SCHEDULED PERFORMANCE OF MULTI-ENGINE TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT INTRODUCTION 1.

The basic requirement of a transport aircraft is to proceed safely from departure to destination. For this it should have sufficient power and carry sufficient fuel to fulfil this purpose. 2. Time and fuel required for a manoeuvre are relatively unimportant as far as performance planning is concerned. The whole object of performance planning is to ensure in advance of any flight that the space required is never greater than the space available. 3. The space required by an aircraft for a particular manoeuvre depends upon, and increases with, weight. Performance planning consists of fitting the space required into the space available. Since weight is the main controllable variable in the problem, the principle end product of performance plan is the maximum permissible take-off weight. It is therefore, evident that the performance plan is the dominant feature and must be carried out first. PERFORMANCE PLANNING 4. It is the duty of the licensing authority to ensure that no transport aircraft flies without a Certificate of Airworthiness (C of A) until it has been shown to possess the minimum performance standards defined in Air Navigation Regulations (General) and technically prescribed in the Airworthiness Requirement Publication. 5. Demonstration of performance capability allows the certification of an aircraft type into one of the performance groups A, C, D, E, X and No Group. 6. Situations of urgency may arise that, in order to utilise Military aircraft to their maximum potential, reduced safety margins are both necessary and acceptable. These are known as Military Operating Standards. An element of risk is acceptable in he operation of these aircraft and it is an IAF responsibility to define and apply appropriate safety margins. The Performance group System. 7. The civil airworthiness requirements distinguish by groups between aircraft performance levels as follows:

( a ) Performance group A. Aircraft with MTOW greater than 5700kgs and performance such that, at whatever time a power unit fails , a forced landing should not be necessary. Performance of group B. Aircraft with MTOW less than 5700 kgs(small commuter propellor aircraft with passenger capacity upto 19 only) and performance such that engine failure at any stage of flight will not necessitate a forced landing.
(b)

(c) Performance of group C. Aircraft with MTOW less than 5700 kgs and performance such that a forced landing should not be necessary if a power unit fails after take-off and initial climb, or after flight on instruments has commenced. (d) Performance group D. Single or multi-engine aircraft with MTOW less than 5700 kgs which may not be able to maintain height after an engine failure. (e) Performance group E. Aircraft with performance similar to those in Group C and D but whose weight does not exceed 5700 kgs. (f) Performance group F. Single engine aircraft of MTOW less than 5700kg and passenger capacity upto 9. (g) Performance group X. Large multi-engine aircraft, which have been, certificated to American Federal Air Regulations, Part 25 and only have performance data in their flight manuals. (h) Performance No Group. Aircraft in this group have to comply with requirements based on information contained in the performance schedule associated with the Certificate of Airworthiness, except that where these documents do not contain the required information, the best possible information should be used. 8. For the purpose of performance planning , a flight is divided into four stages: (a) Take- Off. This stage is from the commencement of the take-off run, and initial climb upto a screen height of 35 (this can be 50 in some aircraft). (b) Net Take-off Flight Path. of 1500 This is from the 35/50 point to a height

( c ) En Route. This stage is from a height of 1500 over the departure airfield to a height of 1500 over the destination or alternate airfield.

( d ) Landing. This is from a height of 1500 at the destination or alternate airfield to the aircraft coming to a stop after completing the landing run. 9. The minimum standard of performance is known as Net Performance. It is a legal requirement that all performance planning should be conducted to " net performance considerations with the exception of military operating standards data which is gross performance. Defination of Terms. 10. The definations given below cover the terms used in this section of scheduled performance: Field Lengths. 11. ( a ) Take-off Run Available(TORA). runway available for take-off. This is the actual length of the

( b ) Stopway. This is the area on ground in the direction of take-off designated and prepared by a competent authority, where an aircraft can de-accelarate in the event of an abort take-off. ( c ) Accelarate Stop Distance Available(ASDA). This is the total length of the runway plus the stopway. This is further explained with the help of Fig 1.

RECOGNITION DECISION ACTION

ACCELERATING

BRAKING

RUNWAY

V1

GROSS ACCELERATE STOP DISTANCE REQUIRED

Fig1.Accelerate Stop Distance Required-Jet and Piston ( d ) Clearway. It is a defined rectangular area on ground or water at the end of the runway in the direction of take-off and under the control of a competent authority, over which an aircraft may make a portion of its initial climb to a specified height. The minimum specifications it must meet are: (i) (ii) (iii) Not less than 500 in width. Slope not greater than + 1.25%. Height not exceeding 26 ft

( e ) Take-off Distance Available(TODA). This is the sum of the Take-off Run Available and the Clearway( if any). It is limited to a maximum of 1.5 times TORA. e. g. when clearway is over water and TORA is 6000 ft , TODA is limited to 9000 ft only. (f) Balanced field Length. This is the condition when the take off distance available is equal to the accelarate distance required. Some early ODMs had simplified graphs for calculation of the takeoff performance in case of balanced field. Speeds. 12. (a) Decision Speed (V1). This is the speed at or below which, in the event of an engine failure on the takeoff role, takeoff is to be aborted and above which takeoff can be continued. V1 depends on the weight and the airfield dimensions. V1 should not be: (i) (ii) Less than Vmcg Should be between Vmcg and Vr.

