Carlos Rodriguez Pr.

3 Information for Project

1. http://explorethemed.com/Christian.asp?c=1

Roman Unity and the Spread of Christianity In the first few centuries of Christianity, the Roman establishment felt threatened by this new religious movement and Christians were at times persecuted under Roman rule (This will be discussed in detail further on). However, the spread of Christianity was only possible because of the stability and unification of the Mediterranean achieved by the Romans. The Romans had successfully unified the entire Mediterranean into a relatively peaceful and prosperous trading system. Communications between the various peoples of the Mediterranean had become streamlined into two major languages: Latin in the Western Mediterranean, and Greek in the Eastern Mediterranean. This prosperity and unification assisted early missionaries such as St. Paul in getting the word out about the new faith. (Map 1 shows the cities across the Mediterranean that St. Paul visited). The early centers of Christianity were the largest cities and the most urbanized provinces on the major trade networks of the Mediterranean.

Christian Healthcare and the Rise of Christianity Rodney Stark's book, the Rise of Christianity, argues that one of the main reasons for the success of Early Christianity was the Christian emphasis on caring for the sick. During the late Roman period there were a number of devastating plagues: the Antonine Plague (165-180 AD), the Plague of Cyprian (251-270 AD), and the Plague of Justinian (541542 AD). These periods coincide with some of the most prolific growth of Christianity. Stark contends that Christian communities would have had better survival rates during these plagues because of the healthcare they provided for one another. Christians also cared for the sick in non-Christian communities, which would increase the likelihood of their conversion, especially in times of death and uncertainty. The old religions offered no explanation for why these epidemics were occurring as the ancients had no real understating of micro-organisms and why communicable diseases spread, Christianity acted as a salvation.

The Roman Persecution of Christians During the 1st and 2nd centuries AD, persecutions of Christians were isolated, sporadic and carried out by local governors without any official decree from the Emperor. Whilst the Roman Emperor blamed the Great Fire of Romeof 64 AD on the Christians and persecuted the Christian

community of Rome, the persecution was confined to just the city of Rome itself. (Map 1 shows some of the documented incidents of Christian persecutions up to 200 AD). By the 3rd and 4th centuries AD, the Christian community had begun to grow substantially, and with this growth came notoriety. A number of Roman emperors began to oppress the Christian faith more directly. For example the Emperor Decius proclaimed in 250 AD that all inhabitants of the Empire must make a sacrifice for the Emperor and the Empires well being in front of a magistrate by a certain date. Christians were obstinate in their non-compliance and some church leaders were arrested, tried, and executed such as Fabian, the bishop of Rome. The persecution of Christians culminated in the great persecution under the reign of Emperor Diocletian. In a series of edicts starting in 303 AD, Diocletian banned Christians from serving in the army, imprisoned many Christian bishops and priests, ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship. Diocletian requested that the oppression of Christians be pursued "without bloodshed". In spite of this request, local judges often enforced executions during the persecution as capital punishment was among their discretionary powers. According to one modern estimate the Diocletian Persecution resulted in the deaths of up to 3,500 Christians out of a total Christian population of about 6 million.
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But many others were

imprisoned or lost their property. (Map 2 shows some of the known incidents of martyrdom around the Roman Empire during or immediately after the Diocletian Persecution.)

The Roman Attitude towards Christianity Why did the early Romans have such an aversion to this new faith? A common perception is that the Romans felt threatened by the Christians reverence of a single God, but this then begs the question why were the Jews not also persecuted to the same degree? Some of the other reasons that have been put forth about why Christians were so disliked by the Roman establishment was that the Christians rejected the Roman public festivals, avoided public office and military service, and publicly criticized ancient traditions. But what did the Romans themselves say about the Christian belief system? Unfortunately for the historian, all of the Greco-Roman writings that criticized Christian belief were burned by over-zealous Christians in later centuries. For example the writings of the philosopher Porphyry and the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostate were burnt on the orders of the Christian Emperor Theodosius II in 448 AD. For this reason it is difficult for us today to understand why the Romans held such a negative view of Christianity. However, it is possible to begin to piece together what these anti-Christian writings contained because a number of Christian Theologians wrote rebuttals to their works and quoted them extensively. In 'The Christians as the Romans Saw Them', Robert Wilkens explains that the Romans had a very conservative attitude towards religion. The Romans had great respect for their own ancestors who

they considered to have been closer to the Gods and they also encouraged respect for the ancestors and traditional religions of the other peoples in their Empire. New religious movements on the other hand were regarded as superstitions, Christianity in particular was considered to be an apostasy from Judaism. Thus the philosopher Celsus wrote When the father sent Jesus had he forgotten what commands he had sent to Moses? Or did he condemn his own laws and change his mind? But the Roman aversion to this new religious movement was confounded by the Christian view that they alone had received special revelation unknown to all others, which the Romans labeled as arrogance. According to this view, God had not cared about the ancestors of the Romans. Thus the Roman Emperor Julian the Apostatewrote: Why is Judea the only land that God chose to care for? If he is the God of all of us alike, why did he neglect us?

The Creation of a Christian Empire After Emperor Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD, the persecutions of Christians began to subside. Christians came out of hiding and became influential once again. The Roman Emperor Constantine I, (reigned 306-337 AD), was the first Roman Emperor to be converted to Christianity. But he was not the first ruler to become a Christian as the King of Armenia, Tiridates III had already converted to Christianity in 301 AD, a man who had ruthlessly persecuted the Christians in his early reign, and then ruthlessly persecuted non-Christians after his conversion. Constantine I on the other hand was comparatively tolerant of non-Christians, though he did work tirelessly to spread and promote his new faith across the empire. He legislated freedom of religion for Christians and ordered the return of church property that had been confiscated during the persecutions. He was also praised by the Christian historianSozomen for ensuring that Christians were placed in almost all the principal positions in government. During Constantines reign, Christians were still only a fifth of the population of the western portions of the Empire, but they already made up approximately half the population of the Eastern provinces.
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This may have been one of the reasons why Constantine decided to move the

capital city of the Roman Empire from Rome to a brand new city that he built in the East called Constantinople (see map 3). At his new capital he could surround himself with a loyal Christian population and the city was also easily defendable, being surrounded by sea on 3 sides and mountains on the fourth. The Pagans in the Roman Empire were still too numerous and influential forConstantine to order any large scale demolishment of their temples across the entire empire, nevertheless he did begin to demolish a number of Pagan temples in the Eastern portion of the Empire that were considered to be the most divergent to Christian beliefs (namely those of Aphrodite, the Greek Goddess of Love, and Asclepius, the Greek God of Medicine), the entire temple complex and Oracle of Apollo at Didyma was also destroyed byConstantine but this appears to be more as an act of revenge as the priests here had encouraged the earlier persecutions of Christians under

Diocletian.

