SEMESTER I MATHEMATICS HONOURS

CLASSICAL, ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

TARUN KUMAR BANDYOPADHYAY, DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

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SECTION I:ABSTRACT ALGEBRA

Text

Abstract AlgebraSen, Ghosh, Mukhopadhyay

CHAPTER I

SETS AND FUNCTIONS In Mathematics, we define a mathematical concept in terms of more elementary concept(s).For example, the definition of perpendicularity between two straight lines is given in terms of the more basic concept of angle between two straight lines. The concept of set is such a basic one that it is difficult to define this concept in terms of more elementary concept. Accordingly, we do not define set but to explain the concept intuitively we say: a set is a collection of objects having the property that given any abstract (the thought of getting 100%marks at the term-end examination) or concrete (student having a particular Roll No. of semester II mathematics general) objet, we can say without any ambiguity whether that object belongs to the collection(collection of all thoughts that came to ones mind on a particular day or the collection of all students of this class) or not. For example, the collection of good students of semester II will not be a set unless the criteria of goodness is made explicit! The objects of which a set A is constituted of are called elements of the set A. If x is an element of a set A, we write x A; otherwise x A. If every element
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of a set X is an element of set Y,X is a subset of Y, written as X X is a proper subset of Y if X Y and Y X, written as

Y.

. For

two sets X = Y iff (if and only if, bi-implication) X

Y and Y X. A

set having no element is called null set, denoted by . a{a} (a letter inside envelope is different from a letter without envelope {a} {a,{a}}, {a} {a,{a}}, A(the premise x of the implication x x is false and so the implication holds vacuously ), A A, for every set A.
Example1.1

Set Operations: formation of new sets Let X and Y be two sets. Union of X and Y, denoted by X Y, is the set {a| a X or a Y or both}. Intersection of X and Y, denoted by X , is the set {a| a X and a Y}. The set difference of X and Y,

denoted by X-Y, is the set {a| a X and a Y}. The set difference UX is called complement of the set X, denoted by X/, where U is the universal set. The symmetric set difference of X and Y, denoted by X , is the set (X-Y) U(Y-X). For any set X, the power set of X, P(X),

is the set of all subsets of X. Two sets X and Y are disjoint iff X = . The Cartesian product of X and Y, denoted by X X Y, is defined as the set {(x,y)| x X, y Y} [ (x,y) is called an ordered pair. Two ordered pairs (x,y) and (u,v) are equal, written (x,y) = (u,v), iff x = u and y = v]. If we take X = {1,2} and Y = {3}, then X X Y = {(1,3),(2,3)} {(3,1),(3,2)} = Y X X. Thus Cartesian product

between two distinct sets are not necessarily commutative (Is ?). Laws governing set operations For sets X, Y, Z, laws: Idempotent laws X ,X X=X

laws: Commutative laws X Y = Y X, X Y = Y Laws: Associative Laws (X Y) Z = X (Y Z), (X Y) Z = X (Y laws: Distributive laws X (Y Z) = (X (X (X Z) (X Z), X (Y Z) =

laws: Absorptive laws X (X Y)=X, X (X Y)=X laws: De Morgans laws X-(Y Z) = (X-Y) (X-Z), X-(Y Z) = (XY) (X-Z)
Note We may compare between usual addition and multiplication

of real numbers on one hand and union and intersection of sets on the other. We see that the analogy is not complete e.g. union and intersection both are distributive over the other but addition is not distributive over multiplication though multiplication over addition is. Also A for all real a.
Example1.2

, for all set A but a.a = a does not hold

Let A, B, C be three sets such that A C = B C and A C/ =

B C/ holds. Prove that A = B.

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 A = A U (U stands for the universal set conerned) = A (C C/)(definition of complement over of a set) =

(A C) (A C/)(distributivity of

= (B C) (B C/)(given =B.

conditions)= B (C C/)(distributivity of
Note

Make a habit of citing appropriate law at each step as far as

practicable. practicable.
Example1.3

Let A, B, C be three sets such that A B = A C and A B =

, then prove B = C. ) = (B A) (B C) (distributivity of ) = C.

B = B (A B) = B (A

over ) = (C A) (B C) = C (A B)= C (A
Example1.4

implies A = B: prove or disprove.

Note Proving will involve consideration of arbitrary sets A,B,C

satisfying the given condition, whereas disproving consists of giving counter-examples of three particular sets A,B,C that satisfies the hypothesis A A = B is false. This is a true statement. We first prove A B. Let x A. Case 1 x C. Then x (A-C) (C-A) = A Thus x Case 2 x C. x Since x C, x (A-C) A .
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but for which the conclusion

= (B-C) (C-B).

. = = (B-C) (C-B). Since x C,

x C-B. Thus x B-C. So x

Combining the two cases, we see A Combining, A = B.

Example1.5

. Similarly, B A.

Prove or disprove: (A-B)/ = (B-A)/.

This is a FALSE statement. COUNTEREXAMPLE Let U = A = {1,2}, B = COUNTEREXAMPLE: {1}.Then (A-B)/ = {1} (B-A)/ = {1,2}.
Example1.6

Prove: [(A-B) (A B)] [(B-A) (A B)/] = (B-A)] [(A-B) ] [(A B) = . PRACTICE SUMS ]= A [(A-

By distributivity,[(A-B) B)/] [(A B) B) (A/ B/)]

1. Prove or disprove: A (B-C) = (A B) (A C) 2. Prove or disprove: A-C = B-C iff A C = B C.( IFF stands for if and only if) 3. Prove :A X (B C) = (A X B) 4. (AB) C=A(BC) NOTATION: N,Z,Q,R,C will denote set of all positive integers, integers, rational numbers ,real numbers numbers respectively. BINARY RELATIONS A binary relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of AXB. A binary relation (we shall often refer to as relation) from A to A is
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(A X C)

and the complex

called a binary relation on A. If (a, b) R, we say a is R-related to b, written as aRb.

Example1.7

Let A={1,2,3} and R={(1,1),(1,3)}. Then 1R3 but 3R1 does

not hold.
Example1.8

Let A be a set and P(A) denote the power set of A. Given P(A), either X Y or

any two subsets X and Y of A, that is, X,Y X Y. Thus is a binary relation on P(A).

Example1.9 R={(x,y)

R2/ x2+y2=9} is a relation on R.

Definition 1.1 Let R be a binary relation on a set A. R is reflexive iff aRa holds a A R is symmetric iff a,b A and aRb imply bRa R is transitive iff a,b,c A, aRb,bRc imply aRc R is an equivalence relation on A iff R is reflexive,symmetric and transitive.
Example1.10

Let R be a relation defined on Z by aRb iff ab0. R is

reflexive, symmetric but not transitive: -5R0, 0R7 but -5R7 does not hold.
Example1.11 Let

S be a binary relation on the set R of real numbers . xSy iff y=2x Reflexive Symmetric Transitive X X X

x<y x y xy>0 y xy xy0 x=y

X X X 2 Yes Yes Yes Yes

X Yes Yes X X Yes Yes

Yes X yes X yes X yes

Definition 1.2 Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Let a A. [a]={x A/xRa} ( A) is the equivalence class determined by a with respect to R. Definition 1.3 Let A be a nonempty set and P be a collection of nonempty subsets of A. Then P is a partition of A iff (1) for X,Y P,either X=Y or XY= and (2)A=
Theorem 1.1

[a] (4) A=
Proof

, a A, (2) b [a] iff [b]=[a], (3) either [a]=[b]or [a] [b]= , . Thus {[a]/ a A} is a partition of A.

Let R be an equivalence relation on a set A. Then (1)

(1) since R is reflexive, (a,a) , a A.

[a]

R, a A. Thus a [a]. Hence

(2) if [b]=[a], then b [b]=[a]. conversely, let b [a]. then aRb. For x [a], xRa holds and , by transitivity of R, xRb holds, that is , x [b]. Hence [a] [b]. similarly [b] [a] can be proved . Hence [b]=[a].
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(3) let [a] [b] is, [a]=[b].

. Let x [a] [b]. Then aRx,xRb imply aRb, that

(4) by definition, [a] b A. Then b [b]

Theorem 1.2

A, a A. Thus, . Thus A

A. conversely, let .Hence A= .

Let P be a partition of a given set A. Define R on A by: for

all a,b A, aRb iff there exists B P such that a,b B. Then R is an equivalence relation on A.
Example1.12

Verify whether the following relations on the set R of

real numbers are equivalence relations: (1) aRb iff aRb iff 1+ab>0, (3) aRb iff b

(1)R is neither reflexive nor transitive but symmetric: 1R0 and 0R1 hold but 1R1 does not hold. (2) R is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive: 3R(hold but 3R(-6) does not hold. (3)(-2)R(-2)does not hold: not reflexive. -2R5 holds but 5R-2 does not: R not symmetric. Let pRq and qRs hold. Then imply pRs hold.
Example1.13

and (-

Verify whether the following relations on the set Z of , (2) aRb

integers are equivalence relations: (1)aRb iff

iff a-b is a multiple of 6, (3) aRb iff a2-b2 is a multiple of 7, (4) aRb iff , (5) aRb iff 2a+b=41.
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Example1.14

Let X

. Prove that the following conditions are

equivalent: (1) Ris an equivalence relation on X, (2) R is reflexive and for all x,y,z X, xRy and yRz imply zRx, (3) R is reflexive and for all x,y,z X, xRy and xRz imply yRz.
Example1.15

A relation R on the set of all nonzero complex numbers is real. Prove that R is not an equivalence

is defined by uRv iff relation .