(iii) Can be same as Vr provided that sufficient accelerate stop distance is available. (b) Rotation Speed (V r). This is the speed at which the pilot initiates a change in attitude of the aircraft in order to leave the ground. Vr is a function of the aircraft weight and the flap setting. It should be such that rotation at this speed will result in the aircraft getting airbourne and rapidly climbing to V2. Vr should not be less than:

(i) (ii)

1.05 times Vmca 1.10 times Vms1

(iii) Such that Vlof (lift off) is 1.10 times the minimum measured unstick speed. (c) Take-off safety speed (V2). This speed is a legal requirement that at least this speed should be attained on one power unit inoperative performance by the time the aircraft has reached a height of 35 ft. This is a function of weight and flap setting. V2 shall not be less than: (i) (ii) 1.10 times Vmca. 1.20 times Vms1.

(d) All Engine Screen speed (V3). V3 is the speed at which the aircraft is assumed to pass through the screen height with all the engines operating on take-off power. (e) Steady Initial Climb Speed (V4). V4 is the speed, with all power units operating; used in the scheduled take-off climb technique (it should be attained between 35- 400 ft). (f) Target Threshold Speed (Vat). Vat is the speed at which the pilot aims to cross the runway threshold when crossing. (g) (h) Vmc. Minimum control speed with critical power unit inoperative. Vmca. Minimum control speed, take-off climb.

Definition- This should be the speed at which, when the critical power unit is suddenly made inoperative at that speed, it is possible to recover control of the aircraft with the engine remaining inoperative and the being maintained in a straight flight path at that speed. The bank angle in the final steady condition may be chosen by the applicant for airworthiness but may not exceed 5 deg. It should not be necessary to reduce power on the live engines, and the rudder force required to maintain flight control should not be greater than 670 N. during recovery from the manoeuvre, the aircraft should not assume any dangerous attitude, not should it require exceptional skill, strength or alertness on part of the pilot to prevent a change in heading in excess of 20 deg before recovery is complete. (j) Vmcg. Minimum control speed, approach and landing.

DefinationIt should be the minimum speed at which, with the critical engine being made suddenly inoperative and having been recognised by the pilot, it is possible to maintain control of the aircraft during take-off with the engine remaining inoperative, using primary aerodynamic controls alone to maintain a path parallel to the originally intended path. In demonstrating the Vmcg, the rudder force required to maintain control shall not exceed 670 N and it should not be necessary to reduce power on the remaining power units. During manoeuvre, the aircraft should not assume any dangerous attitude, nor should it require exceptional skill, strength and alertness on the part of the pilot to prevent excessive yaw and lateral displacement before the necessary recovery. (k) Vmcl. Minimum control speed approach and landing.

(l) Vs 1. Stalling speed with the aircraft in the configuration appropriate to the case under consideration. (m) Vso. Stalling speed with flaps in the landing setting.

(n) Vms1. Minimum speed in a stall with the aircraft in the configuration appropriate to he case under consideration. (p) Vmso. Minimum speed in a stall with flaps in the landing setting.

Performance. 13. (a) Measured Performance. aircraft or a group of aircraft. This is the average performance of an

(b) Gross Performance.It is such that there is at least 50% probability of its being exceeded by the performance of any aircraft measured at any time. (c) Net Performance. This represents the gross performance diminished by the amount considered necessary to allow for various contingencies which cannot be directly accounted for operationally. (d) Gradient and Slope. Gradient is the tangent of the angle of climb expressed as a percentage. Slope is used in place of gradientwhen referring to airfield surfaces and obstacle profiles. Miscellaneous.

14.

(a) Screen Height. This is the height of the imaginary screen which the aircraft will just clear when taking-off or landing, in an unbanked attitude and with the landing gear extended.

(b) Critical Power Unit. This is the power unit, or units, failure of which give the most adverse effect on the aircraft characteristics. (c) Power Unit Failure Point. It is that point at which sudden complete failure of a power unit is assumed to occur. (d) Decision point. It is that latest point at which on failure of the critical engine, the pilot decides to abort take-off. TAKE-OFF PERFORMANCE 15. In the planning for take-off it is assumed that, although the aircraft has all power units operating at the start point, one power unit will fail after commencement of the take-off run and before the take-off is complete. In the event of an actual power unit failure during take-of it becomes necessary for the captain to decide whether to abandon or continue with the take-off.

