Germanium - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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Germanium
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Germanium ( /drmenim/ jr-MAY-nee-m) is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32. It is a lustrous, hard, grayish-white metalloid in the carbon group, chemically similar to its group neighbors tin and silicon. Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes ranging in atomic mass number from 70 to 76. It forms a large number of organometallic compounds, including tetraethylgermane and isobutylgermane. Germanium was discovered comparatively late because very few minerals contain it in high concentration. Germanium ranks near fiftieth in relative abundance of the elements in the Earth's crust. In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev predicted its existence and some of its properties based on its position on his periodic table and called the element eka-silicon. Nearly two decades later, in 1886, Clemens Winkler found it in the mineral argyrodite. Winkler found that experimental observations agreed with Mendeleev's predictions and named the element after his country, Germany. Germanium is an important semiconductor material used in transistors and various other electronic devices. Its major end uses are fiber-optic systems and infrared optics, but it is also used for polymerization catalysts, and in electronics and solar cell applications. It is finding a new use in nanowires. Germanium is mined primarily from sphalerite, though it is also recovered from silver, lead, and copper ores. Some germanium compounds, such as germanium chloride and germane, can irritate the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat.

gallium germanium arsenic Si 32 Ge Ge Periodic table Sn

Appearance grayish white

General properties Name, symbol, number Pronunciation Element category Group, period, block Standard atomic weight germanium, Ge, 32 /drmenim/ jr- MAY-nee-m metalloid 14, 4, p 72.64gmol1 [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2

Contents
1 History 2 Characteristics 2.1 Chemistry 2.2 Isotopes 2.3 Natural abundance 3 Production 4 Applications 4.1 Optics 4.2 Electronics 4.2.1 Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell 4.3 Other uses 4.4 Dietary supplements 5 6 7 8 9 Precautions See also Footnotes References External links

Electron configuration

Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 4 (Image) Physical properties Phase Liquid density at m.p. Melting point solid 5.60 gcm3 1211.40 K, 938.25 C, 1720.85 F 3106 K,2833 C, 5131 F 36.94 kJmol1 334 kJmol1 (25 C) 23.222 Jmol1K1 100 1k 10 k 100 k Density (near r.t.) 5.323 gcm3

Boiling point Heat of fusion Heat of vaporization Specific heat capacity P (Pa) 1 10

Vapor pressure

History
See also: History of the transistor In his report on The Periodic Law of the Chemical Elements,

at T 1644 1814 2023 2287 2633 3104 (K) Atomic properties

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in 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev predicted the existence of several unknown chemical elements, including one that would fill a gap in the carbon family in his Periodic Table of the Elements, located between [3] Because of its position in his Periodic silicon and tin. Table, Mendeleev called it ekasilicon (Es), and he estimated its atomic weight as about 72.0. In mid-1885, at a mine near Freiberg, Saxony, a new mineral was found. It was named argyrodite, because of its high [n 1] The chemist Clemens Winkler silver (metal) content. analyzed this new mineral, and he was then able to isolate a [5][6] new element somewhat similar to antimony in 1886. Before Winkler published his results on the new element, he decided that he would name his element neptunium, since the recent discovery of planet Neptune in 1846 had been [n 2] preceded by mathematical predictions of its existence. However, the name "neptunium" had already been given to another chemical element (though not the element that today bears the name neptunium, which was discovered in [n 3] so instead, Winkler named the new element 1940), germanium (from the Latin word, Germania, for Germany) in [6] honor of his homeland. Because this new element showed some similarities with the elements arsenic and antimony, its proper place in the periodic table was under consideration, but its similarities with Dmitri Mendeleev's predicted element "ekasilicon" confirmed that it belonged in this place on the periodic table. [6][13] With further material from 500 kg of ore from the mines in Saxony, Winkler confirmed the chemical properties [5][6][14] He also determined an of the new element in 1887. atomic weight of 72.32 by analyzing pure germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4), while Lecoq de Boisbaudran deduced 72.3 by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of [15] the element. Winkler was able to prepare several new compounds of germanium, including its fluorides, chlorides, sulfides, germanium dioxide, and tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4), the [5] The physical data from these first organogermane. compounds which corresponded well with Mendeleev's predictions made the discovery an important conrmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity. Here is a [5] comparison between the prediction and Winkler's data: Property atomic mass
3 density (g/cm )

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium

Oxidation states

4, 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3, -4 (amphoteric oxide) 2.01 (Pauling scale) 1st: 762 kJmol1 2nd: 1537.5 kJmol1 3rd: 3302.1 kJmol1