Definition 1.4 A function from a set A to a set B, denoted by f: A B, is a relation from A to B satisfying the properties: For every x A, there exists y B such that (x,y) f. y is called image of x under f and denoted by f(x) .x is called a preimage of y=f(x). A is called domain and B is called the codomain of the correspondence. Note that we differentiate between f, the correspondence, and f(x), the image of x under f. For a fixed x A, f(x) is unique. For two different

elements x and y of A, images f(x) and f(y) may be same or may be different. In brief, a function is a relation under which both existence and uniqueness of image of all elements of the domain is guaranteed but

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neither the existence nor the uniqueness of preimage of some element of codomain is guaranteed guaranteed. NOTATION Let f:A B. For y B, f-1({y}) = , if y has no

preimage under f and stands for the set of all preimages if y has at least one preimage under f. For two elements y1,y2 B, f-1({y1,y2})= f-1({y1}) range of f.
Example1.16

f-1({y2}). For C A, f(C) = {f(c)| c

f(A) is called the

Prove that f(A B)

f(A) f(B) ; give a counterexample to

establish that the reverse inclusion may not hold. y f(A B)y = f(x), x A B y = f(x), x A and x By f(A)and y f(B) y f(A) f(B). Hence f(A B) f(A) f(B). Consider the

counterexample: f: R R,f(x) = x2, A = {2}, B = {-2}. Let f: R R, f(x) = 3x2-5. f(x) = 70 implies x = 5. Thus f-

Example1.17
1{70}

= {-5, 5}.Hence f[f-1{70}] = {f(-5), f(-5)} = {70}. Also, f-1({[x f-1({-11})3x2-5=-11x2=-2]. Let g: R R, g(x) = . Find g-1({2}).

11}) =

Example1.18

PRACTICE SUMS Prove that (1) f(A B) =f(A) f(B), (2) f-1(B1 B2) = f-1(B1) f-1(B2), (3) f-1(B1 B2) = f-1(B1) f-1(B2).

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Definition 1.5 A function under which uniqueness of preimage is guaranteed is called an injective function. Thus f: AB is injective iff a1,a2 A, f(a1)=f(a2) imply a1=a2. A function under which

existence of preimage is guaranteed is called a surjective function. f is surjective iff codomain and range coincide, that is, for every y B, there exists x A such that f(x)=y. A function which is both injective and surjective is called bijective bijective.

Note The injectivity, surjectivity and bijectivity depends very

much on the domain and codomain sets and may well change with the variation of those sets even if expression of the function remains unaltered e.g. f:Z Z, f(x) = x2 is not injective though g:N Z, g(x) = x2 is injective.
Example1.19

f: R R, f(x) = x2 3x+4. f(x1) = f(x2) implies (x1-

x2)(x1+x2-3) = 0. Thus f(1) = f(2) though 12; hence f is not injective[Note: for establishing non-injectivity, it is sufficient to consider particular values of x]. Let y R and x f-1{y}. Then y = f(x) = x2 3x+4. We get a quadratic equation x2 3x+(4-y) = 0 whose roots, considered as a quadratic in x, give preimage(s) of y. But the quadratic will have real roots if the discriminant 4y-7 0, that is , only when y 7/4. Thus, for example, f-1{1} = not surjective. Hence f is

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Definition 1.6 If f:A B and g:B C, we can define a function g0f:A C, called the composition of f and g, by (g0f)(a) = g(f(a)), a A.
Example1.20

f:Z

Z and g: Z

Z by f(n) = (-1)n and g(n) = 2n. Then

g0f: Z

Z, (g0f)(n)=g((-1)n) = 2(-1)n and (f0g)(n) = (-1)2n. Thus g0f

f0g. Commutativity of composition of functions need not hold.

ASSOCIATIVITY OF COMPOSITION OF FUNCTIONS

Theorem 1.3 Let Proof

f:A B , g:BC and h: CD. Then h0(g0f)=(h0g)0f.

Both h0(g0f):AD and (h0g)0f: AD. for x A, [h0(g0f)](x) = and [(h0g)0f](x)=(h0g)(f(x))=h[g(f(x))].

h[(g0f)(x)]=h[g(f(x))]

Hence [h0(g0f)](x)= [(h0g)0f](x), x A.

Theorem 1.4

Suppose f:A B and g:BC. Then

(1) if f and g are both injective, then g0f is injective (2) if g0f is injective, then fis injective (3) if f and g are both surjective, then g0f is surjective (4) if g0f is surjective, then g is surjective Definition 1.7 Let f:AA. f0(a)=a, f1(a)=f(a), fn+1(a)=(f0fn)(a) for all a A and for all natural number n.
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Lemma 1.1

Let f:AA be injective. Then fn: AA is injective for all

natural number n.
Proof

If possible, let there exists positive integer n such that fn is not

injective: let k be the smallest such positive integer. Thus there

exist a,b A, a b such that fk(a)=fk(b) holds. Now fk (a)= fk(b) (since fk-1 is injective), contradiction. Hence the proof.
Theorem 1.5

f[fk-1(a)]=f[fk-1 (b)] fk-1(a)= fk-1 (b) (since f is injective) a=b Let A be finite and f: AA be injective. Then f is

surjective.
Proof

Let a A. Let B={a, f(a),f2(a),} A. since A is finite, there exist

positive integers r and s such that r>s and fr (a)=fs(a). By injectivity of fs, fr-s(a)=a. if r-s = 1, a f-1{a}. If r-s>1, then fr-s-1(a) is a preimage of a under f. hence the result. Definition 1.8 Let f:AB. f is called left(right) invertible if there exists g:BA (resp. h:BA) such that g0f=1A(resp.f0h=1B). f is invertible iff f is both left and right invertible.
Example1.21

(1) Let f,g:NN , f(n)=n+1; g(1)=1, g(n)=n-1 for n>1.

Then g0f=1N. But (f0g)(1)=2; so f0g 1N. Thus g is a left but not a right inverse of f. (2) Let f:ZE (E is the set of all even nonnegative integers), f(x)=x+ and g:EZ, g(x)=x/2. Then f0g=1E but (g0f)(-1)=0 hence

g0f 1Z. Hence g is right but not left inverse of f.

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(3) Let f,g: RR, f(x)=3x+4, g(x)= both left and right inverse of f.

. Then g0f = f0g=1R. Thus g is

Note If g:BA and h:BA be a left inverse and a right inverse of f:

AB, then g=h: for g=g01B=g0(f0h)=(g0f)0h=1A0h=h. as we shall see below, a function may have many left (right) inverses without having any right(left respectively) inverse.
Theorem 1.6

Let f: AB. Then (1) f is left invertible iff f is injective,

(2) f is right invertible iff f is surjective (3) f is invertible iff f is bijective.

Proof

1A(a1)=1A(a2) a1=a2. Hence f is injective. Conversely, let f be injective. Fix a0 A. Define g:BA by : g(b)=a, if a be the unique (by

g0f=1A. f(a1)=f(a2), a1,a2 A g(f(a1))=g(f(a2)) (g0f)(a1)=(g0f)(a2)

(1) Let f be left invertible. Then there exists g:B A such that

injectivity of f, if preimage of b exists under f) preimage of b under f and g(b)=a0,if b has no preimage under f. Clearly g:BA is a function and (g0f)(a)=g(f(a))=a (by the definition of g)=1A(a), a A. Hence g is a left inverse of f.

Example1.22

Verify whether the following functions are injective , f: (-1,1) R, f(x) = .

and/or surjective: f:R R, f(x) = x

Example1.23

Let f:AB. Prove that (1) f is injective iff X=f-1(f(X)) for

all X A, (2) f is surjective iff f(f-1(Y))=Y for all Y B, (3) if f is injective, then f (Y-Z) f(Y)-f(Z) for Y,Z A.
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Example1.24

Prove that f(X Y)=f(X)

f(Y), f(XY)

f(X) f(Y); give

counterexample to show that the inclusion may be strict (f:RR, f(x)=x2, X={2},Y={-2}). Definition 1.9 Let f:A B be a bijective function. We can define a function f-1: B A by f-1(y) = x iff f(x) = y. Convince

yourself that because of uniqueness and existence of preimage under f ( since f is injective and surjective), f-1 is indeed a function. The function f-1 is called the inverse function to f. The graphs of f and f-1 for a given f can be seen here: ..\Documents\x8.mw Note Graph of f-1 can be obtained by reflecting the graph of f about line x=y.
Example1.25

Let f: (0,1)

(1/2,2/3) be defined by f(x) =

. Verify

that f is bijective. [explanation:f(x)=f(y) x=y. Let c (1/2,2/3). If possible,

let x be a pre-image of c under f, that is, f(x)=c. then c= implying x= (1/2,2/3)

(0,1) is to be found. Now, let f-1(y) = x, y (1/2,2/3) . =y and hence x = = f-1(y).

(0,1) since -1/2<c-1<-1/3, -1/3<1-2c<0]. f-1:

Then f(x) = y. So

BINARY OPERATIONS
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Definition 1.10 Let A . A binary operation 0 on A is a function from A X A to A. In other words , a binary operation 0 on A is a rule of correspondence that assigns to each ordered pair (a1,a2) A X A, some element of A, which we shall denote by a1 0a2. Note that a1 0a2 need not be distinct from a1 or a2.
Example1.26

Subtraction is a binary operation on Z but not on N;

division is a binary operation on the set Q* of all nonzero rational number but not on Z. Definition 1.11 Let 0 be a binary operation on A . (A,0)is called a mathematical system.
0

is commutative iff x0y = y0x holds ,for all

x,y A. 0 is associative iff x0(y0z) = (x0y)0z holds for all x,y,z A. An element e A is a left identity of the system (A,0) iff e0x = system (A,0) iff x0e = x holds x A. An element in a system which is both a left and a right identity of the system is called an identity of the sytem. (A,0) be a system with an identity e and let x, y A such that x0y = e holds. Then y(x) is called a right inverse to x(x is a left inverse of y respectively) in (A,0). y A is an inverse to x A iff x0y=y0x=e.
Example1.27

x holds x A. An element e A is a right identity of the

stands for the set of real numbers). Verify that

Consider the system (R,0) defined by x0y = x, x,y R (R

0

is non-

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commutative, associative binary operation and that (R,0) has no left identity though(R,0) has infinite number of right identity.
Example1.28

Verify that subtraction is neither associative nor

commutative binary operation on Z. (Z,-) does not have any identity.