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Take a look at map 3 and you will notice that during this period only a small

number of Pagan temples were destroyed and they were limited to the eastern portion of the Empire, which was the Christian power base.

2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome#Christianization
Christianization
See also: Pentarchy, History of Christianity, and Persecution of religion in ancient Rome Roman investigations into early Christianity found it an irreligious, novel, disobedient, even atheistic subsect of Judaism: it appeared to deny all forms of religion and was therefore superstitio. By the end of the Imperial era, Nicene Christianity was the one permitted Roman religio; all other cults were heretical or pagan superstitiones.[167] After the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, Emperor Nero accused the Christians as convenient scapegoats who were later persecuted and killed. From that point on, Roman official policy towards Christianity tended towards persecution. During the various Imperial crises of the 3rd century, contemporaries were predisposed to decode any crisis in religious terms, regardless of their allegiance to particular practices or belief systems. Christianity drew its traditional base of support from the powerless, who seemed to have no religious stake in the well-being of the Roman State, and therefore threatened its existence.[168] The majority of Romes elite continued to observe various forms of inclusive Hellenistic monism; Neoplatonism in particular accommodated the miraculous and the ascetic within a traditional Graeco-Roman cultic framework. Christians saw these ungodly practices as a primary cause of economic and political crisis. In the wake of religious riots in Egypt, the emperor Decius decreed that all subjects of the Empire must actively seek to benefit the state through witnessed and certified sacrifice to "ancestral gods" or suffer a penalty: only Jews were exempt.[169] Decius' edict appealed to whatever common mos maiores might reunite a politically and socially fractured Empire and its multitude of cults; no ancestral gods were specified by name. The fulfillment of sacrificial obligation by loyal subjects would define them and their gods as Roman.
[170]

Roman oaths of loyalty were traditionally collective; the Decian oath has been
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interpreted as a design to root out individual subversives and suppress their cults, sought, rather than capital punishment.
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but apostasy was

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A year after its due deadline, the edict expired.

Valerian's first religious edict singled out Christianity as a particularly self-interested and subversive foreign cult, outlawed its assemblies and urged Christians to sacrifice to Rome's traditional gods.
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His second edict acknowledged a Christian threat to the Imperial system not yet at its heart

but close to it, among Romes equites and Senators. Christian apologists interpreted his disgraceful capture and death as divine judgement. The next forty years were peaceful; the Christian church grew stronger and its literature and theology gained a higher social and intellectual profile, due in part to its own search for political toleration and theological coherence. Origen discussed theological issues with traditionalist elites in a common Neoplatonist frame of reference he had written to Decius' predecessor Philip the Arab in similar vein and Hippolytus recognised a pagan basis in Christian heresies.
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The Christian churches were disunited; Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch was deposed

by a synod of 268 for "dogmatic reasons his doctrine on the human nature of Christ was rejected and for his lifestyle, which reminded his brethren of the habits of the administrative elite". The reasons for his deposition were widely circulated among the churches.
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Meanwhile Aurelian (270-75) appealed for

harmony among his soldiers (concordia militum), stabilised the Empire and its borders and successfully established an official, Hellenic form of unitary cult to the Palmyrene Sol Invictus in Rome's Campus Martius.[178] In 295, a certain Maximilian refused military service; in 298 Marcellus renounced his military oath. Both were executed for treason; both were Christians.[174] At some time around 302, a report of ominous haruspicyin Diocletian's domus and a subsequent (but undated) dictat of placatory sacrifice by the entire military triggered a series of edicts against Christianity.[179] The first (303 AD) "ordered the destruction of church buildings and Christian texts, forbade services to be held, degraded ofcials who were Christians, re-enslaved imperial freedmen who were Christians, and reduced the legal rights of all Christians... [Physical] or capital punishments were not imposed on them" but soon after, several Christians suspected of attempted arson in the palace were executed.[180] The second edict threatened Christian priests with imprisonment and the third offered them freedom if they performed sacrifice.[181] An edict of 304 enjoined universal sacrifice to traditional gods, in terms that recall the Decian edict. In some cases and in some places the edicts were strictly enforced: some Christians resisted and were imprisoned or martyred. Others complied. Some local communities were not only pre-dominantly Christian, but powerful and influential; and some provincial authorities were lenient. Diocletian's successor Galerius maintained anti-Christian policy until his deathbed revocation in 311, when he asked Christians to pray for him. "This meant an ofcial recognition of their importance in the religious world of the Roman empire, although one of the tetrarchs, Maximinus Daia, still oppressed Christians in his part of the empire up to 313."[182] With the abatement of persecution, St. Jerome acknowledged Empire as a bulwark against evil but insisted that "imperial honours" were contrary to Christian teaching.
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His was an authoritative but

minority voice: most Christians showed no qualms in the veneration of even "pagan" emperors. The peace of the emperors was the peace of God; as far as the Church was concerned, internal dissent and doctrinal schism were a far greater problem. The solution came from a hitherto unlikely source:

as pontifex maximus Constantine I favoured the "Catholic Church of the Christians" against the Donatists because: it is contrary to the divine law... that we should overlook such quarrels and contentions, whereby the Highest Divinity may perhaps be roused not only against the human race but also against myself, to whose care he has by his celestial will committed the government of all earthly things. Official letter from Constantine, dated 314 CE.
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Constantine successfully balanced his own role as an instrument of the pax deorum with the power of the Christian priesthoods in determining what was (in traditional Roman terms) auspicious - or in Christian terms, what was orthodox. The edict of Milan (313) redefined Imperial ideology as one of mutual toleration. Constantine had triumphed under the signum (sign) of the Christ: Christianity was therefore officially embraced along with traditional religions and from his new Eastern capital, Constantine could be seen to embody both Christian and Hellenic religious interests. He may have officially ended or attempted to end blood sacrifices to the genius of living emperors but his Imperial iconography and court ceremonial outstripped Diocletian's in their supra-human elevation of the Imperial hierarch.[185] His later direct intervention in Church affairs proved a political masterstroke. Constantine united and refounded the empire as an absolute head of state by divine dispensation and on his death, he was honoured as a Christian, Imperial and apostolic divus. Granted apotheosis, he ascended to heaven; Philostorgius later criticised Christians who offered sacrifice at statues of the divus Constantine.

3. http://library.thinkquest.org/C004203/religion/religion04.htm
Unlike Hinduism and Buddhism which were founded rather early, Christianity was only founded perhaps in 4 BC (as historians predicted), the year when its founder, Jesus Christ, was born. It is a religion that stresses on doing good to others and developing in oneself qualities such as compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. It is also important for every Christian to be able to forgive and forget. It is as we know today, a religion that is excepted by most and widely practised by people all over the world. It was not exactly the same case as in the past, however, especially in ancient Rome. The following is a story of how and why this was so

Forty years after the death of the Roman emperor, Augustus Caesar, the new emperor Nero came to the throne at the age of sixteen. He was a wildly extravagant leader, taxing the people heavily to support his personal projects. He was also a wicked man. In the year 64 A.D. a terrible fire raged for days in the slum districts of Rome, killing thousands of people and leaving thousands more homeless. Nero is thought to have started the fire as a sinister way to rid Rome of both the slums and their occupants. However Nero used the young community of Christians as his scapegoats, saying that they had started the tragic fire. He ordered many of these Christians to be massacred in -the amphitheatre and elsewhere.

The official Roman dislike of Christianity was surprising, for the Romans were usually quick to adopt the gods of other faiths into their own religion. For instance, when Rome conquered Greece, the Romans readily accepted the Greek gods and goddesses and their myths, and altered many established Roman deities to resemble their Greek counterparts. The Roman god Jupiter, for example, took on many traits of Zeus, the Greek god of the heavens. Thus, why then could they not accept Christianity?? The reasons were because The Romans also declared their emperors to be gods, beginning with Augustus Caesar. However, the Christians refused to take part in the worship of emperors and were as a result, so disliked by the Roman State! Christians were also seen as subversive enemies of the state in their fervent desire to make converts. Despite the persecutions, particularly under the emperors Nero and Diocletian, the number of Christians increased and, in 313 A.D., the emperor Constantine granted the Christians freedom of religion. Thus, we can now understand why Christianity was not well received by the Romans. The Christians refusal to follow the rules of the Romans definitely angered the Romans much. Christianity was even considered to be an illegal religion and Christians were even alleged to practise black magic and even cannibalism!

4. http://www.allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-rome-faq.htm What is the history of Christianity in Rome? The origin of Christianity in Rome is not known. But, the history of Christianity in Rome is fairly well documented. The Bible includes an epistle written by the Apostle Paul to the Christians in Rome. The book of Acts records that Paul, though Jewish, was a Roman citizen by birth. When the Jews accused Paul of bringing Gentiles into their synagogue, Paul made an appeal for Caesar to hear his case. Paul's fate while in Rome is not known. Some historians believe that he was beheaded under orders of the Roman emperor, Nero. The influence of the Apostles Paul and Peter, throughout the early church, undoubtedly impacted the history of Christianity of Rome. The Apostle Peter is known to have established his headquarters in the city, following his thirty-year ministry in the East. The Apostle Peter was martyred in Rome. In its infancy, the Church was scattered throughout the Roman Empire. Keeping the Christian community unified was a major concern of the church leaders. The structure and organization of the Roman Empire influenced the character of the early church. Because there was so many cities scattered throughout the empire, Christianity spread within the urban centers, which were populated by slaves and the poorer members of society. Christianity soon became known as "a religion of slaves." During the first century, Roman authorities used the Christians who resided in their city as political scapegoats. Christians received the blame, and punishment, for everything

from plagues and economic inflation to hostile invasions by barbarians. Under the Emperor Nero, the public execution of Christians became "sports" events in which the early believers were torched, fastened to crosses and torn to pieces by dogs. In the face of these persecutions, the church in Rome birthed writers to defend the faith. These writers were known as "Apologists." The early apologists sought to explain Christian doctrine in philosophical terms to pagan intellectuals and Greek philosophers. Their writings provided a reasoned defense that served to quench the hysterical attacks of the unbelieving, but failed to convert the empire to Christianity. After facing nearly three centuries of hostility by Roman emperors, the persecution and martyrdom of Christians in Rome ended with the reforms of the Emperor Constantine (r. 306-337). Constantine was responsible for legalizing Christianity throughout the Roman empire. Constantine became a patron and protector of the church. In 380, the Flavius Theodosius (r. 379-395) made Christianity the official religion of Rome. At the close of the fourth century, the majority of Roman citizens had converted to Christianity. The separation between Church and state was all but extinguished. When the political power of the emperors collapsed with the fall of the Roman Empire, in 410, the Church and its leaders endured as the dominant influence in Roman culture and politics. 5. http://www.unrv.com/culture/christianity.php While the rise of Christianity to dominate western religion may very well have been inevitable, certain key moments along the way helped secure this position. The arrival of the Constantinian Dynasty was one such moment. In the early 4th century, 306 AD, Constantine rose to Emperor in the West upon the death of his father Constantius. However, he and his brother-in-law, and coemperor in the west, Maxentius were bitter rivals. Open hostility and war broke out between the two after several years of political scheming. Before the two met in the fateful battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312 AD, Constantine supposedly had a vision of the sign of Christ in a dream. Eusebius gives an account several years later in which Christ appeared to Constantine and instructed him to place the heavenly sign on the battle standards of his army. The chi-rho symbol, or Labarum, was described by Eusebius as "a long spear, overlaid with gold", which included a bar crossing the spear to form the shape of the Christian cross. "On the top of the whole was fixed a wreath of gold and precious stones, and within this the symbol of the Savior's name, two letters indicating the name of Christ by means of the initial letters, the letter X intersection P at the center." Included with the banner were the words: In hoc signo vinces (in this sign thou shalt conquer), and armed with this holy power, Constantine crushed Maxentius securing his place as sole western Emperor. Constantine, though previously a worshipper of Sol Invictus, the Sun God, took on support of Christianity with some zeal. He declared that his victory was owed to the god of the Christians and set about adopting an imperial policy to advance its cause. Some claims have been made that Constantine 'converted to Christianity simply for political means, and that justifiably may have played a part. Arguments have been made that Constantine was baptized years after the fact, just