Electronegativity Ionization energies

Atomic radius Covalent radius Van der Waals radius Crystal structure Electrical resistivity Thermal conductivity Thermal expansion Speed of sound (thin rod) Young's modulus Shear modulus Bulk modulus Poisson ratio Mohs hardness CAS registry number Band gap energy at 300 K

122 pm 122 pm 211 pm

Miscellanea Diamond cubic (20 C) 1 m (300 K) 60.2 Wm1K1 6.0 m/(mK) (20 C) 5400 m/s 103[2] GPa 41[2] GPa 75[2] GPa 0.26[2] 6.0 7440-56-4 0.67 eV Magnetic ordering Diamagnetic[1]

Most stable isotopes Main article: Isotopes of germanium iso

68 70

NA syn

half-life 270.8 d
70

DM

DE
(MeV)

DP
68

Ge

Ga

Ge 21.23% Ge syn

Ge is stable with 38 neutrons 71

71 72

11.26 d
72

Ga

Ge 27.66% Ge 7.73% Ge 35.94%

Ekasilicon 72.64 5.5 high gray refractory dioxide 4.7 feebly basic under 100

Germanium 72.59 5.35 947 gray refractory dioxide 4.7 feebly basic 86 (GeCl4)

Ge is stable with 40 neutrons Ge is stable with 41 neutrons Ge is stable with 42 neutrons 76

73

73

74

74

melting point (C) color oxide type oxide density (g/cm3) oxide activity chloride boiling point (C)

76

Ge 7.44% 1.781021 y

Se

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chloride density 3 (g/cm )

1.9

1.9

[16] Germanium did Until the late 1930s, germanium was thought to be a poorly conducting metal. not become economically significant until after 1945, when its properties as a semiconductor were recognized as being very useful in electronics. However, during World War II, small amounts of [17][18] Its first germanium had begun to be used in some special electronic devices, mostly diodes. [16] The major use was the point-contact Schottky diodes for radar pulse detection during the War. [19] Before 1945, only a few hundred kilograms first silicon-germanium alloys were obtained in 1955. of germanium were produced in smelters each year, but by the end of the 1950s, the annual [20] worldwide production had reached 40 metric tons.

The development of the germanium transistor in 1948 [21] opened the door to countless applications [22] From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing of solid state electronics. market for germanium, but then high-purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, [23] Silicon has superior electrical properties, but it requires far higher purity, diodes, and rectifiers. and this purity could not be commercially achieved in the early years of semiconductor [24] electronics. Meanwhile, the demand for germanium for use in fiber optics communication networks, infrared [20] These end uses night vision systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically. [23] The U.S. government even represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption in 2000. designated germanium as a strategic and critical material, calling for a 146 ton (132 t) supply in the [20] national defense stockpile in 1987. Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply for germanium is limited by the availability of exploitable sources, while the supply of silicon is only limited by production capacity since silicon comes from ordinary sand or quartz. As a result, while silicon could be bought in 1998 for less than [20] the price of 1 kg of germanium was then almost $800.[20] $10 per kg,

Characteristics
Under standard conditions germanium is a brittle, silvery-white, semi-metallic element.[25] This form constitutes an allotrope technically known as -germanium, which has a metallic luster and a [23] At pressures above 120 kbar, a different diamond cubic crystal structure, the same as diamond. [26] Along with silicon, allotrope known as -germanium forms, which has the same structure as -tin. gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, it is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies [26] (i.e. freezes) from its molten state. Germanium is a semiconductor. Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline 10 [27] making it one of the germanium for semiconductors that has an impurity of only one part in 10 , [28] The first metallic material discovered (in 2005) to become a purest materials ever obtained. superconductor in the presence of an extremely strong electromagnetic field was an alloy of [29] germanium with uranium and rhodium. Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very long screw dislocations, referred to as germanium whiskers. The growth of these whiskers is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium; depending on what they eventually touch, they [30] may lead to an electrical short.

Chemistry
See also: Category:Germanium compounds
[31] Germanium is insoluble in dilute acids Elemental germanium oxidizes slowly to GeO2 at 250 C. and alkalis but dissolves slowly in concentrated sulfuric acid and reacts violently with molten alkalis 2 to produce germanates ([GeO3] ). Germanium occurs mostly in the oxidation state +4 although [32] Other oxidation states are rare, such many compounds are known with the oxidation state of +2.