Example1.29

Consider the system (Z,*) where the binary operation

is defined by a*b =

, a,b Z. Verify that * is commutative but

not associative [ note, for example, that {(-1) *2}*(-3)(-1) *{2*(3)}]. (Z,*) does not have an identity.
Example1.30

(R,+) is commutative, associative, possess an identity

element 0 and every element of (R,+) has an inverse in (R,+).

Note

From examples 1.12 to 1.15 it is clear that associativity and

commutativity of a binary operation are properties independent of each other, that is, one can not be deduced from the other.
Example1.31

Let 2Z denote set of all even integers. 2Z, under usual

multiplication, form a system which is associative, commutative but possesses no identity.

Example1.32

Let M2(Z) =

. M2(Z) under usual

matrix addition forms a system which is commutative, associative. (M2(Z),+) possesses an identity, namely the null matrix, and every element in (M2(Z),+) has an inverse in (M2(Z),+).
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Example1.33

Let GL(2,R) denote the set of all 2x2 real non-singular

matrices under usual matrix multiplication. The system is associative, non-commutative, possesses an identity and every element has an inverse in the system. SEMIGROUP, MONOID AND GROUP Definition 1.12 A nonempty set S with an associative binary operation .defined on S forms a semigroup . A semigroup M that contains an identity element is called a Monoid . A monoid in which every element is invertible is called a Group . Thus (G,.) is a group iff following conditions are satisfied: (1) . is associative, (2) (G,.) has an identity element, generally denoted by e and (3) every element x G has an inverse element x-1 G. If, in addition, (G,.) is commutative , (G,.) is an abelian group.
Note

x-1 is not to be confused with 1/x, which may be a

meaningless expression keeping the generality of the underlying set into account. If the group operation is denoted by +, then inverse of x is denoted by x.

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Example of formation of negation of a mathematical statement:

Does there exist elements a,b in G such that a.bG NO Does there exist three elements a,b,c in G such that (a.b).c a.(b.c) holds NO
DOES THERE NOT EXIST AN ELEMENT e SUCH THAT e.a=a.e=a HOLDS FOR ALL a IN G AND e IS INDEPENDENT OF a IN G

YES

Ex: (N,-)

(G,.) NOT A GROUP

YES

Ex: Nonzero rationals under division

a. b

(G,.) NOT A GROUP

YES

Ex:REAL NUMBERS UNDER a.b=a. b

(G,.) NOT A GROUP

NO YES
DOES THERE EXIST TWO ELEMENTS a,b SUCH THAT NOT BOTH a.b=e AND b.a=e HOLD NON-NEGATIVE INTEGERS UNDER ADDITION

(G,.) NOT A GROUP

NO (G,.) IS A GROUP

UNDER WHAT CIRCUMSTANCE DO WE SAY (G,.) IS NOT A GROUP?

Example1.34

Verify whether (Z,0) defined by a0b = a+b ab (usual

operations on Z on the RHS) forms a group. (a0b)0c = (a+b ab)0c = (a+b ab)+c (a+b-ab)c = a+b+c ab bc ca+ abc a0(b0c) = a0(b+c bc) = a+(b+c bc) a(b+c bc) = a+b+c ab bc ca+abc. So, (a0b)0c = a0(b0c), for a,b,c Z. Thus (Z,0) is associative. Clearly, a00 = 00a = a, a Z. Thus (Z,0) possesses an identity 0 Z.

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Let a z and b Z be an inverse to a. by definition, a0b = b0a = 0. Thus a+b ab = 0. Hence , for a1, b = a/(a-1). But , in particular, for a = 3, b = 3/2Z. Hence (Z,0) does NOT form a group.
Example1.35

Verify whether (R,0) defined by a0b =

, a,b R

forms a group. Verify that (R,0) is associative and commutative. If (R,0) has an identity e R, then a0e = e0a = a holds for all a R. Thus a. hence =a=

<0 for a<0, contradiction. Hence (R,0) has no

identity element and hence does NOT form a group.

Example1.36

Let A

and X={f/f:AB}. The system (X,0) where

is

composition of functions, is associative but not commutative if A contains at least three elements.
Example1.37

of equivalence classes Zn= {[0],[1],,[n-1]} form a partition of Z, [r]+n[s]=[r+s], [r],[s] and [s]=[s1], then

Z by: aSb iff a-b=nk, k Z. S is an equivalence relation and the set

Let n be a natural number. Define a binary relation S on

where [r] = {nk+r/ k Z}. define a binary operation +n on Zn by: Zn. the definition is meaningful :If [r]=[r1] r=nk+r1 and s=nm+s1 and hence

r+s=(k+m)n+(r1+s1) so that [r+s]=[r1+s1]. +n is associative: ([r]+n[s])+n[t]=[r+s]+n[t]=[(r+s)+t]=[r+(s+t)]=[r]+n([s]+n[t]). [0] is an identity in (Zn,+n). inverse of [0] is [0] and inverse of [r] is [n-r], 0<r<n. Thus (Zn,+n) is an an abelian group.

21

Example1.38

Let n be a prime integer and let Zn={[1],[2],,[n-1]}.

Define [r].n[s]=[rs]. Definition is meaningful: [r]=[r1] and [s]=[s1]

implying [rs]=[r1s1]. Associativity of .n follows from associativity

imply r=kn+r1,s=mn+s1, k,m Z, so that rs=n(mr1+ks1+kmn)+r1s1

of . .[1] is an identity of (Zn,.n). Let [r] Zn, 1 r<n. since n is prime, r and n are relatively prime so that there exist integers p,q such that 1=pr+qn. Thus [1]=[pr]=[p].n[r]=[r].n[p] implying [p] is an inverse of [r]. hence (Zn,.n) is an abelian group.
Note

p,q natural,then [p],[q] Zn but [pq]=[n]=[0] Zn. Let X

If n is not prime, (Zn,.n) is not a group: if 1<p<n,1<q<n,n=pq ,

Example1.39

and S(X) be the set of all bijective functions

from X onto X.(S(X),0)is a group. If X contains at least three elements, then S(X) is not commutative. Consider f,g S(X)

defined by f(a)=a, f(b)=c,f(c)=b; g(a)=b,g(b)=a,g(c)=c. Then (f0g)(a) (g0f)(a). Hence f0g g0f.
Example1.40

consider the group GL(2,R), the set of all 2x2 real

nonsingular matrices with usual multiplication of matrices. GL(2,R) is non-commutative. PRACTICE SUMS Verify whether following system forms group or not: (1) (2) (Z,0) , a0b = a , a,b Z

(Z,0) , a0b = a+b+2

22

(3)

(2Z+1,*), a*b = a+b-1 [2Z+1 stands for set of all odd

integers] (4) Let S and P(S) be the power set of S. Consider

(P(S), ). (5) Let S and P(S) be the power set of S. Consider

(P(S), ). (6) Let Q[ = {a+ b| a,b Q}. consider (Q[ -{0},.)

Elementary properties of Group

Theorem 1.7 Let

(G,.) be a group. The following properties hold:

(1)

If G has a left identity e and a right identity f, then e=f.

In particular, identity element in G is unique. (2) If an element x of G has a left inverse y and a right

inverse z, then y=z. In particular, x-1, inverse element to x, is unique. (3) (4) e-1 = e, (x-1)-1 = x, x G.

(Cancellation Laws) for a,b,c G, a.c = b.ca = b(right

cancellation property) c.a = c.ba = b(left cancellation property) (5) (a.b)-1 = b-1.a-1, a,b G.
Proof

(1) Let e,f be two identities of (G,.). Then e = e.f (f is a right

identity element) = f (e is a left identity element).

23

(2) y.x = e and x.z = e. Then y = y.e = y.(x.z) = (y.x).z = e.z = z. hence x-1, inverse element for given x is unique. (3) Since e.e= e and x.x-1= e, it follows from definition of identity and inverse element. (4) a.c = b.c(a.c).c-1 = (b.c).c-1a.(c.c-1) = b.(c.c-1)

(associativity) a.e = b.ea = b. (5) (a.b).(b-1.a-1) =a.(b.b-1).a-1 = (a.e).a-1 = a.a-1 = e. Similarly imilarly (need be mentioned)(b-1.a-1).(a.b) = e. Hence. Notation Let G be a group, a G, n Z. a0=e(identity), an =(( a.a)a)( n times, n
Example1.41

),an = (a-1).(a-1)(a-1) (-n times, -n N). a,b G.

Let (G,.) be a group such that (a.b)-1 = a-1.b-1,

Prove that G is abelian. For all a,b G, (a.b)-1 =a-1.b-1 = (b.a)-1. Hence a.b = [(a.b)-1]-1 = [(b.a)-1]-1 = b.a, a,b G.
Example1.42

Let (G,.) be a finite abelian group and G={a1,a2,,an}. Let

x = a1.a2.an G. Prove that x2 = e. using commutativity and associativity of (G,.), x2 can be expressed as finite product of pairwise product of pair of elements of G, each pair consisting of elements which are mutually inverse to each other. Hence the result.

24

Example1.43

Let G be a group such that a2 = e, for all a G. Prove that

G is abelian. For a a.a = a2=e = a.a-1 a = a-1a.b = a-1.b-1 = (b.a)-1 = b.a

for a b G. Hence.
Example1.44 Let

G be a group such that for a,b,c

, a.b = c.a implies

that b = c. Show that G is abelian. (a.b).a = a.(b.a), for a,b,c G (by associativity) a.b = b.a
Example1.45 Prove

that G is abelian iff (a.b)2 = a2.b2, a,b G.

Sufficiency a.(b.a).b = (a.b)2 = (a.a)(b.b) = a.(a.b).b b.a = a.b for a b G. Necessity If G is abelian then (a.b)2 = (a.b).(a.b) = a.(b.a).b = a.(a.b).b = (a.a).(b.b) = a2.b2.
Theorem 1.8

A semigroup (S,.) is a group iff (1) e S, a S such that

e.a=a and (2) a S, b S such that b.a=e

Proof

Let S be a semigroup which satisfies conditions (1) and (2).