Take-off Planning Consideration. 16. Maximum permissible take-off weight for any flight will be the least weight obtained after considering: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) C of A limit. WAT limit for take-off. Field length requirement. Take-off net flight path. En-route terrain clearance. WAT limit for landing. Landing distance requirements.

17. C of A Limit. The Certificate of Airworthiness specifies maximum structural take-off weight for the type of aircraft. This weight is absolute and should not be exceeded. 18. WAT limit for Take-off . The maximum weight for take-off shall not exceed that weight imposed by the altitude and temperature conditions of the

airfield under consideration. This limit is designed to ensure compliance with positive gradient of climb with one power unit inoperative. The WAT limit graph takes no account of the runway length. 19. Field Length Requirement. This works on the basic premise that the requirement should not be more that what is available i.e. the take-off run, accelerate distance and take-off distance required should not be more than that available. The following considerations are taken into account: (a) (b) (c) (d) Take-off weight. Altitude of airfield. Air temperature at the airfield. Slope of the airfield.

(e) Retardation effects of any measurable amount of slush, snow or water on the runway surface. (f) The reported wind component.

20. Decision Speed (Wet). Some ODMs will in future contain additional decision speed information scheduled for the use when emergency distance is wet. This speed is on an average some 5-10 kts less than the decision speed used in case of a dry runway. Take-off Field Length Requirement. 21. The Regulations specify distinct requirements for field length requirements. The take-off weight and V1 speed must be such that the most severe of these requirements are met: (a) Take-off run required All power units operating. This is 1.15 times the gross distance from the starting point to the point where the aircraft becomes airbourne, and one-third of the distance between the

point at which the aircraft gets airbourne and the point at which it attains a screen height of 35 feet.

1/3 rd

1/3rd

1/3rd 35

START

V1

Vr

Vus

a TORR=1.15 x (a+b) TORA

Fig 2. TAKE-OFF OPERATING

RUN

REQUIRED-ALL

POWER

UNITS

(b) Take-off run required-One power unit inoperative. This is the distance from the starting point to the point where the aircraft gets airbourne, plus one-third of the distance between the point at which it attains a screen height of 35 ft. this has been further explained with the help of Fig 3.

1/3 rd

1/3rd

1/3rd 35

START

V1

Vr

Vus

a
TORR TORA

Fig 3. TAKE-OFF RUN REQUIRED ONE POWER UNIT INOPERATIVE

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(c)

Take-off Run Required One Power Unit Inoperative Wet Runway. This is the distance from the starting point to the point where the aircraft becomes airbourne to effect a transition to attain a height of 35 ft, in a manner consistent with the achievement of a speed not less than V2 at 35 ft. The power unit failure should be recognised at V1 appropriate to the wet runway.

22. In order to comply with the Air Navigation Regulation the take-off run required should be the greatest figure of the sub-para(a), (b) and (c). 23. In the take-off run analysis there are two variables, V1 and aircraft weight. If he aircraft is light, then it is possible to lose a power unit earlier during the takeoff run than when the aircraft is heavy. Thus ignoring other considerations, V1 depends on aircraft weight and increases as the weight increases. Further, if all the power unis continue to operate throughout the whole of the take-off run, then that will be the upper limit of the take-off run.
24.

The Emergency distance required should be the greater off: (a) The gross distance from the starting point to the point where the aircraft comes to a rest after abandoning take-off following an engine failure at V1 on a dry surface using all possible modes of deceleration. (b) The gross distance from the start to the point where the aircraft comes to rest after abandoning take-off following a power unit failure at V1 appropriate to a wet runway and using all possible modes of deceleration.

25. Emergency distance required must not exceed emergency distance available. Again, there are two variables, V1 and aircraft weight, but this time, if the aircraft is light, then the power unit can be lost later during the take-off run than when the aircraft is heavy. We see again that ignoring other considerations in the emergency distance, V1 depends on the aircraft weight and decreases as the aircraft weight increases. 26. The take-off distance required for various conditions is derived as follows: (a) Take-off distance required-All power units operating. This is 1.15 times the gross distance to accelerate with all power units operating from the starting point to the rotation speed, to effect a transition to climbing flight and attain V2 by 35 ft and should be consistent with achievement of

11

a smooth transition to a steady initial climb speed (V4) at a height of 400ft. Refer to Fig 4 for diagrammatic explanation.

V2

35

V1

Vr

Vus

Clearway

TORA TODR

STOPWAY

TODR x1.15

TODR (4 ENGINES)

TODA

Fig 4. TAKE-OFF DISTANCE REQUIRED ALL POWER UNITS

OPERATING

(b) Take-off distance required One power unit Inoperative. This is the gross distance from the starting point through the rotation speed, and thereafter to effect a transition to climbing flight and attain a screen height of 35 ft at V2 with one power unit inoperative the failure of the power unit being recognised at V1 appropriate to a dry runway. Refer to Fig5 for diagrammatic explanation.