before his death, as a political tool to aid the accession of his sons, but it was often the custom of the early Christians to be 'cleansed' just prior to death rather than at birth. Despite these arguments, Constantine's policies and actions as emperor would indicate some considerable devotion to the Church. Christian Bishops under Constantine functioned in an official capacity as Imperial advisors. Tax exemptions were granted to Christian priests and money was granted from the Imperial treasury to provide for new and rebuilt churches. At a meeting of Bishops in Milan (313 AD) an edict (of Milan) was passed which essentially granted complete tolerance to all religions, but Christianity would benefit the most. Previous victims of various persecutions were also granted compensation directly from the Roman treasury. Still, however, Constantine left a confusing trail for his personal religious thoughts. Association with Sol Invictus is still cited for several more years, at least until the complete unification of the Empire. The emperor in the east, Licinius maintained an adversarial relationship with Constantine for many years, which included two short wars for Imperial dominance. Licinius seems to have maintained more support for traditional pagan customs and Constantine may have resisted complete Christian conversion in order to maintain the approval of the non-Christian majority population. Perhaps in order to lure Constantine into a final battle, Licinius began inciting Pagans against Constantine's edict which favored Christianity and championed a Pagan cause. By 324 AD, the conflict and rivalry came to a head. Constantine defeated Licinius in battles at Adrianople and Chrysopolis, which ended in Licinius' capture and execution. With Constantine's victory he became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire and likely feeling more secure in his position, began to advance the Christian cause more earnestly. New Churches were built in Rome and around the empire, such as the new basilica church on the Vatican hill, on the place where St. Peter had been martyred. The St John Lateran in Rome was commissioned and the Church of Nicomedia which had been destroyed by Diocletian was rebuilt. When the Roman capital was moved to the city of Byzantium, Constantine built new churches there as well. The Hagia Sophia (Holy Wisdom) and Hagia Eirene (Holy Peace) were built along with the foundation of the Church of the Holy Apostles. In fact, Byzantium, which was essentially a rebuilt city on old Greek ruins, was renamed Constantinople, and unlike Rome, was built with a predominately Christian flavor. His mother, Helena, after Constantine executed his own son (Crispus) and wife (Fausta) in a very un-Christian manner, embarked on a pilgrimage to the eastern provinces. There she played a part in establishing the Church of the Nativity at Bethlehem and the Church of the Eleona on Jerusalem's Mount of Olives. Perhaps more importantly, according the Eusebius she was given credit for discovering the True Cross. For this and other deeds in favor of Christianity though records seem to indicate that the True Cross had already been enshrined prior to her trip, she was canonized into Sainthood and remains recognized by both the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches today. Constantine also shifted to a somewhat hostile stance towards Pagans, as opposed to a simple supporter of Christianity. Pagan sacrifice was forbidden, and treasures of many temples were confiscated and given to Christian churches (excepting those temples dedicated to the Imperial cult). However, Constantine didn't direct aggression only against Pagans. 'Heretic' cults of dissension from the larger established Church cause problems as well. Among the most notable was the sect of Arianism which was deeply dividing the concept of Christian thought. At the

Council of Nicaea in 325, in which some 300 bishops from all over the empire assembled to discuss the state of the church, important doctrines were developed to counter 'heretic' ideas. The core belief system of the Christian faith was developed, adopting the concept of the Holy Trinity as the supreme deity. This in itself may have included compromise between Bishops and Politicians, but it is perhaps more important that the Church was becoming a powerful and far reaching institution. After Constantine's death in 337 AD, his son Constantine II held a tolerant, if not supportive view of the ancient Pagan faith. His second son, Constantius, was a brutal supporter of Arianism. Constans, the third son, was also a Christian, but adhered to strict Orthodoxy. A rift between sects of Christianity developed, as well as a struggle for supreme power among the brothers, causing much political instability. Constantine II was killed only a few years after his father, and the remaining brothers settled in to continue the advance of Christianity. During their reigns many anti-Pagan laws were put into place. Constans dealt with dissent in a particularly brutal fashion. The forcible expansion of Christianity on the populace, which was now quickly becoming a part of the every day social fabric, also brought a great of resentment from some. Julian the Apostate (so named later for his pro-Pagan stance) came to power upon the death of Constantius and attempted, in vain to stem the tide of Christian advancement. Julian attempted to bring back the ancient religion to the people of the Roman world, but Christianity had become too deeply ingrained. He removed various advantages that Christian priests and churches had enjoyed since Constantine and bestowed them upon Pagans instead. Christian teachers were also removed from their occupations in many cases. Though, for the most part he avoided open violence against the Christians, he did encourage the growth of non Catholic or Orthodox sects. The fight, which could be brutal at times, for religious supremacy evolved between these various factions, but Paganism was a dying part of the dominant culture. Even temples re-established by Julian were simply overrun by fanatic Christian mobs. Despite Julian's efforts, hindered by his short reign of 2 years, Paganism continued on the path to virtual extinction. The final death knell of the Pagan faith came only a generation later, under the rule of Theodosius. An ardent Christian, and recognizing the amazing growth of the still relatively young faith, Theodosius and his western counterpart Gratian, recognized Christianity as the official religion of the Empire in 380 AD. Gratian too, likely at the partial behest of Theodosius refused the title of Pontifex Maximus (head priest) and it was bestowed instead on the Catholic Pope in Rome. Severe punishments for Pagan, and especially 'heretic' Arianism were enforced and the established Churched prospered. In 390 AD, a massacre ordered by the Emperor of 7,000 people who revolted in Thessalonica resulted in his own 8 month penance. By the beginning of the 5th century, after just 400 years, the Church grew from a fledgling mystery cult into a power on nearly equal terms with the Roman Emperor himself. Though there would still be much work to be done, especially among Germanic tribes and in places such as Britain, Christianity would slowly come to dominate the entire western world. 6. http://www.mariamilani.com/ancient_rome/rome_christianity_Early.htm In the first century AD, when the apostles Peter and Paul came to Rome, the Christian