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[33]

as +3 found in compounds such as Ge2Cl6, and +3 and +1 observed on the surface of oxides, or negative oxidation states in germanes, such as -4 in GeH4. Germanium cluster anions (Zintl ions) 2 4 2 6 have been prepared by the extraction from alloys such as Ge4 , Ge9 , Ge9 , [(Ge9)2] containing alkali metals and germanium in liquid ammonia in the presence of ethylenediamine or a [32][34] The oxidation states of the element in these ions are not integerssimilar to the cryptand. ozonides O3 . Two oxides of germanium are known: germanium dioxide (GeO2, germania) and germanium [26] The dioxide, GeO2 can be obtained by roasting germanium sulfide (GeS2), and monoxide, (GeO). [26] is a white powder that is only slightly soluble in water but reacts with alkalis to form germanates. The monoxide, germanous oxide, can be obtained by the high temperature reaction of GeO2 with Ge [26] The dioxide (and the related oxides and germanates) exhibits the unusual property of metal. [35][36] Bismuth having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparency to infrared light. [37] germanate, Bi4Ge3O12, (BGO) is used as a scintillator. Binary compounds with other chalcogens are also known, such as the disulfide (GeS2), diselenide [32] GeS2 forms as a white (GeSe2), and the monosulfide (GeS), selenide (GeSe), and telluride (GeTe). [32] precipitate when hydrogen sulfide is passed through strongly acid solutions containing Ge(IV). The disulfide is appreciably soluble in water and in solutions of caustic alkalis or alkaline sulfides. [38] By Nevertheless, it is not soluble in acidic water, which allowed Winkler to discover the element. heating the disulfide in a current of hydrogen, the monosulfide (GeS) is formed, which sublimes in [26] thin plates of a dark color and metallic luster, and is soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Upon melting with alkaline carbonates and sulfur, germanium compounds form salts known as [39] thiogermanates. Four tetrahalides are known. Under normal conditions GeI4 is a solid, GeF4 a gas and the others volatile liquids. For example, germanium tetrachloride, GeCl4, is obtained as a colorless fuming liquid boiling at 83.1 C by heating the metal with [26] All the tetrahalides are readily hydrolyzed to hydrated germanium chlorine. [26] GeCl4 is used in the production of organogermanium compounds.[32] dioxide. All four dihalides are known and in contrast to the tetrahalides are polymeric [32] Additionally Ge2Cl6 and some higher compounds of formula GenCl2n+2 solids. are known.[26] The unusual compound Ge6Cl16 has been prepared that contains [40] the Ge5Cl12 unit with a neopentane structure.

Germane is similar to methane.

Germane (GeH4) is a compound similar in structure to methane. Polygermanescompounds that are [32] similar to alkaneswith formula GenH2n+2 containing up to five germanium atoms are known. [32] The germanes are less volatile and less reactive than their corresponding silicon analogues. GeH4 reacts with alkali metals in liquid ammonia to form white crystalline MGeH3 which contain the [32] The germanium hydrohalides with one, two and three halogen atoms are colorless GeH3 anion. [32] reactive liquids. The first organogermanium compound was synthesized by Winkler in 1887; the reaction of germanium tetrachloride with [5] diethylzinc yielded tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4). Organogermanes of the type R4Ge (where R is an alkyl) such as tetramethylgermane (Ge(CH3)4) and tetraethylgermane are Nucleophilic addition with an accessed through the cheapest available germanium precursor organogermanium compound. germanium tetrachloride and alkyl nucleophiles. Organic germanium hydrides such as isobutylgermane ((CH3)2CHCH2GeH3) were found to be less hazardous and may be used as a liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications. Many germanium reactive intermediates are known: germyl free radicals, germylenes (similar to carbenes), and germynes (similar to carbynes). [41][42] The organogermanium compound 2-carboxyethylgermasesquioxane was first reported in the 1970s, and for a while was used as a dietary supplement and thought to possibly have anti-tumor [43] qualities.

Isotopes

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Main article: Isotopes of germanium

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Germanium has five naturally occurring isotopes, Ge, Ge, Ge, Ge, and Ge. Of these, Ge is 21 74 very slightly radioactive, decaying by double beta decay with a half-life of 1.78 10 years. Ge is 76 the most common isotope, having a natural abundance of approximately 36%. Ge is the least [44] When bombarded with alpha particles, common with a natural abundance of approximately 7%. 72 77 [45] the isotope Ge will generate stable Se, releasing high energy electrons in the process. [45] Because of this, it is used in combination with radon for nuclear batteries. At least 27 radioisotopes have also been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 58 to 89. The most 68 stable of these is Ge, decaying by electron capture with a half-life of 270.95 d. The least stable is 60 Ge with a half-life of 30 ms. While most of germanium's radioisotopes decay by beta decay, 61Ge 64 + [44] 84 87 Ge through Ge also have minor delayed and Ge decay by delayed proton emission. [44] neutron emission decay paths.