V2

12 35

V1

V2 TORA

Vus CLEARWAY STOPWAY TODR TODA

Fig 5.

TAKE-OFF DISTANCE INOPERATIVE

REQUIRED-ONE

POWER

UNIT

(c) Take-off distance required- One power unit inoperative-Wet runway. This is the gross distance from the starting point through rotation speed, and thereafter to effect a transition to climbing flight and attaining a height of 15 ft in a manner consistent with achievement of V2 at 35 ft, the failure of the power unit recognised at V1 appropriate to wet runway. 27. In order to comply with the Air Navigation Regulations, the take-off distance required should be the greatest of sub para (a), (b) and (c) mentioned above and should not exceed the take-off distance available. 28. In the take-off distance analysis there are the same two variables as before, i,e V1 and weight. If the aircraft is light, a power can be lost earlier than if the aircraft was heavy. Thus ignoring other considerations, V1 depends on weight, and increases as the weight increases. Further, as in the case of take-off run, in case all power units continue to operate throughout the whole take-off distance, it simply places an upper limit on the aircraft weight. 29. When field lengths are unbalanced it is necessary to consider individually take-off run, emergency distance and take-off distance available. If, however, emergency distance available and the take-off distance available is of the same length, then the field is said to be balanced. From the balanced field chart it is possible in one step to determine: (a) Maximum take-off weight to comply with emergency distance with one power unit inoperative. (b) The V1/V2 ratio appropriate to this weight and common to the two distances. 30. Performance planning for take-off stage is now complete by selection of the most limiting weight from the factors considered so far, i.e.:

13

(a) (b) (c)

C of A limit. WAT limit (take-off). Field length requirement.

(d) Brake heating limiting limitation, tyre speed, cross wind limitation, use of anti-icers, reduced performance due to slush or standing water on runway, Noise abatement procedure Runway LCN, Anti-skid system inoperative, use of water methanol and Flap setting.

NET TAKE-OFF FLIGHT PATH 31. Air Navigation Regulation requires aircraft to clear all obstacles by not less than 35 ft within a defined area from the end of take-off distance available. The net take-off flight path with one power unit inoperative is plotted from 35/50height points as appropriate, above the end of take-off distance required, to a height of 1500. 32. In determining the net take-off flight with one power unit inoperative, the following factors must be taken into account: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Take-off weight. The altitude of the airfield. The temperature at the airfield. Average slope of the take-off distance available. The reported wind component.

Flight Path Profile. 33. The net take-off flight path is divided into a maximum of six segments. These segments are explained diagrammatically in Fig 5. These six segments, together with the other information necessary for understanding the net take-off flight path, are defined below: (a) Reference Zero. This is a point 35 ft or 50 ft directly below the aircraft at the end of TODR. It is the origin for the scale plot of the aircraft height against horizontal distance.

14

(b) Five Minute Point. This is the point at which the take-off power time limitation is reached (normally five minutes from the start of the takeoff, but, if different, this will be stated in the aircraft ODM). (c) First Segment. This is from 35 ft to the point at which on one power unit inoperative net performance, the landing gear is fully retracted and (if applicable) the propeller of the failed unit is feathered. (d) Second Segment. This extends from the end of first segment to the height selected for the initiation of retraction of flaps (generally from 400 ft to not more than 1500 ft).

(e) Third Segment. The aircraft is flown level at the height selected for flap retraction and accelerated to flaps up safety speed. At this speed the flaps are retracted. (f) Forth Segment. This extends from the end of the third segment to the five minutes point or 1500-ft whichever is earlier. (g) Fifth Segment. At the five minutes point (or 1500 ft) power is reduced to maximum continuous rating, and the aircraft is flown level and accelerated to the one power unit inoperative en-route climbing speed. (h) Sixth Segment. If 1500 ft has not been reached by the end of the fourth segment, the sixth segment extends from the end of the fifth segment until a height of 1500 ft is attained.
1500

NOT BELOW 400 1st SEG 2nd SEG 6th SEG 3rd SEG 4th SEG 5th SEG

FROM HT LEVEL TILL 35 TO FLAP FLAP UP UC UP RETR V2 ROUTE UP SPEED ACC FLAP

5 MIN PT. OR 1500

LEVEL

CLIMBING TO 1500

FLAP UP

ACC ENROUTE

EN-

SAFE SPEED CLIMB SPEED CLIMB SPEED

15 MAX TAKE-OFF POWER MAX CONT PWR

Fig 6.