community in Rome was still small, perhaps as few as some hundreds or a thousand followers at best. Probably the best source of knowledge about that period comes from the Bible itself and in particular "Acts" and Paul's letter to the Romans ("The Epistles"). It is interesting to remember that both saint Peter and saint Paul were initially Jews but that Paul had the privilege of being a Roman citizen whilst Peter was not. Paul was in Rome because his own people back in Judaea had condemned him for impiety (against the laws of Moses) and having brought Gentiles (non Jews) into the Temple. At first he defended himself successfully but in the end he was forced to claim his right of appeal to the emperor as a Roman citizen in order to avoid punishment. He was shipped off to Rome to await judgement and first time round he seems to have got away with it, but the second proved to be fatal. His assertion of obeying another king called "Jesus Christ" rather than Nero was considered to be sufficient justification for him to be sentenced to death. It is said that both Peter and Paul died on the same day of the year 64AD, during Nero's persecution of the Christians. The two saints are also said to have met on the road to execution and to have embraced in a final farewell. The reality is that Peter was probably executed together with many others whilst Paul, as a Roman citizen, had the privilege of being beheaded more or less in private at a location now known as Tre Fontane (three fountains). Myth would have it that a water spring appeared on the spot where Paul's severed head fell to the ground. True or not, a large basilica church was built to mark the location of his burial a couple of centuries later (San Paolo fuori le mura - St Paul's outside the walls). Tertullian wrote a century later that Peter was crucified upside down according to his own wishes, on a spot which is unclear but was probably on the Vatican hill where many such crucifixions apparently took place. A small but wonderful chapel known as "Il Tempietto" built on the Giannicolo hill near the Vatican by the Baroque architect Bramante is one possible place. If I remember rightly there's actually a glass panel on the floor which allows you to see a wooden stubb - presumably the cross itself. It seems Peter also had the displeasure of seeing his own wife's martyrdom. Paul is generally regarded as representing the theological side of the new cult whilst Peter was responsible for the cult's organisation and structure and thanks to these two threads Nero's persecution actually acted as a catalyst for the cult rather than a deterrent. The earliest remains to be found of that Christian community date back to the period of emperor Claudius, around 50AD. The earliest Christians would have been Jews with a degree of education. Many may well have been converted through St. Paul's and St. Peter's missionary activities. It is probable that later converts came from other immigrants of eastern/Greek extract. These two roots were at first antagonistic but they finally met around 48AD and agreed to recognise each other in order to create a stronger unified cult. In any case it seems certain that the early Christians came from the lowest social ranks, probably slaves or freed slaves although persons of

higher social rank soon came to join. Being a new religion, with different ideas from the established pagan religions, it was not surprising that the Christians were persecuted on a number of occasions. One obvious problem was that being a monotheist religion (one God and no other) they, like the Jews, were prone to being called traitors. At the time of Claudius the Jewish and Christian cults were regarded as illicit and this meant that it was illegal for them to have public meetings and reunions therefore implying that their most likely meeting places would have been private homes. The negative view which the state of the time had of these new cults was most evident with those tyrannical emperors who might consider themselves gods on earth and towards whom the Christians were not in a position to display the due religious respects. This same motivation was used to imprison St. Peter at the time of Nero. Emperor Nero is believed to have used the Christians as a scapegoat when it was rumoured throughout Rome that he was in fact to blame for the great fire which swept the city. The atrocities he inflicted on the poor Christians were so severe that even Roman citizens of pagan beliefs felt sorry for them: many were crucified, a punishment usually reserved for slaves, others were dressed in the skins of wild beasts so as to be attacked to death by dogs. Perhaps most atrociously many were drenched in oil and burned alive. As well as losing their lives many could be sure to suffer loss of their belongings which would be used to fill the state coffers. Emperors Tiberius, Domitian and Diocletian were equally as brutal with the early Christian community. St. Lawrence was an early father and martyr of the Christian church. He was first chained and then martyred by burning on a grill for having had the audacity to use clever legal methods to prevent the emperor's confiscation of Christian wealth. Commentaries are contradictory regarding the Christian habit of pooling their belongings and wealth: One commentator suggests that the Christians were "those fools who shared all their belongings". Another commentator adds that: "They shared all that every body else kept separate and kept separate the one thing which everybody else shared: their wives." In spite of the widely held belief that Nero's persecution of the Christians was a political move to divert attention from his own guilt, modern historians are beginning to look at the possibility that the Christians were indeed involved in the burning of the city. This may have been partly inspired by the uprisings in Palestine and partly by a fervent belief in the imminence of judgement day. Although there doesn't seem to be proof either way there are certainly accounts of persons preventing others from fighting the fire which was burning Rome. On whose behalf these persons were acting is difficult to tell. In spite of the alternating periods of tolerance and persecution, the number of Christians in the city grew, particularly as the power and integrity of the empire decayed and the people of Rome lost faith in the old gods. By the middle of the second century the Christians numbered some 15,000 and a century later they were about twice as many. The great turning point came around the year 310AD when general Constantine was about to wage battle against general Maxentius at the Milvian Bridge. He was divinely inspired to take