70

72

73

74

76

76

Natural abundance
See also: Category:Germanium minerals Germanium is created through stellar nucleosynthesis, mostly by the s-process in asymptotic giant branch stars. The s-process is a slow neutron capture of lighter elements inside pulsating red giant [46] Germanium has been detected in the atmosphere of Jupiter[47] and in some of the most stars. [48] [49] Its abundance in the Earth's crust is approximately 1.6 ppm. There are only a distant stars. few minerals like argyrodite, briartite, germanite, and renierite that contain appreciable amounts of germanium, but no minable deposits exist for any of them. Nonetheless, none is mined for its [23][50] Some zinc-copper-lead ore bodies contain enough germanium that it can germanium content. [49] An unusual enrichment process causes a high be extracted from the final ore concentrate. content of germanium in some coal seams, which was discovered by Victor Moritz Goldschmidt [51][52] The highest concentration ever found was in during a broad survey for germanium deposits. [51][52] The coal deposits near Xilinhaote, Inner the Hartley coal ash with up to 1.6% of germanium. [49] Mongolia, contain an estimated 1600 tonnes of germanium.

Production
Worldwide production in 2006 was roughly 100 tonnes of [23] Currently, it is recovered as a by-product from germanium. sphalerite zinc ores where it is concentrated in amounts of up to [53] especially from sediment-hosted, massive ZnPbCu(Ba) 0.3%, [49] Figures for deposits and carbonate-hosted ZnPb deposits. worldwide Ge reserves are not available, but in the US it is estimated [49] In 2007 35% of the demand was met by to be around 500 tonnes. [49] recycled germanium. While it is produced mainly from sphalerite, it is also found in silver, lead, and copper ores. Another source of germanium is fly ash of coal Renierite power plants which use coal from certain coal deposits with a large concentration of germanium. Russia and China used this as a source [54] Russia's deposits are located in the far east of the country on Sakhalin Island. for germanium. [49] The The coal mines northeast of Vladivostok have also been used as a germanium source. deposits in China are mainly located in the lignite mines near Lincang, Yunnan; coal mines near [49] Xilinhaote, Inner Mongolia are also used. The ore concentrates are mostly sulfidic; they are converted to the oxides by heating under air, in a process known as roasting: GeS2 + 3 O2 GeO2 + 2 SO2 Part of the germanium ends up in the dust produced during this process, while the rest is converted to germanates which are leached together with the zinc from the cinder by sulfuric acid. After neutralization only the zinc stays in

Year

Cost [55] ($/kg)

1999 1,400 2000 1,250

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solution and the precipitate contains the germanium and other metals. After reducing the amount of zinc in the precipitate by the Waelz process, the residing Waelz oxide is leached a second time. The dioxide is obtained as precipitate and converted with chlorine gas or hydrochloric acid to germanium [54] tetrachloride, which has a low boiling point and can be distilled off: GeO2 + 4 HCl GeCl4 + 2 H2O GeO2 + 2 Cl2 GeCl4 + O2 Germanium tetrachloride is either hydrolyzed to the oxide (GeO2) or purified by [54] The highly pure GeO2 is now fractional distillation and then hydrolyzed. suitable for the production of germanium glass. The pure germanium oxide is reduced by the reaction with hydrogen to obtain germanium suitable for the infrared optics or semiconductor industry: GeO2 + 2 H2 Ge + 2 H2O

2001 890 2002 620 2003 380 2004 600 2005 660 2006 880 2007 1,240 2008 1,490 2009 950

The germanium for steel production and other industrial processes is normally reduced using [56] carbon: GeO2 + C Ge + CO2

Applications
The major end uses for germanium in 2007, worldwide, were estimated to be: 35% for fiber-optic systems, 30% infrared optics, 15% for polymerization catalysts, and 15% for electronics and [23] The remaining 5% went into other solar electric applications. [23] uses such as phosphors, metallurgy, and chemotherapy.