NET TAKE-OFF FLIGHT PATH

34. It is pointed out that the foregoing describes a typical plot but one which is by no means mandatory. It is, therefore, possible to find aircraft that have three, four or five segments in their net flight paths and whose speeds in the various segments from those illustrated above.

35. The aircraft weight used for the initial scale plot is the maximum permissible take-off weight determined by the take-off plan. If, on using this weight, the required legal obstacle clearance (i.e. 35 ft for a straight climb and 50ft whilst the heading is changed by more than 15 deg) is obtained, then the Net Take-off Flight Path imposes no limitation. If the required obstacle clearance is not obtained, then the take-off weight must be reduced, and a further plot be constructed with reference zero redefined at the end of the take-off distance required. Having repositioned reference zero, it will also be necessary to re-adjust obstacles horizontally and vertically as applicable. This enables a graph to be drawn for two or three flight paths for various weights, the axis of the graph showing take-off weight against clearance. This will enable the maximum take-off weight which will achieve the desired clearance to be established. This is further explained with the help of a graph (Fig 6), in which it is seen that to achieve a vertical clearance of 35 the take-off weight should be less than 166000 lbs.

REQUIRED CLEARANCE=35 FT + 40 CLEARANCE +20 0 -20 -40 TOW FOR 35 CLEARANCE

16

160

162

164

166

168

170

TAKE-OFF WEIGHT (X 1000 LBS)

Fig 7. Take-off Weight for Clearance by 35. 36. The following specifications are laid down by the Air Navigation Regulations regarding the Net take-off flight path and the various segments of climb: (a) The net take-off flight path will be the gross take-off flight path, with the critical unit inoperative diminished by a gradient of climb of : (i) (ii) (iii) 0.8% for aircraft with 2 power units. 0.9% for aircraft with 3 power units. 1.0% for aircraft with 4 power units.

(b) The gross gradient of climb in the first segment shall not be less than: (i) (ii) (iii) 0% for aircraft with 2 power units. 0.3 % for aircraft with 3 power units. 0.5% for aircraft with 4 power units.

(c) The gross gradient of climb in the second segment shall not be less than: (i) (ii) (iii) 2.4% for aircraft with 2 power units. 2.7% for aircraft with 3 power units. 3.0% for aircraft with 4 power units.

(d) The gross gradient of climb in the fourth and final segment shall not be less than: (i) (ii) 1.2% aircraft with 2 power units. 1.4% for aircraft with 3 power units.

17

(iii )

1.5% for aircraft with 4 power units.

(e) The gross gradient of climb on approach for an aircraft having one power unit inoperative is: (i) (ii) (iii) 2.1% for aircraft with 2 power units. 2.3% for aircraft with 3 power units. 2.4 % for aircraft with 4 power units.

En-route Performance 37. En-route performance planning concerns that portion of the flight which starts at 1500 ft,i.e. , at the end of the net take-off flight path , and ends at 1500 ft over the landing airfield. En-route Terrain Clearance. 38. En-route, aircraft must clear all obstacles within 10 nm(5 nm under certain circumstances) on either side of the intended track by a vertical interval of at least 2000 ft using one(or two) power units inoperative net performance. Further, when the aircraft arrives over the airfield, it must have at least a zero gradient of climb on net performance at 1500 ft above the airfield. The navigational aids available on the route under consideration will determine whether obstacles within 5 nm or 10 nm of the track are to be considered. 39. In assessing the ability of the aeroplane to comply with the terrain clearance requirement, account must be taken of the meteorological conditions (including temperature) expected for the flight, and the aircrafts ice-protection system must be assumed to be in use when appropriate. 40. While calculating the drift Down Altitude, the maximum possible altitude that can be assumed at the start of the drift down is the least of: (a) (b) Maximum re-light altitude. The planned altitude to fly.

41. Once the maximum permissible altitude is established, the drift down of the aircraft is calculated using the en-route net gradient of climb. The drift down is calculated and a vertical clearance of 2000 ft is checked against all obstacles.

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If this clearance is not achieved, either the aircraft weight must be adjusted until the required clearance exists or, alternatively the aircraft must be re-routed to avoid critical obstacles. It should be noted that in some cases it is possible for the aircraft to drift up. Fig 7 explains the profile of an aircraft drifting down from the enroute altitude and clearing the enroute obstacles. 42. is: (a) Determine the maximum height from which the drift down will commence. (b) Determine the required terrain clearance. The method for calculation of the drift down altitude after a power failure

(c) Select the vertical spacing to be used for calculations(1000,2000or 5000). (d) For the mean height and temperature obtain from the graph the enroute net gradient. (e) Calculate the horizontal distance traveled during descend.

