital photography have made showing photographs a much simpler process. Thus, resize photographs to the proper resolution for the screen onto which they will be projected using photo editing software. This method of showing photographs in your presentation allows you to save on photo printing costs and alleviate visibility issues in many instances. Finally, posters can illustrate the same information as a chalkboard, flip chart, or dry-erase board. The primary difference is that posters likely will be prepared ahead of time. Posters are an effective way to combine text, images, and graphs together, while keeping the visual aid simple. Simple tips for effective poster use include: use heavy or thick poster board that will not roll and bend as you carry it to your presentation; protect it from the elements, such as rainy, snowy, or windy weather; consider how you will show the poster to the audience (i.e. easel, stand on a desk or table, or lean against a wall); and present the material in a place visible to the entire audience. Electronic Two-Dimensional Visual Aids Many scholars and business leaders utilize electronic media for presentations because they also are an effective and convenient way to convey information. Today, electronic two-dimensional visual aids are the most commonly used for the professional speaking occasion. Generally, this type of visual aid closely follows the content of the presentation. Typically, a software application, such as PowerPoint (discussed within this module under the heading Multimedia), is required to present electronic content. Due to rapid changes in the technology, this module will only discuss a few general trends in electronic two-dimensional visual aids. Electronic two-dimensional visual aids are similar to physical static visual aids. Examples of electronic 2-D visual aids range from simple graphs generated from a spreadsheet program to more complex images created in a high-end graphics application. Many software applications are available to create drawings, organizational charts, and diagrams. However, creating computer-generated visual aids can become a time-consuming task depending upon the skill level of the individual developing them and the type of visual created. Whatever your skill level, avoid becoming so over-burdened creating the visual aid that you lose sight of the objectives of the speech. Coincidentally, electronic two-dimensional images may have originated as drawings, photographs, or other printed documents, which were converted into an electronic format suitable for insertion into various software applications. Converting visual aids from print to digital format usually is less time consuming than designing original graphics.

Resolution is another important factor when using electronic 2-D visual aids. Regardless of the type of visual aid used, the speaker should consider how the image will look when enlarged and projected. Image resolution is measured in picture elements (pixels) per inch or PPI. A flat panel computer monitor usually displays 96 PPI. Attempting to display an image with a higher resolution than the display screen will change the look of the projected image. Many software programs provide a built-in utility to optimize the images. Optimizing the resolution may not seem important during your preparation, but if an image takes a long time to load during your

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presentation, or if it does not display properly, it can disrupt the flow of the speech and cause the audience to lose interest. Some electronic two-dimensional visual aids contrast sharply with physical visual aids such as screenshots and website presentations.

When capturing a still image from your computer screen is the most effective way to support your message, you will need to use a screenshot like the one shown above. For instance, when describing a step-by-step process, you can capture a screenshot of each step in the task and add those saved images to your presentation. Depending upon your computer operating system, there are multiple ways to accomplish this task. Once the image is captured, it must be saved in the proper format using a graphic application before it can be used in your presentation software. In addition, occasions will arise during a presentation when it may be more effective to display a website to support your message. For example, for a persuasive speech encouraging your classmates to donate their hair to children suffering from medical hair loss, you might open the website for Locks of Love (http://www.locksoflove.org/) to show the list of hair donation locations or the requirements of hair donation. In order to access a website, the presenting computer needs to be connected to the Internet. A simple piece of advice: always test websites before the presentation to ensure they are still active.

Multimedia Visual Aids Audiences are becoming more technologically adept and accustomed to receiving video and audio content through visual mediums such as websites, podcasts, and cellular phones. Using multimedia content in presentations can enhance message reception, but it also could lead to a total disaster if not well prepared. Various forms of multimedia content are available for use, but they require an extra level of competency for effective application into your presentation. Today the most commonly introduced