Let a S. By (2), corresponding to a S, there exists b S such that b.a=e. for b S, by(2), there exists c S such that c.b=e. now, a=e.a=(c.b).a=c.(b.a)=c.e and a.b=(c.e).b=c.(e.b)=c.b (by(1))=e. hence a.b=b.a=e. Also, a.e=a.(b.a)=(a.b).a=e.a=a. Thus a.e=e.a=a, a S. Thus e S is an identity and b S is an inverse of a S. Thus (S,.) is a group. Converse part follows from definition of a group.

25

Example1.46

Let J=

. Show that J is a

semigroup under matrix multiplication . Show that J has a left identity and each element of J has a right inverse.

Theorem 1.9

a.x=b and y.a=b have solutions for x and y in (S,.).

Proof

A semigroup(S,.) is a group iff a,b S, the equations

Let a S. The equation x.a=a has a solution ,say,u S. Then

u.a=a.Let b S. The equation a.x=b has solution,say,c S. Thus a.c=b. Now u.b=u.(a.c)=(u.a).c (associativity in (S,.))=a.c=b. Since b S was arbitrary, u S is a left identity in (S,.). Again, the equation y.a=u has solution , say d S. Then d S is a left inverse of a in S. Thus (S,.) is a group, by previous theorem.Converse part is obvious.
Theorem 1.10 A

finite semigroup (S,.) is a group iff (S,.) satisfies both

the cancellation laws: for a,b,c S, a.b=a.cb=c (left cancellation law) and b.a=c.ab=c(right cancellation law).
Proof

Let (S,.) be a finite semigroup in which both the cancellation

laws hold. By previous theorem, it is sufficient to show that the

S={a1,,an}. Let a,b S. clearly A={a.a1,,a.an} S. Also all the

equations a.x=b and y.a=b have solutions in S, a,b S. Let

elements of A are distinct by left cancellation law. Thus A and S contains same number of elements and A S. Thus b
26

solution in S, a,b S. Similarly, x.a=b has solution in S, a,b S. Hence (S,.) is a group. Converse part is trivial.

S=A={a.a1,,a.an}. Hence b=a.ai, for some i,1in. Thus a.x=b has

In a semigroup, cancellation laws may or may not hold. In (N,+), cancellation laws hold. In the semigroup S of all 2x2matrices over integers under multiplication, for A= AB=AC holds but B C. Definition 1.13 Let (G,.) be a group, a G, n Z. a0=e;an=a.an-1, if n N; an=(a-1)-n, if -n N. Definition 1.14 Let (G,.) be a group and a G. If there exists positive integer n such that an=e, then the smallest such positive integer n is the order of a, denoted by 0(a). If no such positive integer exist, then a is of infinite order.
Note

,B=

,C=

In a group G, the only element of order 1 is identity. All

elements in a finite group must be of finite order.

Example1.47

(R,+)is an infinite group in which all elements other

than 0 are of infinite order. (P(R), ) is an infinite group in which all nonidentity elements are of order 2: that is, every element is of finite order. In (Z6,+6), elements [0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5] have respective orders 1,6,3,2,3,6.

27

Theorem 1.11

Let G be a group and a G such that 0(a)=n. Then (1) if

am=e for some positive integer m, then n divides m, (2) for every positive integer t, 0(at)=
Proof

(1) by division algorithm of integers, q,r Z such that

m=nq+r, where 0r<n. Now ar=am-nq=am.(an)q=e. Since n is the smallest positive integer such that an=e and ar=e for 0r<n, it follows that r=0.Thus m=nq, that is, n divides m. (2) Let 0(at)=k. then akt=e. by (1), n divides (kt). Then there exists r Zsuch that kt=nr.Let gcd(t,n)=d. then u,v Z such that t=du, n=dv and gcd(u,v)=1. Now kt=nr implies ku=rv. Thus v divides (ku). Since gcd(u,v)=1, v divides k. thus n/d divides k. Also, (at)n/d= = =( ) = . Since 0(at)=k, k divides n/d. since
( )

k and n/d are positive integers, k=n/d. Hence, 0(at)=

Example1.48

In a group of even order, there exists at least one

nonidentity element of order 2. Let A={g G/g g-1}G. Then e A and g A implies g-1 A. Thus A= . Hence number of elements of A is even and so

A{e} contains odd number of elements. Since the number of elements of G is even, there exist g G such that g A{e}, so that ,g=g-1 and g e. thus 0(g)=2.
Example1.49 Let

G be a group and a,b G, a2=e,aba=b7. Prove b48=e.

28

 b=a2ba2=ab7a=(aba)7=b49. Result follows by cancellation law.

Example1.50

Let S be a semigroup such that for all a S, there exist

x S such that a=axa. If S has a single idempotent element, prove that S is a group. Let the single idempotent of S be denoted by e. Let a S. Then there exist x S such that a=axa so that ax=axax=(ax)2. Thus ax is an idempotent in S and by the uniqueness of idempotent in S, ax=e. Similarly it can be shown that xa=e. Hence a=axa=ae and a=axa=ea. Thus e is an identity in S. Let b S. then there xeist y S such that b=byb. Hence by and yb are idempotent and so by=yb=e. Hence S is a group.
Example1.51

Let G be a group and (a.b)n=an.bn holds for all a,b in G

and for three consecutive integers n. Prove that G is commutative. let (ab)n=anbn, (ab)n+1=an+1bn+1, (ab)n+2=an+2bn+2, a,b G. Then an+1bn+1=(ab)n+1=(anbn)(ab) abn=bna. Again an+2bn+2=(ab)n+1(ab)=an+1bn+1ab

abn+2=bn+1ab=b(bna)b=b(abn)bab=ba. Hence.
Example1.52

Let G={a1,,an} be a finite abelian group and x=a1an G.

Prove that x2=e. using commutativity and associativity, x2=( a1an)( a1an)can be expressed as finite products of expressions like (ai. ai and are inverse to each other. Hence ai.
29

), where

=e and thus x2=e.

Example1.53

Let G be a group and x,y G such that xy2=y3x, yx2=x3y.

Prove x=y=e. xy2=y3xx=y3xy-2x2=xy3xy-2=(xy2)yxy-2=(y3x)yxy(1). Now yx2=x3yyx2=xy3xyxy-1x2=y-1xy3xyxy(2). By (1) and (2), y3xyxy-1=y(xy)3(yx)2=(xy)2

2x2y=y3xyxy-1 1x2y=y-1xy3xyx

1xy3xyxy4xyx=xy3xyxyy4xyx=xy2yxyxy=y3

(3). Interchanging x and y in (3),we get (xy)2=(yx)3 (4). Now (3) and (4) imply (xy)2=(yx)3=(yx)2(yx)=(xy)3(yx) e=xy2xx-2=y2. Further xy2=y3xxx-2=yx-2xx-1=yx-1y=e. finally, yx2=x3yex2=x3ex=e.
Example1.54

Let S be a finite semigroup. Show that there is an

idempotent element e in S . Let x S. Since S is finite, all the elements x,x2,x3, cannot be distinct. Thus there exist integers m,n, m>n, such that xm=xn. Thus there exists integer k such that xn+k=xn. Now x2n+k=xn+k.xn=x2n. By induction, xmn+k=xmn for any m N. Also xmn+2k=xmn+k=xmn. By induction, xmn+lk=xmn, for any l N. In particular, xkn+nk=xkn, that is, e2=e, where e=xkn S.
Example1.55

Prove that a finite semigroup G with identity is a group

iff G contains only one idempotent. Give a counterexample to show that if we drop the requirement of G possessing identity, then G need not be a group. consider the semigroup {[0],[2]} under +4.
30

Example1.56

If G is a group in which (ab)2=a2b2 holds a,b G, then G

is abelian. Give example to show that the result does not hold for semigroup. consider the semigroup (S,.), where S is any nonempty subset and a.b=a, a,b S. Then S is not a group though (ab)2=a2b2 holds a,b S.
Example1.57

Show that if G is a finite semigroup with cross-

cancellation law, that is, xy=yz implying x=z, for all x,y,z in G, then G is an abelian group. xy=xzx(yx)=(xz)xyx=xzy=z. similarly right cancellation law holds. Hence G is a group. Also (xy)x=x(yx) imply xy=yx, for all x,y in G.
Example1.58

Let Sbe a semigroup and for all x,y in S, x2y=y=yx2 hold.

Prove that S is an abelian group.

Example1.59 Let

G be a group and a,b G such that ab=ba and 0(a) and

0(b) are relatively prime. Then prove that 0(ab)=0(a)0(b).

Example1.60

Find the number of elements of order 5 in (Z20,+20).

Let 0([a])=5. Then 5 is the smallest positive integer such that [0]=5[a]=[5a], that is, 20 divides 5a-0=5a. Thus 4 must divide a,0a<20. Hence [a]=[4],[8],[12]or[16].
Example1.61

Suppose a group G contains elements a,b such that

0(a)=4,0(b)=2, a3b=ba. Find 0(ab).

31

 a3b=bae=a4b2=(ab)20(ab) 2. If 0(ab)=1, then ab=e, a=b-1, implying 4=0(a)=0(b)=2, contradiction.

Permutation Groups Definition 1.15 Let A . A permutation on A is a bijective mapping

of A onto itself. If A={1,2,,n}, then the group Sn formed by the set of all permutations on A under composition of functions as composition is called Symmetric Group on n symbols . Order of Sn, that is , the number of elements of Sn , is n! N o t a t i o n If notation: = Sn, then we often denote using two-row

. In this notation, if

and

then

Theorem 1.12

If n is a positive integer ,n3, then

Sn is a

noncommutative group.

32

Definition 1.16 A permutation

on {1,2,,n} is a k-cycle iff there

exist distinct elements i1,,ik {1,2,,n} such that (i1)=i2,, (ik1)=ik,

(ik)=i1 and

for all x {1,2,,n}-{ i1,,ik}. we denote

by (i1 i2 ik). A transposition is a 2-cycle.