MAX RELIGHTING ALTITUDE

1ST OBSTACLE ALTITUDE (FT) 2ND OBSTACLE STABILIZING ALT

HORIZONTAL DISTANCE FROM ENGINE FAILURE (NM)

Fig 8. Drift Down Profile with Obstacle Clearance. 43. Effect of Wind on Drift Down Path. To obtain the true distance gradient the forecast wind component must be applied; a head wind component

19

decreases the distance traveled (increases the gradient), whilst a tail wind component will give an increased horizontal distance (decreased gradient). 44. Net gradient of climb for enroute obstacle clearance with the critical power unit inoperative shall be the gross gradient of climb diminished by: (a) (b) (c) 1.1% for aircraft with 2 power units. 1.4% for aircraft with 3 power units. 1.6% for aircraft with 4 power units. LANDING REQUIREMENTS 45. There now remains one further set of requirements, which needs investigation and this concerns landing distance criteria that deal with destination and alternate airfields separately. As with take-off requirements, landing requirements can be treated under similar headings, i.e., (a) (b) (c) C of A limit (landing). WAT limit (landing). Field length requirement.

46. C of A limit (landing). The certificate of airworthiness limit is absolute and must not be exceeded except in emergency. 47. WAT limit (landing). The landing WAT limit ensures a positive gradient of climb in the overshoot configuration, with one power inoperative. 48. Arbitrary Landing Distance. This is the gross horizontal distance required to land on a dry hard surface, from a screen height of 50 ft, and come to a complete stop, at a gradient of descend not greater than 5%(3 deg glide path), and a constant speed of not less than the greatest of: (a) 1.3 times the minimum stalling speed with flaps in the landing configuration. (b) (c) The all power units operating threshold speed (Vat). The one power inoperative target threshold speed minus 5 kts.

20

49. Destination Airfield -Arbitrary Landing Distance. The landing distance required appropriate to Destination Airfield shall be the Arbitrary Landing Distance determined in accordance with para 48, times 1.82 for aircraft having turbo-jet power units and not fitted with effective reverse thrust; 1.67 for all other aircraft. All the landing distances are further explained with the help of Fig 9.

GRADIENT 5%

SPEED AT THRESHOLD AS PER PARA 48

50 FT

STOP

LANDING DISTANCE DEST LANDING DIST REQD =LANDING DIST x (1.67 OR 1.82) ALTERNATE LANDING DIST. REQD = DETINATION LANDING DIST x 0.95

Fig 9. ARBITRARY DISTANCE REQUIRED DESTINATION AND ALTERNATE

AIRFIELD

50. Reference Landing Distance. This is the gross horizontal distance required to land on a reference wet hard surface from a height of 30 ft and come to a complete stop. The speed at the height of 30 ft is the maximum threshold speed; touchdown is at the reference touchdown speed attainment of which is under limiting operational conditions of ceiling and visibility. 51. Landing Distance Alternate Airfield. The landing distance required at an alternate airfield will be the landing distance at the destination airfield multiplied be 0.95. In case of Propeller driven aircraft the factor to be multiplied is 0.86. However, the new factor 0.95 has made retrospect in the case of jet aircraft .The reason for making the regulations more restrictive is because there is less justification for a marked differential between the destination and alternate landing distance. A modern aircraft is less susceptible to variation in landing

21

techniques and its scheduled distances are subject to fairly tight control of approach and touch down speeds. 52. Multiple Runways. If airfields have multiple runways then each runway will need to be treated individually, unless the best runway can be determined by inspection. 53. Having now decided on the maximum permissible landing weight, this could impose a restriction on take-off weight since maximum take-off weight can never exceed maximum landing weight plus burn off fuel from departure to the destination or alternate airfield.

54. The following specifications are laid down by the Air Navigation Regulations regarding the gross gradient of climb on approach for an aircraft having one power unit inoperative: a (a) b c (b) (c) 2.1% for aircraft with 2 power units. 2.3% for aircraft with 3 power units. 2.4 % for aircraft with 4 power units.

55. Having gone into the details of calculating the TORR, TODR and ASDR the basics to be kept in mind while decreasing/increasing the decision speed (V1) are that it causes: (a) (b) (c) Increases/decreases the TORR. Increases/decreases the TODR. Decreases/increases the ASDR. Weight and Balance. 56. The principles of weight and balance are applicable to all aircraft. Aircraft carrying standard loads, e.g. training and air defence aircraft are normally flown under a pre-computed weight and balance clearance, but transport aircraft, due to their variable load capacity, require a separate clearance for each sortie. Aircraft Weight Limitation. 57. A limitation is imposed on the AUW at which any aircraft is permitted to operate. This limitation depends on the strength of the structural components of the aircraft and the operational requirements it is designed to meet. If these

22

limitations are exceeded, the safety of the aircraft may be jeopardized and its operational efficiency impaired. Effect of Increased All Up Weight on Aircraft Performance. 58. The effect on the aircrafts performance due to increasing the AUW is to : (a) Increasing the stalling speed, thereby increasing the take-off and landing speeds. (b) Increase the aircrafts inertia, thereby reducing the acceleration on take-off and deceleration on landing. (c) (d) (e) (f) Reduce the rate of climb. Lower the absolute ceiling and optimum range altitude. Reduce the range and endurance. Reduce maneuverability and assymetric performance.