the cross as his standard. Sure enough the following day he won the battle and became sole emperor. He pronounced the religion of state to be Christianity and donated various properties to the Christians so that they might carry on their faith. In particular he bequeathed his palace at the Lateran (an area of Rome) and founded the church of St. John in Laterano (San Giovanni in Laterano) nearby. Emperor Constantine was succeeded by his sons and then by his nephew, Julian, known as Julian the Apostate. Julian was the last emperor to worship the old pagan gods. Although he didn't persecute the Christians he did all he could to ensure that schooling and important positions of state lead by persons who worshipped the old pagan creed, in particular that of the god Mithras. The Christians were ordered to restore the ancient temples which had since been left in ruin. Julian's successor was a Christian however and Christianity remained the religion of Rome thereafter. Mithraism From the first to the third centuries AD a competing religion called Mithraism was growing as rapidly as Christianity. Part of the reason for Mithraism's huge growth was that it had a large number of followers amongst the soldiers who were creating new places of worship as they travelled around the empire. Emperor Constantine heralded the victory for Christianity over Mithraism and this meant that Mithraic altars such as the one found under the church of San Clemente in Rome were destroyed by the Christians. If Mithraism had had the better at that time one may stretch the imagination a little and suggest that the culture of the western world of today may well have been Mitrhaic. The Mithraic cult is steeped in mystery. It is said to have originated from Persia and its doctrine was strongly influenced by astronomy/astrology. More recent studies suggest that it was based on the discovery of the precession of the equinoxes (due to the slow rotation of the earth's axis) made by the astronomer Ptolemy around the first century BC. With the destruction of Mithraism the path was clear for the unbridled growth of the Christian cult. During the successive centuries more churches were founded. The evolution of churches in that period is an inexact science as many if not all of the churches which have been handed down to us have undergone extensive and repeated restructuring through the ages. There are however a number of interesting examples where a "newer" church has been built literally on top of the older and where the foundations often reveal the existence of a previous roman villa or dwelling. A particularly interesting example is the church of San Clemente in Rome. There are two churches one on top of the other, the lower one being of the early medieval period. Excavation into the basement has revealed an underground area of worship, complete with altar to the god Mithras. Deeper excavation has brought to light the foundations of dwellings burned down during the fire of Rome at the time of Nero. Early Christian Churches

In the earliest days the places of Christian worship in Rome were private homes, much along the same lines of their Jews who lived in Rome at that time. These dwellings were called Tituli and formed the basis of congregations. Saint Paul's letter to the Romans makes it quite clear that these congregational families were often in competition and disagreement with one another, whether for matters of faith or interpretation of the Bible. At their meetings of worship the participants would share a dinner during which the life of Jesus Christ would be remembered, they would partake in Eucharist, a sermon would be given and extracts from the Old Testament would be read. The Gospels and New Testament were introduced much later. The early masses were held in Greek and it wasn't until the middle of the second century that Latin became standard. Around the second century that the early Christians came to possess public places of worship as they transformed the early private dwellings (Tituli) into dedicated buildings with precious paintings and mosaics. To date some 25-30 Tituli have been identified in Rome. Some of these include the church of Sant' Agnese fuori le mura (St. Agnes outside the walls) , Santa Maria Maggiore, Santi Cosma e Damiano, San Lorenzo fuori le mura, Santo Stefano Rotondo, Santa Costanza, Santa Maria in Cosmedin, San Clemente and San Lorenzo in Lucina amongst others. Many of these churches exhibit the remains of roman every day life as part of their foundations. In architectural terms the early churches took inspiration from imperial buildings and basilicas as may be witnessed in the churches of "Saint Peter outside the walls" and "Saint Paul outside the walls". The most prolific growth of the Christian cult accompanied the death throws of the Roman empire, particularly during the fifth century when there were repeated invasions of Italy by the the Visigoths, Ostrogoths and Vandals. The last addition to the forum seems to have been a column dedicated to the emperor Phocas in the year 608AD to celebrate the donation of the Pantheon temple to Pope Boniface III who converted it into the Christian church of Santa Maria ad Martires the following year. The Catacombs One cannot look at early Christianity in Rome without mentioning the catacombs. The earliest Christians tended to live around the Aventine and Trastevere areas of Rome and as a consequence the catacombs are situated around there. The word "Catacomb" actually stems from Greek meaning "near the quarries" ie being more an affirmation of their location rather than a name in itself. It is quite likely that they may have started their existence in old or disused quarries. These long tunnels, full of chambers and niches acted as burial places, much along ancient Sirian and Etruscan traditions. They were, and still are, damp places, deep under ground. Lighting was provided by way of small oil lamps walled

into the sides of the tunnels. Ventilation shafts ensured that those working down there could do so for long periods at a time. Decorations, frescos, inscriptions and graffiti are quite frequent and help to evoke a feeling of stepping back in time. The catacombs had their greatest development around the second century, when the Christian population had a particularly strong growth. A further two centuries went by before they became true places of worship. The oldest catacombs are those of San Sebastiano on the old Appian way (Appia Antica) and I believe that the remains of Saint Peter were hidden down there for a time to protect them during periods of persecution. Up until the Middle Ages the catacombs were the destination of intense pilgrimages which also meant a degree of affluence to the city itself. This was accompanied by a lively commerce in saintly remains and relics. The catacombs then fell into disuse and it wasn't until the renaissance that they were rediscovered 7. http://www.crystalinks.com/romereligion.html Religion in ancient Rome combined several different cult practices and embraced more than a single set of beliefs. The Romans originally followed a rural animistic tradition, in which many spirits (gods) were each responsible for specific, limited aspects of the cosmos and human activities. The early Romans referred to these gods as numina. For example, there were different numina for ploughing, for horses, and for cattle. The Etruscans provided the context out of which Roman culture and religious beliefs evolved. See Etruscan mythology. Another aspect of this animistic belief was ancestor worship, with each family honouring their own dead by their own rites. Early in the history of the Roman Republic, foreign gods were imported, especially from Greece, which had a great cultural influence on the Romans. In addition, the Romans connected some of their indigenous deities with Greek gods and goddesses. As the Roman Empire expanded, and included people from a variety of cultures, there were more and more gods. The legions brought home cults originating from Egypt, Britain, Iberia, Germany, India and Persia. The cults of Cybele, Isis, and Mithras were particularly important. Along with this, the ancient Roman beliefs and practices continued, especially in and around Rome itself. This included the worship of the lares and penates (spirits specific to a family, with altars in the home), festivals such as the Lupercalia and Saturnalia, and a complex system of lucky and unlucky days. Another important aspect of religion in Roman times was the divinity of the Emperor. More than just being the Pontifex Maximus (the head of the Roman Religion), Roman Emperors endorsed the various popular cult religions.