Optics
The most notable physical characteristics of germania (GeO2) are its high index of refraction and its low optical dispersion. These make it especially useful for wide-angle camera lenses, [57][58] It also microscopy, and for the core part of optical fibers. replaced titania as the silica dopant for silica fiber, eliminating the need for subsequent heat treatment, which made the fibers [59] At the end of 2002 the fiber optics industry accounted brittle. for 60% of the annual germanium use in the United States, but [58] this use accounts for less than 10% of world wide consumption. GeSbTe is a phase change alloy used for its optic properties, such [60] as in rewritable DVDs.

A typical single-mode optical fiber. Germanium oxide is a dopant of the core silica (Item 1). 1.- Core 8 m 2.- Cladding 125 m 3.- Buffer 250 m 4.- Jacket 400 m

Because germanium is transparent in the infrared it is a very important infrared optical material, that can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. It is especially used as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron wavelength range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military, night vision [56] It is therefore used in infrared spectroscopes and system in cars, and fire fighting applications. [58] The material has a other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors. very high refractive index (4.0) and so needs to be anti-reflection coated. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index 2.0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental rough treatment.
[61][62]

Electronics
Silicon-germanium alloys are rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material, for use in high speed integrated circuits. Circuits utilizing the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster [63] Silicon-germanium is beginning to replace gallium arsenide than those using silicon alone. [23] The SiGe chips, with high-speed properties, can be (GaAs) in wireless communications devices. [23] made with low-cost, well-established production techniques of the silicon chip industry.

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The recent rise in energy cost has improved the economics of solar panels, a potential major new use [23] Germanium is the substrate of the wafers for high-efficiency multijunction of germanium. photovoltaic cells for space applications. Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell Because germanium and gallium arsenide have very similar lattice constants, germanium substrates can be used to make gallium arsenide solar cells.[64] The Mars Exploration Rovers and several [65] satellites use triple junction gallium arsenide on germanium cells. Germanium-on-insulator substrates are seen as a potential replacement for silicon on miniaturized [23] Other uses in electronics include phosphors in fluorescent lamps,[27] and germanium-base chips. [23] Germanium transistors are still used in some effects solid-state light-emitting diodes (LEDs). pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the "fuzz"-tone from [66] the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face.

Other uses
Germanium dioxide is also used in catalysts for polymerization in the [67] The high brilliance of the production of polyethylene terephthalate (PET). [67] produced polyester is especially used for PET bottles marketed in Japan. However, in the United States, no germanium is used for polymerization [23] Due to the similarity between silica (SiO2) and germanium catalysts. dioxide (GeO2), the silica stationary phase in some gas chromatography [68] columns can be replaced by GeO2. In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys. In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it has been found to reduce firescale, increase tarnish resistance, and increase the alloy's response to precipitation hardening. A tarnish-proof sterling silver alloy, trademarked Argentium, [23] requires 1.2% germanium.

A PET bottle

High purity germanium single crystal detectors can precisely identify radiation sourcesfor [69] Germanium is useful for monochromators for beamlines used in example in airport security. single crystal neutron scattering and synchrotron X-ray diffraction. The reflectivity has advantages [70] Crystals of high purity germanium over silicon in neutron and high energy X-ray applications. [71] are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter. Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects against [25] [72] This property makes these compounds useful as chemotherapeutic agents. certain bacteria.

Dietary supplements
Germanium has gained popularity in recent years for its reputed ability to improve immune system function in cancer patients. It is available in the U.S. as a nonprescription dietary supplement in oral capsules or tablets, and has also been encountered as an injectable solution. Earlier inorganic forms, notably the citrate-lactate salt, led to a number of cases of renal dysfunction, hepatic steatosis and peripheral neuropathy in individuals using it on a chronic basis. Plasma and urine germanium concentrations in these individuals, several of whom died, were several orders of magnitude greater than endogenous levels. The more recent organic form, beta-carboxyethylgermanium sesquioxide [73] (propagermanium), has not exhibited the same spectrum of toxic effects.

Precautions
As early as 1922, doctors in the United States used the inorganic form of germanium to treat [74] It was used in other forms of treatments, but its efficiency has been patients with anemia. [75] U.S. Food and Drug Administration dubious. Its role in cancer treatments has been debated. research has concluded that germanium, when used as a nutritional supplement, "presents potential [43] human health hazard".