59. There is an optimum position of the CG of any loaded aircraft that will change with the AUW of the aircraft. Even if the CG of a loaded aircraft is at the optimum position at the time of take-off, in-flight changes in the AUW cause the CG to move and such a movement may cause a progressive loss of efficiency, leading, as the distance increases from the optimum position, to a state of serious and even dangerous unbalance. Effect of Unbalanced Loading. 60. Incorrect loading of the aircraft can move the CG near the normal foreand-aft limits and this can have the following effects in the aircrafts performance: (a) CG too far forward. (i) Necessitates a large stick force per g, making the aircraft difficult to manoeuvre and heavy to handle. (ii) Necessitates a large elevator movement for landing.

(iii) Requires the use of excessive nose up trim to maintain straight and level flight, resulting in increased drag and a consequent decrease in range and endurance. (b) CG Too Aft.

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(i) The aircraft becomes less stable and may become unstable, possibly leading to loss of control. (ii) In some aircraft the increased load on the tail-plane may cause flutter. (iii) Requires excessive use of nose down trim to maintain straight and level flight, resulting in increased drag and a consequent decrease in range and endurance.

Cargo Restraint. 61. All cargo carried in the aircraft must be secured against forces that may tend to move it from its allotted position in the aircraft. These forces may be caused by the acceleration or deceleration of the aircraft when taking-off or landing, by air turbulence, by control surface movements, or by the inertia of the cargo item should the aircraft crash-land or ditch. 62. If an item of cargo is not properly secured it may move, with one or more of the following results: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) Injury to personnel in the aircraft. Movement of the CG outside the permissible limits. Structural damage to the aircraft. Blockage of emergency exits. Damage to other cargo items. FUEL PLANNING 63. The fuel plan is an essential part of flight planning. Accurate calculation of the fuel required for a particular operation is important to safety, economical operation, and the maximum utilization of the available payload. Variables Affecting Fuel Consumption.

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64.

In general terms fuel consumption is a function of the following parameters: (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Pressure altitude. Air temperature. Speed. All Up Weight. Engine RPM.

65. The significance of the individual parameters depends on the type of aircraft engine being considered and is summarised in the following paragraphs: (a) Piston Aircraft. These aircraft operate in that part of the atmosphere that has the greatest rate of change of density with altitude (015000 ft). A wide range of pressure altitudes and temperatures is encountered and the fuel planning method must be capable of taking account of these variations. Furthermore the piston engine is a very versatile power unit the required output can be achieved by various combinations of RPM and intake manifold pressures. Thus all variables must be considered when studying piston aircraft fuel consumption. (b) Turbo Prop Aircraft. The normal operating altitude range of the turbo prop aircraft is 15000-30000, where the density gradient is less marked than in the 0-15000 range, thus pressure altitude is a less significant factor.As far as the RPM is concerned, a turbo prop engine is operated at optimum RPM and changes in power output are achieved by varying the pitch of the propellor. (c) Pure Jet Aircraft. Jet aircraft operate in the region of the tropopause in order to obtain the best combination of engine and airframe efficiency. Thus fuel consumption data can be presented in terms of optimum operating heights. As with the turbo-prop engines, jet engine RPM ranges are small and are not used as entering arguments. Calculating the Fuel Plan. 66. When the route and time portion of the flight plan has been completed the fuel requirements are then calculated as follows: (a) Determine the AUW at take-off.

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(b) (c) (d) (e)

Calculate the fuel needed for the climb. Calculate the fuel needed for each leg. Calculate the descend fuel. Calculate the fuel required for a planned diversion.

(f) Calculate a contingency reserve (this is generally 5% of the fuel required for climb, cruise and descend). (g) Make an additional allowance for unusable fuel and that required for taxying, holding and approach. 67. Leg Fuel Calculations. Since fuel consumption during cruise flight depends on the aircraft weight, the mean AUW must be determined for each leg of the flight and the fuel flow for the weight extracted from the appropriate graph or table. The method of determining the mean AUW for each leg depends on the type of the aircraft being considered; for a jet aircraft, the calculation must be exact since fuel flow varies considerably with the change in weight; for piston aircraft, the calculation is less critical. MATO Fuel Calculation. 68. IAP-3314 Manual of Air Transport Operations lays down the method of calculating fuel in transport aircraft while on a cross-country flight. The total fuel carried for the flight is to be based on the following requirement:(a) (b) Fuel for flight time from departure to destination. Fuel for flight time from destination to terminal diversion.