Note

Product of two cycles need not be a cycle: for =(5 6) and

0

=(3 2 4),

is not a cycle.

Definition 1.17 Two cycles (i1im) and (j1jk) are disjoint iff { i1,,im}{ j1,,jk}= .
Theorem 1.13 Let Theorem 1.14

and

be two disjoint cycles. Then

Any nonidentity permutation of Sn (n2) can be

expressed as a product of disjoint cycles , where each cycle is of length 2.

Theorem 1.15

Any cycle of length2is either a transposition or can be

expressed as a product of transpositions. Proof Note that (i1 i2ik)=(i1 ik)0(i1 ik-1)00(i1 i2).
Theorem 1.16Any

nonidentity permutation is either a transposition

or can be expressed as a product of transpositions. Definition 1.18 A permutation is even(odd) iff can be expressed

as product of even (odd respectively)number of transpositions.

Theorem 1.17 Any

permutation in Sn is either an even permutation or

an odd permutation but never both.

33

Note

Identity permutation I is even since I=(1 2)0 (2 1). If

-1

is

even, then

is even, since

-1=I

and I is even. Thus An, the set

of all even permutations on {1,2,,n}, forms a group under composition of functions. An is called the alternating group.
Theorem 1.18

Let n2 and

Sn be a cycle. Then

is a k-cycle iff

0( )=k.
Theorem 1.19

Let

Sn, n2, and =

1 0 0

be a product of disjoint

cycles. Let 0( i)=ni, i=1,2,,k. then 0( )=lcm{n1,n2,,nk}.

Example1.62

Show that the number of even permutations in Sn is

same as the number of odd permutations in Sn.

Proof

Define f:An(Sn-An) by f( )= If )= S7 and

( ) ( )

0 (1

2). Verify that f is bijective.

Example1.63

=(2 1 4 3 5 6 7), then find . . Thus 0( )=7,14,28. Now is expressible as

7=0(

product of disjoint cycles in S7. Thus 0( ) 14,28. Hence 0( )=7.

Example1.64 If

=(1 2 3)0(1 4 5), write =I and hence =

in cycle notation. =(4 1 3 2 5).

= .Thus

Example1.65

In S6, let =(1 2 3) and =(4 5 6). Find a permutation x

in S6 such that x x-1= .

Example1.66

Find the number of elements of order 3 in A4. Find the number of elements of order 6 in S4.
34

Example1.67

Example1.68

Find the number of elements of order 2 in A4.

SUBGROUP Let (G,0) be a group and HG. H is closed under 0 iff h1,h2 H,
0

h1 0h2 H. If H be closed under 0, then the restriction of 0 to H X H is a mapping from HX H into H. Thus the binary operation induces binary operation, also denoted by 0, on H. Definition 1.19 Let (G,0) be a group and on G

HG. (H,0) is a

subgroup of (G,0) iff H is closed under 0 and (H,0) is a group. Every group G has at least two subgroups , namely, {e} and G. These are called trivial subgroups. Other subgroups, if there be any, are called nontrivial subgroups of G.
Example1.69

(2Z,+) is a subgroup of (Z,+) , where 2Z is the set of all

odd integers. Since the set 2Z+1 of all odd integers is not closed under addition of integers, (2Z+1,+) is not a subgroup. Though N is closed under addition, (N,+) does not form a group; hence (N,+) is not a subgroup of (Z,+).
Example1.70

(An,0) is a subgroup of (Sn,0). {[0],[2]} is a subgroup of = } is a subgroup of the multiplicative group of

(Z4,+4). {z C/

all nonzero complex numbers.

35

Theorem 1.20

All subgroups of a group (G,0) have the same identity

element. If H be a subgroup of a group G, a H and aG-1, aH-1 be the inverses of a in G and H respectively, then aG-1=aH-1.
Proof
0

Let eG and eH be the identities of G and H respectively. Then eH

eH=eH (since eH H and eH is identity in (H,0) ) =eH0 eG (since

eH HG and eG is identity in (G,0) ) which by cancellation property in (G,0) implies eH= eG. Using cancellation property of G, from the equality a. aG1=eG=eH=a.

aH-1, we conclude aG-1=aH-1.

Note

Note

A group may be non-commutative but one of its subgroup is acommutative

may be commutative: H=

subgroup of the non-commutative group GL(2,R).

Theorem 1.21 Let

G iff a.b-1 H, a,b H. Let

G be a group and

H G. Then H is a subgroup of

Proof

assumption, e=a.a-1 H. let b H. Then b-1= e.b-1 H. also, for a,b H, a,b-1 H and hence a.b=a.(b-1)-1 H. Associativity, being a

H G and let a.b-1 H, a,b H. Since H

, let a H. By

hereditary property, holds in (H,.) since it holds in (G,.). Thus H is a subgroup of G. Converse part is trivial.
Theorem 1.22

subgroup of G iff a.b H, a,b H.

Let G be a group and

H G, H finite. Then H is a

36

Proof

(sufficiency)Let h H. Then A={h,h2,h3,} H. Since H is finite,

there exist integers r and s, 0r<s and hr=hs. Hence e=hs-r H. e= hs-r=h.hs-r-1 implies h-1=hs-r-1 H. Let a,b H. Then a,b-1 H. Hence by hypothesis, a.b-1 H. thus by previous theorem, H is a subgroup of G.
Theorem 1.23

The intersection of all subgroups of a group G is a

subgroup of G. For two subgroups H and K of a group G, H K is a subgroup of G iff H K or K H.

Proof

Let {Hx}x be the collection of all subgroups of a group G. Since , . Let a,b . Then a,b Hx and since Hx is a . Hence is a

subgroup of G, a.b-1 subgroup of G.

Hx. Thus a.b-1

Let H ,K and H K be subgroups of G. To prove: H K or K H. If possible, let H K and K H. Let a H-K, b K-H. Since H K is a

subgroup, a.b-1 H K. If a.b-1 K, then a=(ab-1)b K, contradiction. Similarly, if a.b-1 H, then b=(a.b-1)-1.a-1 H,contradiction. Hence H K either H K or K H. Definition 1.20 Let G be a group. Z(G)={x G/x.g=g.x, g G} is called the centre of G. If G is commutative, then G=Z(G). Z(G) is a subgroup of G. Z(G), Z(G) . Let a,b Z(G). Then for g G,

Example1.71

Since e

(a.b).g=a.(b.g)=a.(g.b)=(a.g).b=(g.a).b=g.(a.b) so that a.b G. Let a

37

Z(G). then a.g=g.a, g G. Then a-1.(a.g)a-1=a-1.(g.a).a-1 implying g.a1=a-1.g;

hence a-1 Z(G). Prove that every subgroup of (Z,+) is of the form

Example1.72

Nz={na:a Z}, where n is a nonnegative integer. Let H be a subgroup of Z. If H={0}, then H=0Z. Let {0}H. Let 0 a H. Since H is a subgroup, -a H. Thus H contains positive integers. By well-oredring principle of N, the set A={a H:a N}N has a smallest element, say, n. We shall prove H={nr:r Z}. Since n H and H is a subgroup, {nr:r Z}H. Conversely, let b H. By division algorithm for integers, there exist p,r Z such that b=pn+r,0r<n. r=b-pn H(since H is a subgroup). Since r<n and n is the smallest positive integer such that n H, r=0. Thus b=pn nZ. Thus HnZ. Combining, H=Nz.
Example1.73

Let G be a group and a G. Let C(a)={x G:a.x=x.a}.Show

that C(a) is a subgroup of G and Z(G) is contained in C(a).

Example1.74

Let G be a commutative group . Prove that the set H of all

elements of G of finite order is a subgroup of G.

Example1.75

In the group S3, show that the subset H={

S3:0( )

divides 2} is not a subgroup of S3.

Example1.76

In the symmetric group S3, show that H={I,(2 3)} and

K={I,(1 2)} are subgroups but HK is not a subgroup of S3.

Example1.77

If a group has finitely many subgroups, then G is finite.

38

Example1.78

True or false: the multiplicative group of nonero real

numbers has no finite subgroups other than {1}.

Example1.79

True or false:Let G be a group and H be a nonempty

subset of G such that a-1 H for all a H. Then H is a subgroup.

Example1.80

True or false:There does not exist a proper subgroup H

of (Z,+) such that H contains both 5Z and 7Z.

CYCLIC GROUPS A group G is a cyclic group iff there exists a G such that G=(a)={an:n Z}. Such an element a is called a generator of G.
Example1.81

(Z,+) is a cyclic group since Z=(1). (Zn,+n) is cyclic with

[1] as one of its generators. (R,+) is not cyclic: a rational can not generate irrational and vice versa. The multiplicative group of all four fourth roots of unity is cyclic with i as one of its generators.
Theorem 1.24

Every cyclic group is commutative ; converse may not

hold.
Proof

Let G=(a) and let b,c G. Then b=an,c=am, there exist integers

m,n. Thus bc=an.am=an+m=am+n=am.an=cb, proving that G is abelian.

39

Consider the Kleins 4-group: G={e,a,b,c} with the binary operation

0

defined by the property a2=b2=c2=e2=e. Then G is

abelian but not cyclic.

Theorem 1.25

A finite group G is cyclic iff there exists a G such that

0(a)=0(G) (0(G), order of G, stands for the number of elements of G).