In an effort to enhance political loyalty among the populace, they often called subjects to participate in the cults and revere the emperors as gods. Examples of this include "The Achievements of the Divine Augustus", which are two large bronze pillars in Rome inscribed with the deeds of Augustus, roman coins where the Emperor is portrayed with a halo or divine glow, temple inscriptions such as "Divine Augustus Caesar, son of a god, imperator of land and sea..." (Roman Temple Inscription in Myra, Lycia). Eventually, Christianity came to replace the older pantheon as the state religion

The origins of Christianity spring from Judaism. Christianity originally developed as an offshoot of Judaism with the followers believing that Jesus of Nazareth was the messiah. Judaism of the Roman era was comprised of four distinct sects; 1. Sadducees; aristocratic Jews who cooperated with the Roman government; 2. Pharisees; Strict adherents to the Jewish law; 3. Essenes; Messanic group which lived a communal lifestyle and wrote many books including the "Dead Sea Scrolls"; 4. Zealots; Militaristic group which was openly hostile to the Roman state and led the revolt of 66 AD which resulted in destruction of Jerusalem and the massacre at Masada. Jesus of Nazareth is proclaimed the messiah by his followers. Life of Jesus is outlined in the Gospels. He was born in Bethlehem (C. 3 BC). Raised as a carpenter. Early years are undocumented but many feel he spent some years in Egypt and was possibly educated by the Essenes. He was a follower of John the Baptist. The teachings of Jesus are unusual for the period of time and appealed to all segments of Roman society. Jesus fulfilled the Old Testament Messanic prophecy. All humans are created equal. One should serve his fellow man. Only God could - and should - avenge wrongs. Humans should respect earthly law. Violence of any kind is wrong. Jesus was martyred. He angered the Pharisees by his teachings. Charges of heresy were brought against Jesus by the Pharisees during Passover Week. The Roman Procurator, Pontius Pilate, was pressured by the Pharisees to execute Jesus after the Jewish court (Sanhedrin) refused to try him. Jesus was crucified by the Romans (C. 30 AD). He was labeled the "Christos" (Anointed One) after his followers claimed he was resurrected. The immediate followers of Jesus (Apostles) are also martyred for their beliefs. 1. Andrew; crucified on an X-shaped cross in Greece. 2. Bartholomew; Skinned alive. 3. Simon Peter; Crucified upside down in Rome. 4. James the Just; throat was cut by Herod Agrippa. 5. John; Beheaded at Ephesus.

6. Mathew; Crucified in Greece. 7. Thomas; Martyred in India. 8. James the Lesser (Brother of Jesus); stoned to death. 9. Judas Iscariot; committed suicide. Paul, a converted Jew, is the man most responsible for spreading the Christian faith throughout the Roman empire. Almost 1/3 of the books of the New Testament is attributed to him. Born Saul of Tarsus, he had a conversion on the road to Damascus. His special mission became the conversion of the non-Jew (Gentile) to Christianity. Religious ceremonies develop slowly into the now accepted Sacraments of the Church.
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Baptism; Symbolized the washing away of sin and rebirth and was popularized early by John the Baptist. Holy Eucharist; Symbolized the last communion with Jesus and his followers. This practice became very controversial because of the concept of "Transubstantiation". Confirmation; A ritual celebrating adulthood. Penance; A confession of sin. Ordination; The passing on of power, this sacrament established the authority of church leadership. Matrimony; Considered a religious rite. Celibacy of priests came much later. Extreme Unction; The last rites before death.

Early Christianity was influenced by other religions. 1. Judaism; The concept of the Messiah and the Old Testament were integral to early Christian thought. 2. Mithraism; A Persian religion associated with Zoroasterianism which had become the unofficial cult of the Roman army. Open only to men, Mithraism seems to have had an impact on early Christian practices including Celebration of Dec. 25 as Jesus' birthday; Celebration of Sunday as the sabbath; (C) Concept of the baptism of the blood. 3. Stoicism; Acceptance of fate regardless of circumstances was evident during Christian persecutions. 4. Neo-Platonism; Revival of Plato's concept of reality of "ideas" and his concentration on the "last days" affected Christianity. Early Church organization copied the leadership pattern of the Roman Empire. 1. A "Deacon" led each local congregration. 2. A "Bishop" oversaw several Deacons 3."Archbishops" developed to see large Bishoprics 4. Eventually the Bishop of Rome became the unofficial leader of the church and gained the title of "Pope"