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Germanium is not thought to be essential to the health of plants or animals. Some of its compounds present a hazard to human health, however. For example, germanium chloride and germane (GeH4) [76] are a liquid and gas, respectively, that can be very irritating to the eyes, skin, lungs, and throat. Germanium has little or no impact on the environment because it usually occurs only as a trace element in ores and carbonaceous materials, and is used in very small quantities in commercial [23] applications.

See also
Vitrain

Footnotes
1. ^ From Greek, argyrodite means silver-containing.[4] 2. ^ Just as the existence of the new element had been predicted, the existence of the planet Neptune had been predicted in about 1843 by the two mathematicians John Couch Adams and Urbain Leverrier, using the calculation methods of celestial mechanics. They did this in attemopts to explain the fact that the planer Uranus, upon very close observation, appeared to be being pulled slightly out of position in the sky .[7] James Challis started searching for it in July 1846, and he sighted this planet on September 23, 1846.[8] 3. ^ R. Hermann published claims in 1877 of his discovery of a new element beneath tantalum in the periodic table, which he named neptunium, after the Greek god of the oceans and seas.[9][10] However this metal was later recognized to be an alloy of the elements niobium and tantalum.[11] The name "neptunium" was much later given to the synthetic element one step past uranium in the Periodic Table, which was discovered by nuclear physics researchers in 1940.[12]

References
1. ^ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http://www-d0.fnal.gov /hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering /elementmagn.pdf) , in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press. 2. ^ a b c d "Properties of Germanium" (http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM/Semicond/Ge) . Ioffe Institute. http://www.ioffe.ru/SVA/NSM /Semicond/Ge. 3. ^ Kaji, Masanori (2002). "D. I. Mendeleev's concept of chemical elements and The Principles of Chemistry" (http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv /HIST/awards/OPA%20Papers/2005-Kaji.pdf) (pdf). Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 27 (1): 416. http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards /OPA%20Papers/2005-Kaji.pdf. Retrieved 2008-08-20. 4. ^ ArgyroditeAg8GeS6 (http://www.handbookofmineralogy.org /pdfs/argyrodite.pdf) , Mineral Data Publishing. (Report). Retrieved 2008-09-01. 5. ^ a b c d e Winkler, Clemens (1887). "Mittheilungen ber des Germanium. Zweite Abhandlung" (http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90799n /f183.table) (in German). J. Prak. Chemie 36: 177209. doi:10.1002/prac.18870360119 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fprac.18870360119) . http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90799n /f183.table. Retrieved 2008-08-20. 6. ^ a b c d Winkler, Clemens (1887). "Germanium, Ge, a New Nonmetal Element" (http://gallica.bnf.fr /ark:/12148/bpt6k90705g/f212.chemindefer) (in German) (English translation (http://dbhs.wvusd.k12.ca.us/webdocs/ChemHistory/Disc-of-Germanium.html) ). Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft 19 (1): 210211. doi:10.1002/cber.18860190156 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.18860190156) . http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k90705g /f212.chemindefer. ^ Adams, J. C. (November 13, 1846). "Explanation of the observed irregularities in the motion of Uranus, on the hypothesis of disturbance by a more distant planet" (http://adsabs.harvard.edu /cgi-bin /nph-bib_query?bibcode=1846MNRAS...7..149A& db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=& high=42c888df4622238) . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (Blackwell Publishing) 7: 149. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin /nph-bib_query?bibcode=1846MNRAS...7..149A& db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=& high=42c888df4622238. Retrieved 2008-02-18. ^ Challis, Rev. J. (November 13, 1846). "Account of observations at the Cambridge observatory for detecting the planet exterior to Uranus" (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin /nph-bib_query?bibcode=1846MNRAS...7..145C& db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=& high=42c888df4622238) . Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (Blackwell Publishing) 7: 145149. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin /nph-bib_query?bibcode=1846MNRAS...7..145C& db_key=AST&data_type=HTML&format=& high=42c888df4622238. Retrieved 2008-02-18. ^ Sears, Robert (July 1877). "Scientific Miscellany". The Galaxy (Columbus, O[hio]: Siebert & Lilley) 24 (1): 131. ISBN 0665501668. OCLC 243523661 77121148 16890343 243523661 77121148 (http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/16890343) . ^ "Editor's Scientific Record" (http://cdl.library.cornell.edu/cgi-bin/moa/moa-

7.

8.

9.

10.

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External links
WebElements.com Germanium (http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Ge /index.html) Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanium" Categories: Chemical elements | Germanium | Infrared sensor materials | Metalloids | Optical materials | Semiconductor materials This page was last modified on 20 November 2010 at 01:19. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.

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