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multimedia content include video tapes, CD-ROMs, 35 mm slides, films, audio recordings, and digital video clips. Some require separate equipment to present, while others integrate into presentation software used on a computer. Presentation software projects images and other presentation material onto a large screen or monitor using a projector. Some presentation locations will have these required items built into the room, while at other times the speaker will need to rent or borrow these items. The three most common presentation software applications (and the platform on which each operates) are: Keynote (Apple), Impress (OpenOffice), and PowerPoint (Microsoft). Designing a presentation using software should be approached in the same manner as any other presentation: develop the content and then determine which visual material works to enhance your message. By using these applications, you can add another level of complexity to the development stage of your presentation. In addition, you can enhance a presentation by capturing interest and attention in memorable ways, especially when combining several forms of visual and audio media. In some speaking circumstances, presentation software can replace many of the other media previously mentioned because it compiles a variety of media into one presentation. For instance, if you are savvy with video editing, you can digitally insert a short video clip, or you can insert a hyperlink to a video on the Internet. However, the beauty of these tools also can become a burden. Specifically, one might devote a large amount of time integrating components of the presentation so that the visual material looks cool. Nevertheless, the speaker must also practice shifting between those media within the software, so that the transitions seem planned, natural, and impressive. Furthermore, adding photographs, drawings, audio, and video into a presentation might require some preparation. Of course, most software applications, word processing programs, and websites universally accept two basic image formats: JPG/JPEG (joint photographic experts group) for photographs and GIF (graphic interchange format) for logos, charts, and graphs. Video and audio types of files are not as universal as image files. As such, you should test the compatibility of MP3 or WMV files with the computer and presentation software you plan to use. Inexperienced users of presentation software frequently overuse text on their slides. Most software applications have a method for adding your speaking notes so that slides contain only main points. As such, the text on each slide should be limited to bullets, not paragraphs. Know that increasing the amount of text on a slide will decrease text size making it difficult for the audience to read. In addition, it will also increase the chance of the speaker reading material directly from the slide, which can alienate the audience. Some multimedia technologies are now antiquated, and as a result, you may need to convert them into newer presentation formats. For all practical purposes, the DVD has replaced VHS videotapes, and many business, classrooms, and homes no longer have a VHS cassette player. As such, if the content you want to include in your speech is on a VHS videotape, you may have to convert it to digital video and embed the clip into your electronic presentation. If the speech is presented without software, queue the VHS videotape or DVD to the starting point prior to starting your presentation. Depending on the speaking time, a 30-90 second video or audio clip can be included to emphasize an important point, but anything longer can cause the audience to lose interest.

Strategies for Visual Aid Preparation No matter the audience size, topic, or setting, using an appropriate visual aid during a presentation can enhance and help to communicate your message more succinctly. As such, each speaker should consider a few simple strategies when choosing or preparing a presentation aid. The best advice for any presentation is to prepare the visual aid after you have prepared your presentation content but in advance of the presentation date. Doing so will enable you to choose an aid that is simple, appealing, and relevant to the speech content. The audience will recognize the

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speakers thoughtful preparation and thereby respond positively to the speaker and presentation. In addition, preparing it well in advance of the presentation date permits the speaker to practice using the visual aid. Practicing with the visual aid should include setting-up, transitioning within the presentation, and removing the visual aid. Martha, a student in an introductory public speaking course, asked her instructor if she could present her introductory speech incorporating an example of her karate experience. Her instructor agreed, and Martha had decided that she wanted to break a brick with her bare hand as her attention-getter. She had quite a bit of previous experience breaking bricks, so she knew the clutter such a demonstration would leave in the classroom. After some discussion, Martha and her instructor decided to move forward with the idea, but instead of allowing brick pieces to scatter all over the classroom, she would lay a tarp out on the classroom floor so that she could easily and quickly remove the mess for the next speaker to present. Planning the removal of those broken brick pieces was an essential part of the set-up, speaking, and clean-up process, and by considering that in advance, Martha was able to present an interesting and engaging topic that mesmerized her classmates. Preparing your presentation early and incorporating the visual aid during your practice time will prepare you for unnecessary distractions or disruptions that could occur when you present. Keep it Simple Presentation aids should reinforce or provide a summary of your presentation; they should not replace your presentation. As mentioned previously in this module, when using PowerPoint as a visual aid, minimize text on the slide or utilize bullet points, and then verbally explain each point to increase audience understanding. We recommend no more than eight bullet points with eight words or less per bullet (known as the eight-by-eight rule). Keep it simple, maintain consistency, and create the most effective layout that will summarize what you are presenting. Simplicity also refers to the time you spend explaining each visual aid. Specifically, we recommend that speakers spend about one minute or less per visual aid. According to this guideline, a speaker should be mindful of time spent focusing on complicated charts or drawings. Unfortunately, many intricate displays likely would require more explanation than can be given in a short amount of time. For example, explaining the intricacies of a graph showing the nature of the national deficit in a 5-7 minute presentation might be difficult. In this case, the better option for a speaker might be to choose a different aid that lends itself to simplicity while maintaining applicability. Of course, the less complicated a visual aid, the better the chance the audience will understand it. SIMPLE DESIGN SUGGESTIONS Alignmentstrategically placing all elements on a page (or slide) highlights connections to the other parts of the design and creates a sense of a strong cohesive unit. Proximitygrouping related elements together will reduce clutter and allow the audience to follow the content more easily. Continuityemploying the same colors, fonts, and text sizes throughout the presentation will strengthen its visual unity and appeal.