Proof

Let G be a finite cyclic group of ordern. Hence there exists

element a G such that G=(a)={ai:i Z}. Since G is finite, there exist i,j Z with i<j such that ai=aj. Thus aj-i=e, j-i N. Let m be the

smallest positive integer such that am=e. Then 0(a)=m and for all integers i,jsuch that 0i<j<m, ai aj or else aj-i=e, which contradicts the minimality of m. Hence the elements of the set S={e,a,a2,,am1}

are distinct. Clearly, S(a). Conversely, let ak (a). Then there q,r Z such that k=qm+r,0r<m. Thus ) .ar=ar S. Hence S=(a). Since elements of S are

exist

ak=aqm+r=(

distinct and 0((a))=n, m=n. Hence 0(a)=n. Conversely assume G is a finite group of order n and G has an element a such that 0(a)=n. since o(a)=n, all the elements of A={e,a,a2,,an-1} are distinct ,AG and 0(A)=0(G). Hence G=A=(a). C o r o l l a r y Let (a) be finite cyclic group. Then 0(a)=0((a)).
Example1.82

Kleins 4-group is not cyclic since it has no element of

order 4.

40

Theorem 1.25 Let

G=(a) , 0(G)=n. then for any integer k, 1k<n, ak is a

generator of G iff gcd(n,k)=1.

Proof

If G=(ak), then 0(ak)=0(G)=n. since G=(a), we have 0(a)=n.

( ) ( )

Thus n=0(ak)=

. So gcd(n,k)=1.
( ) (

Conversely, let gcd(n,k)=1. Then 0(ak)= Hence G=(ak).

Example1.82

=0(a)=n=0(G).

For the group G={1,-1.i,-i}, 0(G)=4 and 1 and 3 are the

only positive integers less than 4 and relatively prime to 4.Hence i and i3=-i are the only generators of G.
Theorem 1.26

Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.

Proof

Let H be a subgroup of a cyclic group G=(a). If H={e}, then

H=(e). Suppose H {e}. Then there exists b H , b e. Thus there exist nonzero integer m such that b=am. Since H is a subgroup, am=b-1

H. either m or m is a positive integer. Hence there exists . By

positive integer I such that ai H. Thus A={n N:an H}

well-ordering principle of N, A has a least element n. we prove that H=(an). since an H and H is a subgroup, (an) H. Let h HG=(a). thusthere exist integer k such that h=ak. by division algorithm for integers, there exist integers q,r such that k=nq+r,0r<n. thus ar=ak.( ) )
41

H (sine H is a subgroup). Since n

is the smallest positive integer such that an H and 0r<n, r=0. Thus k=nq and so h=ak=anq=( (an). Hence H=(an).

Example1.83

Find all the generators of (Z10,+10).

Z10=([m])=(m[1]) iff gcd(m,10)=1. Thus the generators of Z10 are [1],[3],[7] and [9].
Example1.84

The group (Q,+) is not cyclic. Hence (R,+) is not cyclic.

If possible, let Q=(x). Clearly, x 0. Hence x= , where p,q are prime to each other and q 0. But Q=( ), contradiction.

COSETS AND LAGRANGES THEOREM Let G be a group and H be a subgroup of G. Define a relation R on G by: a,b G, aRb iff a.b-1 H. R is an equivalence relation on G. For a G, [a], the equivalence class containing a, is given by: [a]={b G:bRa}={b G: ba-1 H}=Ha={ha:h H} (Ha is called right coset of H in G generated by a). we know that equivalence classes are nonempty, any two distinct equivalence classes are disjoint and union of all the equivalence classes equals G. L e m m a Let H be a subgroup of a group G. If a G, then 0(aH)=0(H). Proof f:HaH, f(h)=a.h, is a bijection. Hence the result.
Theorem 1.27

(Lagrange) Let H be a subgroup of a finite group G.

Then0(G)=[G:H]0(H), where [G:H], the index of H in G, is the number of distinct right cosets of H in G.

42

Proof

Since G is finite, [G:H] is finite. Let [G:H]=r. Let

A={Ha1,Ha2,,Har} be the collection of right cosets of H in G. Since A is a partition of G, 0(G)= 0(Ha1)++0(Har)=r0(H)( by lemma above). Hence the result. Converse of Lagranges Theorem may not hold. It can be proved that 6 divides 0(A4) but A4 has no subgroup of order 6. But the converse holds for a cyclic group.
Theorem 1.28 Let

G =(a), 0(G)=n. if m is a positive integral factor of n,

then there exists a unique subgroup of G of order m.

Proof

There exists positive integer k such that n=mk. Now

( ( ) ( ))

0(ak)=

= =m; hence 0((ak))=0(ak)=m.

Now suppose K is a subgroup of G of order m. K=(at), for some t Z. 0(at)=0((at))=m. thus amt=e. Since 0(a)=n, n divides mt, that is, mt=nr for some integer r. By Lagranges Theorem, n=km, for some natural k. Hence mt=kmr, so that t=kr. So at=(ak)r (ak)=H. Hence K=(at) (ak)=H. Both these subgroups have order m. hence H=K.
Example1.85

Let G be a group of order 28. Show that G has a

nontrivial subgroup. If G is cyclic, G has a subgroup corresponding to every positive integral factor of 28, say, corresponding to 4.

43

If G is not cyclic, consider the cyclic subgroup (a) generated by e a G. Clearly {e}(a)G (G is not cyclic).
Example1.86

Let G=(a) be an infinite cyclic group. Prove that (1) ar=at

only if r=t, r,t Z , (2) G has only two generators. Let ar=at, r>t. then there exist natural number m such that at+m=at, so that, am=e. Thus 0(a) is finite and 0((a)) is infinite, contradiction. Let (a)=G=(b), for some b G. Since a (b) and b (a), there exist integers r and t such that a=br, b=at. thus a=art, which by part (1) implies rt=1.Thus r=1 or -1. Hence b=a or b=a exactly two generators.
Example1.87
-1.

Thus G has

If a group G has only two subgroups, then G is a cyclic

group. G {e} since G has two subgroups. Let H=(a), e a G. Since H {e} (a H), G=H=(a).
Example1.88

Let G be a cyclic group of order 42. Find the number of

elements of order 6 and of order 7. Let G=(a), 0(a)=42. Let b=ar G, o(b)=6. Then a6r=e. Thus 42 must divide 6r, that is, 7 must divide r and r<42. Thus r=7,14,21,28,35. Thus there are five elements of G of order 6.
Example1.89

Let G be a cyclic group such that G has exactly three

subgroups: G,{e} and a subgroup of order 5. Find the order of G.

44

Example1.90

Let G be a cyclic group of infinite order. Find the number

of elements of finite order.

Theorem 1.29

Every group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof

Let 0(G)=p, p prime. Thus p2. Let e a G. Then 0((a))

divides 0(G)=p ,0((a))=0(a)>1. Thus 0((a))=p=0(G), (a) G. Hence G=(a).

Theorem 1.30

Let H and K be finite subgroups of a group G. Then

)

0(HK)=

( ) ( ) (

Example1.91

Let G be a group of order pn, p prime. Prove that G

contains an element of order p. Let e a G. Let H=(a). Then 0(a) divides 0(G)=pn. Thus 0(H)=0(a)=pm, 1mn. Now in the cyclic group (a) of order pm, there exists a cyclic subgroup C=(c) of order p. Thus c G and 0(c)=p.
Example1.92

Let G be a group of order pq where p and q are prime. )is cyclic.

show that every subgroup H(

0(H) divides pq=0(G). Since p,q are primes, 0(H)=1,p,q (note: H ). Sine every group of prime order is cyclic, result follows. Find all subgroups of Kleins 4-group. Prove that every proper subgroup of S3 is cyclic though

Example1.93

Example1.94

S3 is not cyclic.
45

Example1.95

Prove that every group of order 49 contains a subgroup

of order 7.
Example1.96

Let G be a group such that 0(G)<320. Suppose G has

subgroups of order 35 and 45. Find the order of G.

Example1.97

Let A and B are two subgroups of a group G. If 0(A)=p (p

prime), then show that AB={e} or AB.

SECTION II: CLASSICAL ALGEBRA

Text

(1) Classical AlgebraS.K.Mapa

CHAPTER I

COMPLEX NUMBERS: DE MIVRES THEOREM

A complex number z is an ordered pair of real numbers (a,b): a is called Real part of z, denoted by Re z and b is called imaginary part of z, denoted by Im z. If Re z=0, then z is called purely imaginary ; if Im z =0, then z is called real. On the set C of all complex numbers, the relation of equality and the operations of addition and multiplication are defined as follows: (a,b)=(c,d) iff a=b and c=d, (a,b)+(c,d)=(a+c,b+d), (a,b).(c,d)= (ac-bd,ad+bc) The set C of all complex numbers under the operations of addition and multiplication as defined above satisfies following properties: For z1,z2,z3 C, (1) (z1+z2)+z3=z1+(z2+z3)(associativity), (2)z1+(0,0)=z1, (3) for z=(a,b) C, there exists z=(-a,-b) C such that (-z)+z=z+(-z)=(0,0), (4)z1+z2=z2+z1. For z1,z2,z3 C, (1) (z1. z2).z3=z1.(z2.z3)(associativity), (2)z1.(1,0)=z1, (3) for z=(a,b) C,z (0,0), there exists (4)z1.z2=z2.z1.
46

C such that z. = .z=1,

For z1,z2,z3 C, z1.(z2+z3)=(z1.z2)+(z1.z3). Few Observations Denoting the complex number (0,1) by i and identifying a real (1) complex number (a,0) with the real number a, we see z=(a,b)=(a,0)+(0,b)=(a,0)+(0,1)(b,0) can be written as z=a+ib. (2) For two real numbers a,b , a2+b2=0 implies a=0=b; same conclusion need not follow for two complex numbers, for example, 12+i2=0 but 1(1,0) (0,0) 0 and i=(0,1) (0,0) ( denotes identification of a real complex number with the corresponding real number). (3) For two complex numbers z1,z2, z1z2=0 implies z1=0 or z2=0. (4) i2=(0,1)(0,1)=(-1,0) -1. Just as real numbers are represented as points on a line, (5) complex numbers can be represented as points on a plane: z=(a,b) P: (a,b). The line containing points representing the real complex numbers (a,0), a real, is called the real axis and the line containing points representing purely imaginary complex numbers (0,b) ib is called the imaginary axis. The plane on which the representation is made is called Gaussian Plane or Argand Plane. Definition 1.1 Let z=(a,b) a+ib. The conjugate of z, denoted by a-ib. , is (a,-b)