(c) Fuel for 10% of (a) and (b) above to cater for variation in aircraft performance, meteorological inaccuracies and errors in navigation. (d) Fuel foe 30 minutes of ODR (Overhead Diversion Reserve-It allows for holding overhead at the diversionary airfield, an instrument letdown, an overshoot and landing). (d) Fuel for taxy, run-up and unusable fuel (not to be included in the AUW for take-off). CONCLUSION

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69. The main end product in performance planning is finding the value of the maximum permissible regulated take-off weight. It should be clear that this weight may be determined by the take-off, the net take-off flight path, the enroute terrain clearance, or the landing distance limitation. 70. It is not possible to design an aircraft in which the lift, weight, thrust and drag forces are always in equilibrium during straight and level flight; the centre of pressure and the drag line vary with changes of angle of attack and the position of the Centre of Gravity depends on the total distribution. Operation at weight in excess of the maximum AUW will reduce the safety factor thereby increasing the risk of structural failure in manoeuvre or when flying in turbulent conditions. Whilst it is important to ensure that the normal maximum AUW of an aircraft is not exceeded, the distribution that weight, i.e., the balance of the aircraft, is equally important. 71. The height and speed at which the aircraft is flown depends on the specific task and the aircraft type. Generally speaking an aircraft is operated to achieve maximum range during transit flight and for maximum endurance whilst on station ass combat air patrol. In other situations, such as penetration of hostile defences, speed and height will be determined by the tactics in use. 72. A computer programmed to suit individual aircraft performance characteristics would give the quickest and most accurate solution to the performance plan. Such computers are already in use, but at present they are costly, cumbersome and used mainly by aircraft manufacturers. It is highly likely, however, that future development will produce a manageable computer for use by operators.

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QUESTIONS 1. State true or false. (a) (b) Time and fuel are very important considerations in performance planning. The space required by an aircraft to manoeuvre depends on its weight.

(c) The principle end product of a performance plan is the maximum permissible take-off weight. (d) Licencing authority has nothing to do with certifying the airworthiness of an aircraft. (e) An-32 falls under performance Group A.

(f) TODA for runway 27 in Goa is infinite since sea is available for the initial climb. (g) (h) The width of the stopway is twice that of the runway. Take-off should be continued if you have an engine failure at V1.

(j) Atleast V3 should be attained on one power unit inoperative after take-off by 35. (k) Power unit failure and the decision point are the same.

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(l) Reference zero is the point directly below the aircraft at the end of TORR. (m) When calculating the arbitrary landing distance the glide slope should not be more than 5 deg. 2. Fill in the blanks. (a) Generally all modern multi-engine civil passenger aircraft are certified to performance __________ standards. (b) For the purpose of flight planning, a flight is divided into________ stages. The minimum standard of performance is known as _______________.

(c)

(d) A field is said to be balanced when the _____________ is equal to the ______________. (e) (f) (g) Stalling speed with flaps in the landing setting is _____________. Rotation speed (Vr) is a function of __________and ___________. When the emergency distance is wet then the V1 is _________ kts less.

(h) With an increase in the V1 the TORR and TODR __________ and the ASDR __________. (j) Fourth segment starts from the end of the third segment to the ________ or __________, whichever is earlier. (k) Enroute an aircraft must clear all obstacles within ________ nm on either side by atleast __________ ft with one(two) engines inoperative. (l) With the CG too forward the aircraft becomes _____________ and with CG too back the aircraft is ___________. (m) In the MATO fuel calculation the 10% of the fuel required from departure to destination and to the diversion is to cater for ____________ . (n) ODR caters ____________________________________________. for

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3.

Explain any three. (a) (b) The various performance groups. Explain the stages of performance planning along with a diagram.

(c) With the help of a diagram explain the various stages of the Net Take-off Flight Path. (d) Give the method of calculating fuel for a cross-country flight as given in MATO.

LESSON PLAN QFI COURSE SUBJECT DURATION OBJECTIVE : : : : 112 SCHEDULED PERFORMANCE OF MULTI-ENGINE TRANSPORT AIRCRAFT 1 Hr 30 Min To introduce the concept of Scheduled Performance for Transport Aircraft

TRAINING AIDS

: 1. PROXIMA 2. WHITE BOARD 3. OHP BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. 2.

BOOK BOOK

: :

IAP 3456 MANUAL FOR AIR TRANSPORT OPERATIONS

METHODOLOGY

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(A)

LECTURE

(B)

LESSON

(C)

DISCUSSION

PREVIOUS LESSON TIE- IN NIL

INDEX

Sl. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Chapter Introduction Brief History Laws of motion Orbits of Satellites Typical launch of a Satellite Types of Satellites and Launch Vehicles Use of Satellites Future trends Conclusion

Page No. 01 01 02 05 06 08 09 10 10