Contrastdifferentiating some textual elements, such as adding bold type or color f or emphasis, will create more visual interest and guide the audience to key points. Simplicitykeeping the elements of your visual aids uncluttered will more concisely convey your message. Textchoosing easy to read fonts will make your visual aid more appealing to the audience. Visibility of Visual Aids Visual aids unseen are useless to the audience. Each member of the audience should be able to

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view your visual aid with little effort. As previously mentioned, avoid preparing small (i.e. 4x6) photographs for an audience of more than 20 to view. Instead, use a digitized, enlarged, and possibly projected copy of the photo so that all audience members can view it with ease. An expert method to verify if the size of a presentation aid will be viewable by all audience members is to test it prior to the presentation. Visit the presentation space with your visual aid, place it in a variety of positions within the staging area, and try sitting in different locations in the room. Also, while you are in the staging area, test the lighting. Answer the following questions: Can you dim the lights and still show a PowerPoint presentation? Is the lighting in the staging area strong enough that you can easily read your presentation notes? Is the audience seating area emitting enough light that you could provide a handout on which they can take notes? In addition to the staging area, remember that the text on your visual aid may need some adjustment. Frankly, the 12-point text font size will not translate well to the projection screen or to a poster board. Likewise, type faces with serif letters are easier to read on the printed page, but sans-serif type is easier to read when projected on a screen. As such, increase the readability of the text on your visual aid by increasing text size, using legible fonts, and potentially adding contrasting color. The table below suggests font sizes for preparing digitized presentation text, but the same basic principle applies to the text of other visual aids. Pay attention to the variations in font sizes and the ways in which those differences could draw interest to particular points. After you have noted the differences, envision adding color, bold, italic, or other specialized font formatting to accentuate the text in your visual aid. As a result, you can see how making simple alterations to the text within a visual aid can illustrate and emphasize the importance of specific points or ideas within the presentation. Most importantly, be certain the audience can see the visual aid and read all the text. A good principle to live by: if you are unable to see the visual, the audience will be unable to see it as well!

LEVEL OF HEADING

FONT SIZE

Heading 1
Heading 2
Text

36 point font
28 point font
18 point font

Selecting the Right Visual Aids for Your Presentation Selecting the best aid or aids for your presentation depends on the situation, the speech content, and your own creativity. Determine what the key points in your presentation are and focus on how to best present them. Pictures help to evoke an emotional response from the audience when used properly. Graphs or charts help to explain data in a clear, concise manner. A drawing can help to emphasize the operation of objects or processes. Computer software has provided many ways to create and print documents, such as pictures, drawings, posters, graphs, and charts, which appear professional without needing a lot of artistic talent to produce.

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However, always keep the audience in mind when selecting visual aids for your presentation.

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As you collect or create your visual aids, it would be wise to get a second opinion. Your response to the visual aid may differ from the response of the audience, especially since you already know a good deal of information about your topic. Ask a colleague, classmate, or your instructor for feedback on what you have chosen to use with your presentation, and be willing to make changes based on their recommendations. Controversial or Illegal Visual Aids