Geometrically, the point (representing) is the reflection of the point (representing) z in the real axis. The conjugate operation satisfies the following properties: (1) =z , (2) = , (3) = , (4) = , (4)

z+ =2 Rez, z- =2i Im(z) Definition 1.2 Let z=(a,b) a+ib. The modulus of z, written as as . , is defined

Geometrically, represents the distance of the point representing z from the origin (representing complex number (0,0) 0+i0). More generally, represents the distance between the points z1 and z2. The modulus operation satisfies the following properties:
47

(1)

, (2)

(3)

(4)

REPRESENTATION NUMBERS: GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBERS: THE ARGAND PLANE Let z=a+ib be a complex number. In the Argand plane, z is represented by the point whose Cartesian co-ordinates is (a,b) referred to two perpendicular lines as axes, the first co-ordinate axis is called the real axis and the second the imaginary axis. Taking the origin as the pole and the real axis as the initial line, let (r, ) be the polar co-ordinates of the point (a,b). Then a=r cos , b=r sin . Also r= = . Thus z=a+ib= (cos +isin ): this is called modulus-amplitude form of z. For a given z 0, there exist infinitely many values of differing from one another by an integral multiple of 2 : the collection of all such values of for a given z 0 is denoted by Arg z or Amp z. The principal value of Arg z , denoted by arg z or amp z, is defined to be the angle from the collection Arg z that satisfies the condition . Thus Arg z={arg z+2n : n an integer}. arg z satisfies following properties: (1) arg(z1z2)=argz1+argz2+2k , where k is a suitable integer from the set{1,0,1] such that argz1+argz2+2k , (2) arg argz1-argz2+2k , argz1where k is a suitable integer from the set{-1,0,1] such that argz2+2k .

Note An argument of a complex number z=a+ib is to be determined from the relations cos =a/ , sin = b/ simultaneously and not from the single relation tan =b/a.

Example 1.1 Find arg z where z=1+i tan . Let 1+itan =r(cos +i sin ). Then r2= sec2 . Thus r=- sec >0.Thus cos
=- cos , sin =-sin . Hence = + . Since > ,arg z= -2 =- .

Geometrical representation of operations on complex numbers: Addition Let P and Q represent the complex numbers z1=x1+iy1 and z2=x2+iy2 on the Argand Plane respectively. It can be shown that the fourth vertex R of the parallelogram OPRQ represents the sum z1+z2 ofz1 and z2.

48

Product Let z1= ) and z2= ) where . Thus z1z2= {cos( + )+isin( + )}. Hence the point < , representing z1z2 is obtained by rotating line segment OP{ where P represents z1} through arg z2 and then dilating the resulting line segment by a factor of . In particular , multiplying a complex number by i=cos geometrically means rotating the line segment by .

T h e o r e m 1 . 1 (De Moivres Theorem) If n is an integer and is any real number, then (cos +i sin )n= cos n +i sin n . If n= , q natural, p integer, and q are realtively prime, is any real number, then (cos +i sin )n has q number of values, one of which is cos n +i sin n .
Proof

Case 1 Let n be a positive integer.

Result holds for n=1: (cos +i sin )1= cos 1 +i sin 1 . Assume result holds for some positive integer k: (cos +i sin )k= cos k +i sin k .Then (cos +i sin )k+1=(cos +i sin )k(cos +i sin )=( cos k +i sin k )( cos +i sin )= cos(k+1) +isin(k+1) Hence result holds by mathematical induction. Case 2 Let n be a negative integer, say, n=-m, m natural. (cos +i sin )n=(cos +i sin )-m= cos m -isin m =cos(-m) +isin(-m) = cos n +i sin n . Case3 n=0: proof obvious. Case 4 Let n= , q natural, p integer, and q are realtively prime. (by case 1) =

Let = cos +i sin . Then = (cos +i q. Thus cos p +isin p = cos q +i sin q . Thus q =2k +p , that is, sin ) = . Hence = cos( )+isin( , where k=0,1,,q-1 are the distinct q values. Some Applications of De Moivres Theorem

(1)

Expansion of cos n , sin n is real.

and tan n

where n is natural and

49

Cos n +i sin n =(cos +isin )n=cosn + cosn-1 isin + cosn2 ++insinn = (cosn cosn-2 +)+i( cosn1 sin cosn-3 +). Equating real and imaginary parts, cos n n-2 n = cos cos + and sin n = cosn-1 sin - cosn3 + (2) Expansion of cosn and sinn in a series of multiples of where n is natural and . Let x = cos . Then xn=cos n +isin n , x-n= cos n -isin n . Thus (2 cos )n=(x+ n =(xn+ (xn-2+ )+=2 cos n + (2 cos(n-2) )+

Similarly, expansion of sinn derived.

in terms of multiple angle can be

(3) Finding n th roots of unity To find z satisfying zn=1=cos(2k )+isin(2k Thus z=[ cos(2k )+isin(2k A={ cos( roots of unity. ]1/n=cos(

, where k is an integer. , k=0,1,,n-1;

replacing k by any integer gives rise to a complex number in the set / k=0,1,,n-1}. Thus A is the set of all nth

Example 1.2 Solve x6+x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1=0

We have the identity x6+x5+x4+x3+x2+x+1= cos . Roots of x7-1=0 are

, k=0,1,,6. Putting k=0, we obtain root of x-1=0. Thus the , k=1,,6.

roots of given equation are cos

Example 1.3 Prove that the sum of 99 th powers of all the roots of x71=0 is zero. The roots of x7-1=0 are {1, , 99th powers of the roots is 1+ = =0, since
2,, 6},

where =cos +isin . Thus sum of 1+ 1.

99+(

99+(

=1 and

Example 1.4 If

and arg z1+argz2=0, then show that z1= . then argz2=- . Thus z1=r(cos

Let =r, arg z1= , +isin )=r(cos -isin )= .

50

Example 1.5 For any complex number z, show that

Let z=x+iy.2(x2+y2)-(x+y)2=(x-y)2 0. Thus x2+y2 . and so

. =

Example 1.6 Prove that if the ratio

s purely imaginary, then the

point (representing )z lies on the circle whose centre is at the point and radius is . Let z=x+iy. Then =0, that is, circle whose centre is at the point and radius is . By given condition , .Thus z lies on the . is , show

Example 1.7 If the amplitude of the complex number

that z lies on a circle in the Argand plane. Let z=x+iy. Then =

. By given condition,

=1. On simplification, (x+1)2+(y-1)2=1. Hence z lies on the circle centred at (-1,1) and radius 1.

Example 1.8 If z and z1 are two complex numbers such that z+z1 and
zz1 are both real, show that either z and z1 are both real or z1= .

Example 1.9 If
by or .

, prove that arg z1 and argz2 differ

Thus (z1+z2)( (1). Let z1=r1(cos (1), cos( - )=0 proving the result. Argand plane and z1+z2+z3=0 and equilateral triangle. z1+z2=-z3. Hence given condition, cos = =

= (z1-z2)( ), z2=r2(cos

Or, ). From

1.10 Example 1.10 If A,B,C represent complex numbers z1,z2,z3 in the

, prove that ABC is an

, that is, + +2z1.z2= . By , where is the angle between z1 and

51

z2.Thus cos

=- , that is,

=1200. Hence the corresponding angle of the

triangle ABC is 600. Similarly other angles are 600.

1.11 Example 1.11 If (x,y) represents a point lying on the line 3x+4y+5=0,
find the minimum value of .

1.12 Example 1.12 Let z and z1 be two complex numbers satisfying z=

and z1= =1. Prove that z lies on the imaginary axis. . By given condition, . If z=x+iy, x=0. Hence.

1.13 Example 1.13 If z1, z2 are conjugates and z3,z4 are conjugates, prove
that arg arg . Since z1, z2 are conjugates, arg z1+arg z2=0. Since z3,z4 are conjugates, arg z3+arg z4=0. Thus arg z1+arg z2=0= arg z3+arg z4. Hence arg z1-arg z4=arg z3arg z2; thus result holds.

Example

1.14 1.14 complex numbers z1,z2,z3 satisfy the relation

.

z12+z22+z32-z1z2-z2z3-z3z1=0 iff

0=z12+z22+z32-z1z2-z2z3-z3z1=(z1+wz2+w2z3)(z1+w2z2+wz3), where w stands for an imaginary cube roots of unity. If z1+wz2+w2z3=0, then (z1z2)=-w2(z3-z2); hence = = similarly other part. , then z1,z2,z3 represent Conversely, if vertices of an equilateral triangle. Then z2-z1=(z3-z1)(cos 600+isin600), z1z2=(z3-z2)( cos 600+isin600 ); by dividing respective sides, we get the result.

1.15 Example 1.15 Prove that

for two complex numbers z1,z2. = = +2 z1z2; -2 z1z2; Adding we get the result. + ), (2) =

), similarly

1.16 Example 1.16 If cos +cos +cos =sin +sin +sin =0, then prove
that (1) cos 3 +cos3 +cos 3 =3cos( =3/2. Let x=cos +i sin , y= cos +i sin , z= cos +i sin . Then x+y+z=0. Thus x3+y3+z3=3xyz. By De Moivres Theorem, (cos 3 + cos 3 +cos 3 )+i(sin 3 + sin 3 +sin 3 )=3[ cos( )+isin( . Equating, we get result.
52

Let x=cos +i sin , y= cos +i sin , z= cos +i sin . Then x+y+z=0. Also hence xy+yz+zx=0. Thus x2+y2+z2=0. By De Moivres Theorem, cos 2 +cos2 +cos2 =0. Hence cos2 , we get other part. =3/2. Using sin2 =1-

1.17 Example 1.17 Find the roots of zn=(z+1)n, where n is a positive

integer, and show that the points which represent them in the Argand plane are collinear. Let w= ,k=0,,n-1. So z= = , k=1,,n-1 . Thus all points z satisfying zn=(z+1)n lie on the line x=- . Now zn=(z+1)n implies wn=1.Thus, w=cos

Functions of a complex variable

Exponential function For a complex number z=x+iy, exp(z)=ex(cos y +i sin y).