5. The first Bishop of Rome was Simon Peter, the apostle. Early persecutions of Christians, although sporadic, were cruel. 1. The Roman government and citizenry was generally tolerant of early Christianity since they posed no threat to their government. 2. The most vocal opponents of the early church came from the Jewish religion. 3. Only when Christians refused to participate in Emperor Worship did they begin to be persecuted in large numbers. 4. Nero was the first emperor to persecute the Christian followers on a large scale. 5. Persecution reached its height during the reign of Diocletian who attempted to systematically eliminate the followers. 6. Christianity finally became legal during the reign of Constantine with the Edict of Milan in 312 AD. Early heresies concerning the nature of Jesus threaten the new beliefs of the Christian church. 1. Docetists; Followers of Marcion believed that the human body of Jesus was a phantom. 2. Nestorianism; Followers of Nestor believed that God dwelt in the body of Jesus like a temple. Jesus was merely a vessel. 3. Monophysites; They believed that the nature of Jesus was wholly divine. 4. Arianism; This belief proved the greatest challenge to the early church. Led by Arius (256-336), the Bishop of Hippo in North Africa, he taught that Jesus was similar to an angel, not human, but not quite God-like. His thoughts had many followers including the emperor Constantine. 5. Gnosticism; Followers believed that the Holy Spirit was superior to either Jesus or God. Their belief in mysticism eventually led to the monastic movement. The Gnostic influence can be seen in the New Testament, particularly the Gospel of John. Church Councils are held to settle many of the questions of early Christianity. 1. The Council of Niacea was called in 325 by Constantine to settle the question of the nature of Jesus. 2. The council was attended mostly by eastern bishops. 3. The result was the "Nicene Creed" or the "Apostles Creed" which defined the nature of Jesus in terms of the Trinity. 4. Arianism, although weakened, persisted into the Middle Ages. 5. The Council of Carthage in 397 is held to formulate the "Canon" of the church. 6. Many books attributed to the apostles were present during this era. 7. The council voted on which ones to accept into the "Bible". 8. Those left out became known as the "Apocraphra" or Hidden Books. This included (A) Apocalyptic books by Peter and James; (B) Allegorical books such as the "Shepherd of Hermas"; (C) Several Books of Acts such as that of Andrew. 9. Revelation was accepted by one vote. 10. The Canon was comprised mainly of the four Gospels and letters (Epistles) of the apostles.

11. The literature of the Essenes was completely ignored. Several church leaders help form the doctrine and theology of the early Christian church. 1. Ignatius (85-107); A bishop of Antioch, he first coined the term "Catholic". 2. Justin Martyr (C 3rd century); A legendary figure whose "Apology" to Antoninus Pious in defense of Christianity had a great impact on future writings. 3. Irenaeus (115-200); Bishop of Lyon, he opposed Gnosticism and was the main promulgator of the cult of the "Virgin Mary". 4. Tertullian (160-220); Bishop of Carthage, he wrote extensively on the morals of the early church. He was eventually excommunicated. 5. Origen (185-254); He wrote over 6000 books in an attempt to harmonize Christian though with Greek philosophy. He was also later excommunicated. 6. Ambrose (340-397); Bishop of Milan, he established the concept of the church leaders having power over secular rulers. 7. Jerome (340-420); Expert linguist, he translated the Hebrew writings into Latin. His version of the Bible, the "Vulgate", became the official version up to the Renaissance. 8. Augustine (354-430); The greatest of the Latin Fathers, he was a Bishop of Hippo whose writings included the "CIty of God" and his "Confessions". He is considered the primary theologian of the early church and had great influence on the concepts of original sin, salvation by grace and the sacraments. Symbols of the early church develop over many centuries. 1. Symbols were used because Christians often hid from the persecutions of the emperors. 2. Early Christians were also hesitant to artistically portray Jesus. 3. First artistic representation of Jesus depicts him as a young man with short hair, void of beard and wearing the rough garment of a Roman peasant. 4. Traditional depictation did not arise until the Middle Ages. 5. The cross was widely used as a Christian symbol until the 5th century. 6. The earliest Christian symbols were the "fish" and the "peacock". 7. Music was not widely used until its standardization by Pope Gregory I (590-604) in the form of "Gregorian Chants". Monasticism and Asceticism develop as important movements in the early Christian church. 1. Monasticism; A desire to bring about the union of one's soul with God. 2. Asceticism; The complete renunciation of all worldly temptations. 3. These concepts had been in existence as evidenced by John the Baptist and the Essene movement. 4. Jesus taught salvation through renunciation. 5. Stoicism also taught a peace through detachment from worldly things. 6. Monasteries became centers for the preservation of classical learning and the transferral of that knowledge to modern times. 7. Early monastics included;

Anthony of Egypt (251-356); Considered the "Father of Monasticism", he lived in a cave for many years; o St. Simeon (C-4th century); A legendary figure, he reportedly lived atop a pole in Damascus for 30 years; o Benedict of Nursia (480-543); The head of Monte Casino, he is considered the most important figure in the Monastic movement. He established the rules for monasteries which were followed thoughout the Middle Ages.
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The reasons Christianity succeeded while others failed: 1. The church doctines of the Trinity, Virgin Birth, Resurrection, Ordination and Salvation appealled to the common masses. 2. The time of appearance was opportune; Romans were dissatisfied with the old Roman religion and the immorality of the emperors. 3. Message of the church taught Equality for all and Love. 4. The church was open to all including men, women, rich, poor, free and slave. 5. The Christian religion assimilated the Roman culture rather than opposed it. 8. http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/rome_and_christianity.htm

Religion was very important to the Romans. Within the Roman Empire, Christianity was banned and Christians were punished for many years. Feeding Christians to the lions was seen as entertainment in Ancient Rome. The message of Christianity was spread around the Roman Empire by St. Paul who founded Christian churches in Asia Minor and Greece. Eventually, he took his teachings to Rome itself. The early converts to Christianity in Ancient Rome faced many difficulties. The first converts were usually the poor and slaves as they had a great deal to gain from the Christians being successful. If they were caught, they faced death for failing to worship the emperor. It was not uncommon for emperors to turn the people against the Christians when Rome was faced with difficulties. In AD 64, part of Rome was burned down. The Emperor Nero blamed the Christians and the people turned on them. Arrests and executions followed.

The dangers faced by the Christians in Rome meant that they had to meet in secret. They usually used underground tombs as these were literally out of sight. Rome had a large number of poor people within its population and Christianity continued to grow. In AD 313, the Emperor Constantine made Christianity legal and for the first time, they were allowed to openly worship. Churches were quickly built not just in Rome but throughout the empire. In AD 391, the worship of other gods was made illegal.