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When used well, visual aids make a presentation clearer and more interesting. However, using visual aids that make an audience uncomfortable can have the opposite effect. On occasion, novice speakers will add dramatic effect to their presentation by utilizing visual aids that are inappropriate for the occasion or audience. For instance, demonstrating the inner working of a firearm by bringing a functional gun to a presentation might more vividly illustrate the point. However, a functional gun also has potential to frighten audience members, thereby cancelling any evidentiary force the object could bring to the speech; if audience members fear guns, they are not likely paying close attention to the content of your presentation. Moreover, if you are in a classroom, the school most likely has a rule against firearms on campus. Likewise, several other visual aids can be risky, such as chemicals, some live animals (i.e. poisonous snakes, cougars, or other dangerous predators), and illegal substances. Endangering the audience in even the most controlled setting can detract from your presentation. Furthermore, using photographs that show graphic information can both offend and alienate some of the audience. Again, the most basic goal of visual aids is that they should enhance your presentation; always keep that goal in mind. Attribute Sources, Always! Similar to citing sources parenthetically within a paper or vocally during your presentation, you must also cite the sources of your visual aids. You can do this in several ways. Certainly, you can document the source on the visual aid itself; this method is particularly useful if you are using a graphic in a digital presentation. However, you can also vocally state the location from which you obtained an object. If you are concerned whether one method is preferred over another, ask your instructor or practice both ways! If you are taking a course, your instructor likely will suggest you use a particular method. If you are presenting at a business meeting, practice to see which method best makes the point. If stating the source of a visual aid will increase the credibility of it, then make it part of your vocal presentation. Whatever you do, be certain you cite the source of your visual aid! Not doing so could be detrimental to the effectiveness of the message, to your credibility as a presenter, or to your presentation grade. Remember, you will accomplish many of these strategies simply by preparing your presentation and choosing your visual aid with time to spare. If you allocate enough time, you will have no trouble choosing a visual aid that is simple and effective without taking away from the content of your presentation. In addition, advance planning will allow you time to practice using your visual aid, to test the visibility of the visual aid for all audience members, and to practice citing

the sources for it. These straightforward strategies will strengthen your presentation, increase your credibility, and enhance your experience. Best Practices for Using Visual Aids The previous section outlined strategies for preparing visual aids. This section discusses the best practices for presenting your visual aid. Of course, each speaking situation is unique, and you will want to adapt this advice to your specific needs. However, the following paragraphs provide a few general recommendations that supply a firm grounding as you move forward with your

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presentation preparation. RULES OF THUMB FOR USING VISUAL AIDS If a visual aid does not enhance the presentation, leave it out. Avoid using technology just for the sake of using the technology. Fewer images will help to focus the audience on the important points. Visual aids must be visible to the entire audience. The relevance of each visual aid must be explained. Practice, Practice, and more Practice! The best advice we can provide any presenter is to Practice, Practice, Practice! Though foolish to think that practice makes perfect, practicing with your visual aid will help you with so much more than perfection. Practicing will help you become more knowledgeable about the visual aid so that you are not as dependent upon the notes you prepared about it. Furthermore, practice will both prepare you for potential problems that might occur and enable you to handle the visual aid with ease and proficiency. Thus, you should practice every instance where you will incorporate a visual aid, from set-up to removal. Eyes on the Audience, Not the Visual In order to keep the audience focused on you, you must keep your focus on the audience. While practicing using your visual aid, perform in front of an audience, real or imagined, and envision that audience focusing their attention on you. One recommendation is that you present to the audiences left because we naturally read left to right. The best recommendation is that from whichever side you choose to present, refer to the visual aid using your inside arm. This recommendation stems from the idea that if you use your outer arm, you will be tempted to reach across your body, thereby causing you to turn your profile, or worse your back, to the audience. One of the quickest ways to lose an audience is to turn your back on them and talk to the projection screen or to the visual aid. Avoid Visual Aid Overuse How much visual aid is too much? is the question on every presenters mind. The answer is somewhat fuzzy and can depend upon the audience and occasion for your presentation. For instance, an instructor trying to cultivate comfort and ease of use with visual aids may insist that each point you present have a visual aid attached. However, in some instances, using a visual aid that only addresses complex concepts, illustrates dramatic data, or emphasizes the significance of a plan is more effective. Thus, each scenario and audience will have different visual aid requirements. Know those requirements in advance, and attempt to understand the needs of the audience. Evaluating audience needs will enable you to understand better each individuals frame of experience and basic knowledge, which will in turn assist you in preparing the visual aid for the presentation. This basic yet important step will ensure that you do not overuse visual aids in your presentation, and establishing limits to your visual aid will avoid visual overload in the audience. Visual overload occurs when the speaker provides too many visual aids, causing the audience to become overwhelmed and unable to choose which ones are more important.

Timely Use of Presentation Aids Visuals can distract audiences when they are irrelevant to the current topic of discussion. Instead of continually projecting a graph on a screen, learn the function of the projector or the software that will enable you to show the visual at the most effective time, and then remove it from view after your explanation. For instance, in Microsoft PowerPoint, you can remove a slide from projection by tapping the letter B on your keyboard or by inserting a blank slide before and after the slide with content. Projecting your graph at the time of applicability will enable you to explain your visuals while keeping the audiences attention on you and the content. If you

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show the graph prior to its explanation or leave it displayed after use, the audience might focus their attention on the visual aid and, as a result, miss other pertinent content. Considerations of timeliness also apply to handouts. Similar to showing a visual aid prior to its explanation, passing handouts around at the beginning of your presentation will tempt audience members to read or review the handout rather than listen to your speech. Additionally, some speakers choose to pass around handouts during the middle of the presentation, but this method can be both time consuming and distracting for the speaker and the audience. Instead, save handouts for the end of the presentation so that the audience members attention remains on you! Of course, exceptions exist to this rule, such as handouts that aid in note taking or handouts that stimulate audience interaction during the speech. However, you should consider all possible problems with this method prior to your presentation. BEST PRACTICES CHECKLIST 1. Practice using the visual aid when you practice the presentation. If using technology, practice using the technology in the presentation space to prepare for potential technical difficulties or to ensure visibility of the aid. 2. Talk to the audience, not the visual aid. Maintain eye contact with the audience as much as possible. 3. Place the visual aid to one side of you so that the audience can focus on you and so that you can reference the aid efficiently. Prior to the presentation, verify that audience members will able to view the visual aid with ease from every angle. 4. Display the visual aid only when in use, and remove or hide it after use. If necessary, move away from an object that is too large for removal. 5. Prepare for presentation misfortunes. Bring backup data disks or handouts to replace lacking or troublesome technology. Expect the Unexpected Presentation misfortunes happen; prepare yourself for the possibility in advance, and you will be able to remedy the situation successfully. What types of misfortunes occur? Computers crash, data disks (i.e. flash drives, floppy disks, and CDs) fail to open or run, a rainy day runs the ink on transparency sheets and posters, luggage including presentation material is lost in transit, and projector bulbs burn out to name a few possibilities. Things happen and, as they say in the business, the show must go on! So, plan for these things by preparing and carrying back-up copies of your presentation, multiple forms of data storage, or handouts to replace inoperable presentation aids. Do whatever possible to ensure that your presentation is well prepared and ready-to-go because the audience is waiting to hear what you have to say!

Conclusion Visual aids perform several different functions, depending on the objectives of the speaker. At least since the time of the Ancient Greeks, people have thought about how to use visual elements to adorn themselves and their speeches. However, in the 21st century, speakers need to design presentations that adapt to our inter-medial environment. Visual aids can supplement speeches in a variety ways. They can increase audience understanding of a speech topic through illustration. The speaker can organize ideas and simplify complex procedures by displaying a visual aid that incorporates several important points at once. In addition, they can reinforce a point covered in the speech, which helps the audience remember important information. Visual aids can also attract and retain audience attention, since they stimulate the senses. The audience might identify with a visual aid, especially when the aid evokes emotions or ideals. However, visual aids can also be dangerous or ineffective, especially when oversimplified, exaggerated, or used out-of-context. You have a number of visual aids available to use in your presentation, depending on the contextual constraints, audience, and your level of commitment and expertise. Three-dimensional visual aids include physical objects, models, people, and animals. Two-dimensional visual aids come in two varieties: dynamic and static. Dynamic visual aids can change over the course of the speech, like chalkboards, dry-erase boards, and flip charts. On the other hand, you have to prepare static visual aids in advance, and then display them during the presentation, such as graphs, charts, diagrams, maps, sketches, transparencies, and photographs. Increasingly, electronic twodimensional visual aids have replaced physical visual aids, which allow you to project them from any computer. In addition, presentation software now enables speakers to incorporate video, audio, pictures, and text into a single visual aid. Always prepare your visual aid far in advance of your presentation date, spend time planning how you will use it, and use the visual aid while practicing your presentation. Make sure your designs are simple, visible to your audience, and appropriate to the speaking material. Avoid using risky or illegal visual aids for your presentation, since it can create trouble for you and distract your audience. Also, be certain to make the original source known when using pre-prepared visuals. Finally, the best practices for using visual aids may vary depending upon the situation, but a few guidelines are generally accepted. Practice your presentation with your visual aid. Keep in mind the difference between referencing your visual aid and talking to it; talking to the audience is more important! Moreover, be certain that your visual aid is available to the audience at the most applicable time. Showing a visual aid before or after you have explained it can distract the audience from other important content; thus, you should explain the aid while showing it. Of course, use the visual aid to enhance your presentation only; avoid using unnecessary visual aids to add dramatic effect or simply because the technology is available. Finally, remember that visual aids might provide some technical troubles; be prepared for the unexpected events that can occur when presenting, and good luck! Module Exercises 1. Over the course of a day, monitor the number of distorted images you encounter. Write a paragraph or two summarizing the messages and the different ways the displays distorted those messages, and then offer some possible ways to make the images more effective. Be prepared to discuss your findings in a 2 to 3 minute speech in front of the class. 2. Once you have researched, planned, and outlined your presentation, try to design or find one visual aid that summarizes all of your main points. When practicing your speech, use the visual aid during the speech summary. If it works, consider incorporating it into your presentation.

3. Find one visual item that you believe illuminates something specific about you. Write a 1-2 paragraph summary explaining the different aspects of the object and how it relates to who you are. Be prepared to present this information to the class. 4. Using one of the software packages mentioned in this reading, design one electronic presentation slide that outlines a main point of your speech. Afterward, with a group of 4-5 classmates, comment on each others designs, applying the knowledge from this chapter. Pay close attention to color contrasts, design simplicity, creativity, and textual layout. Module Key Terms Adornment: A process in which one provides accessories to a thing or person in order to add beauty to it. Chart: A diagram that displays data from a single variable or numerical set. Culturally Specific Images: Visual aids that carry very specific cultural meanings to a particular audience. Diagram: A type of drawing that either demonstrates the relationship between a whole and its parts or outlines components of a process. Dynamic Visual Aid: A visual aid that allows the presenter to add content as the presentation progresses. Eight-by-Eight Rule: Using no more than eight lines on one slide and no more than eight words on one line. Exaggerated Images: Visual aids that distort the facts by over-emphasizing small differences in data or visual characteristics. Flip Chart: Large perforated pad of paper that stands on an easel during use. Font Size: Measurement of text. GIF (Graphics Interchange Format): File type for images, such as logos, charts, and graphs. Graph: A diagram showing the relationship between at least two sets of data. Identification: The process through which audiences build relationships to people, events, or speakers. Inter-medial: A condition in which several different modes of presenting information co-mingle to produce an overall meaning for an audience. JPEG or JPG (Joint Photographic Experts Group): The most common format used for true color photographs (continuous tone images). Map: A type of drawing that represents a specific area of the earth or built environment. Model: An object that represents another object in detail but is built on a smaller scale than the original. Optimize: To reduce the resolution and physical size of an image within presentation

software for final output by using the built-in utilities. Out-of-Context Images: Using visual aids from other sources without regard to the original meaning of the image. Oversimplification: The tendency of visual aids to make complex issues seem too simple or straightforward to an audience. Photograph: An image taken on film or digitally as an exact representation of an object, person, or event. Physical Object: An inanimate, tangible visual aid. Pixels: Tiny dots of light that display colors, images, and text on a screen. Resolution: A count of the pixels available per each inch of space on a computer screen. Sans-Serif: A type face that does not have the serif on the main letter strokes. Arial, Verdana, and Century Gothic are common examples. Screenshot: A still image of a computer screen captured and saved for future use. Serif: The line extending from the main stroke of a letter. Times New Roman and Bookman are classic font examples containing the serif. Sketch: A type of drawing that provides a preliminary, non-specific outline of an object or idea in visual form. Staging Area: The space from which you will be presenting. Static Visual Aid: A visual aid that is prepared in advance and used when needed during the presentation. Three-Dimensional Visual Aids: Visual representations occupying physical space, which can be measured in width, length, and height. Two-Dimensional Visual Aids: Visual representations that exist on a single plane, either physical or optical. Type Face: The family of characters, letters, numbers, and punctuation marks. Visual Aids: Visual material used to enhance the effectiveness of a speakers communication. Visual Context: Viewable material that forms the basis of a persons immediate surroundings. Visual Overload: Providing so many visual aids that the audience becomes overwhelmed and unable to choose which are more important.

Works Consulted
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