Note
If z=x+i0 is purely real, exp(z)=ex. If z = 0+iy is purely imaginary, exp(z)=exp(iy)=cos y+i sin y. Since ex= , thus exp(z) is a non-zero complex number for every complex number z. (4) For every non-zero complex number u+iv=r(cos +isin ), exp(ln r+i )=eln r(cos +isin )=u+iv. Thus exp:C C-{0+i0}. (5) exp(z1).exp(z2)=exp(z1+z2) Let z1=x1+iy1,z2=x2+iy2. exp(z1)exp(z2) = (cosy1+isiny1)(cosy2+isiny2) = [cos(y1+y2)+isin(y1+y2)]= exp(z1+z2). (6) (7) exp(z1-z2)= ; in particular exp(-z)= . If n be an integer, (exp z)n=exp(nz) (follows from property(5) and (6))
53

(1) (2) (3)

(8)

If n be an integer, exp(z+2n i)=exp(z).(follows from (5), since exp(2n i)=1)

1.18 Example 1.18 Find all complex number z such that exp(z)=-1
Let z=x+iy. Then ex(cos y+isiny)=-1. Thus excos y=-1, exsin y=0. Squaring, adding gives e2x=1 whence ex=1(since ex>0); thus x=0. cosy=-1 and siny=0 gives y=(2n+1) . Thus z=(2n+1) i, n integer. Logarithmic function Let z be a non-zero complex number. Then there exists a complex number w such that exp(w)=z; further if exp(w)=z, then exp(w+2n )=z. For a given non-zero complex number z, we define Log z={w C/ exp(z)=w} and call the set Logarithm of z. Let z=r(cos +isin ),- < . Let w=u+iv be a logarithm of z(that is, a member of Log z). Then exp(u+iv)= r(cos +isin ). Thus eucos v=r cos , eusin v=r sin . Hence eu=r (by squaring and adding last two relations), cos v=cos , sinv=sin . So u=ln r,v= +2n . Thus Logz=ln +i(arg z+2n ).

Note
Putting n=0 in the expression for Log z, we obtain principal value of Log z, denoted by log z. Thus log z= ln +iarg z. (1) exp(Log z)=z for z 0; one of the values of Log(expz) is z, the other values are z+2n i,n integer. (2) For two distinct non-zero complex numbers z1,z2, Log(z1z2)=Log(z1)+Log(z2); log(z1z2) log(z1)+log(z2): take z1=i,z2=-1. Let z1=r1(cos +isin ), z2= r2(cos +isin ). Then Log z1=lnr1+i( +2n ), Log z2=lnr2+i( +2m ),Log(z1z2)= z1=ln(r1r2)+i( + 2k ) where n, m, k are integers. Log(z1)+Log(z2)=ln(r1r2)+i( + +2q , where q=m+n. Since p,q are arbitrary integers, Log(z1z2)=Log(z1)+Log(z2) holds. (3) For two distinct non-zero complex numbers z1,z2, Log Log(z1)-Log(z2). log log(z1)-log(z2): take z1=-1,z2=-i. Proof similar.

54

(4) If z 0 and m be a positive integer, Log zm mLogz: take z=i,m=2.

1.19 Example 1.19 Verify Log(-i)1/2=1/2 Log(-i)

-i=cos integer. Two values of (-i)1/2 are Log[ )i=[(2p+1) +isin +isin and +isin +isin . Now +isin . Log(-i)= [(2n ]=( n )I, where n is an

]=(2m - )i and Log[

]= (2p

]I, where m,p are integers.Thus the values of Log(-i)1/2

can be expressed as (n - )I, where n is an integer. Hence the result.

Example 1.20

Prove that sin[ilog

Let a+ib=r(cos +isin ),. Then a=r cos , b=r sin . Thus z=cos(-2 )+isin(-2 ). Thus arg z=-2 +2k , where k is an integer such that - <-2 +2k . So log z=(-2 +2k )i. hence sin(ilog z)=sin(2 2k )=sin2 = . Exponent function If w be a nonzero complex number and z be any complex number, then wz=exp(z Log w) . Since Log is many-valued, exponent is many-valued; principal value of wz is defined as exp(z log w). Note If z1,z2,w are complex numbers, w 0, then p.v. =(p.v. )(p.v. ). but

Example 1.21 Find values of ii.

ii=exp[iLogi]=exp[i(2n i]= , n any integer.

Example 1.22

If a,b are the imaginary cube roots of unity, prove , (2) p.v. of ab+p.v. of ba = .

that (1) p.v. of aa+p.v. of bb=

p.v. of aa=exp[a log a]=exp[a{ln1+i ]], if a=-

55

=exp[-

]=

[cos

]. Similarly, p.v. of bb=

[cos

].Hence (1) is proved. Similarly (2) can be proved.

Example 1.23
z are given by z=

If iz=i, show that z is real and the general values of

, m,n are integers. and show that the values

Example 1.24 Find all the values of

lie on a circle in the Argand plane. Trigonometric function

From definition of exponential function, for real y, exp(iy)=cos y+isin y, exp(-iy)=cosy-isiny. y= z= (1) (2) (3) (4) Thus for real y, cos y= , sin . Backedup by theseresults, for complex z, we define cos , sin z= .

cos2z+sin2z=1 sin(z1+z2)=sinz1cosz2+cosz1sinz2, cos(z1+z2)=cosz1cosz2sinz1sinz2. sin(z+2 )=sin z, sin(z+ =-sin z if x,y are real, sin(x+iy)=sin x cosh y+icos xsinh y, and and

cos(x+iy)=cosx cosh y-isin xsinh y, where cosh x= sinh x= . Thus

2=sin2x+sinh2y

since sinh y is an unbounded function, sin z and cos z are unbounded in absolute value. But if x is real, sin x and cos x are bounded functions. (5) cos(iz)=cosh z, sin(iz)=isinh z, cosh(iz)=cos z, sinh(iz)=i sin z, where cosh z= and sinh z= .

2=cos2x+sinh2y:

Example 1.25

Find all values of z such that cos z=0.

Let z=x+iy. cos z=0 implies cos xcosh y=0, sin xsinh y=0. Since cosh y 0, cos x=0. Thus x=(2n+1) , n integer. Thus sin x=sin[(2n+1) ] 0. Hence sinh y=0. Thus y=0. Hence z==(2n+1) , n integer.

56

Example 1.26 If x=log tan(

iLog tan Since =i t2= . is real, x real. ex=tan( , where t=exp . =

, where

is real, prove that =-

. Therefore, = . =

= =tan .

. Thus Thus

Hence

. So exp(i )=tan

. =-iLog tan

Inverse Trigonometric functions Let z be a given complex number and w be a complex number such that sin w=z. Then cos w= . Thus exp(iw)=iz or, w=). Since Log is a multi-valued function, Sin-1z=w=iLog(iz iLog(iz ) is a multiple valued function of z. The principal value of and by taking the principal Sin-1z is obtained by choosing cos w=+ value of the logarithm and is denoted by sin-1z.

Example 1.27 Find Cos-1(2), cos-1(2).

Let Cos-1(2)=z. Then cos z=2. sin z= i. Thus exp(iz)=cos z+I sin z=2= . When exp(iz)=2+ , z=-iLog(2+ )=-i[log(2+ +2n i]=2n -i log(2+ ). When exp(iz)=2- , z=-iLog(2- )=-i[log(2+2n i]=2n -i -1(2)= 2n log(2- ) =2n +i log(2+ . Thus Cos i log(2+ . Hence cos1(2)=ilog(2+ ).

Example 1.28

If tan-1(x+iy)=a+ib, where x,y,a,b are real and (x,y) (0, 1), prove that (1) x2+y2+2xcot 2a=1, (2) x2+y2+1-2ycoth 2b=0.

tan (a+ib)=x+iy; thus tan(a-ib)=x-iy. Thus tan 2a=tan[(a+ib)+(aib)]= . Hence the first part. Again tan(2ib)=tan[(a+ib)-(aib)]= part. . But tan(2ib)= =i tanh 2b. hence the second

CHAPTER II
57

THEORY OF EQUATIONS
An expression of the form a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an, where a0,a1,,an are real or complex constants, n is a nonnegative integer and x is a variable (over real or complex numbers) is a polynomial in x. If a0 0, the polynomial is of degree n and a0xn is the leading term of the polynomial. A non-zero constant a0 is a polynomial of degree 0 while a polynomial in which the coefficients of each term is zero is said to be a zero polynomial and no degree is assigned to a zero polynomial. Equality two polynomials a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an and b0xn+b1xn-1++bn1x+bn are equal iff a0=b0,a1=b1,,an=bn. Addition Let f(x)= a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an, g(x)= b0xn+b1xn-1++bn-1x+bn. the sum of the polynomials f(x) and g(x) is given by f(x)+g(x)= a0xn++an-m-1xm+1+(an-m+b0)xm++(an+bm), if m<n = (a0+b0)xn++(an+bn), if m=n = b0xm++bm-n-1xn+1+(bm-n+a0)xn++(bm+an), if m>n. Multiplication Let f(x)= a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an, g(x)= b0xn+b1xn-1++bn1x+bn. the product of the polynomials f(x) and g(x) is given by f(x)g(x)=c0xm+n+c1xm+n-1++cm+n, where ci=a0bi+a1bi-1++aib0. c0=a0b0 0; hence degree of f(x)g(x) is m+n. Division Algorithm Let f(x) and g(x) be two polynomials of degree n and m respectively and n m. Then there exist two uniquely determined polynomials q(x) and r(x) satisfying f(x)=g(x)q(x)+r(x), where the degree of q(x) is n-m and r(x) is either a zero polynomial or the degree of r(x) is less than m. In particular, if degree of g(x) is 1, then r(x) is a constant, identically zero or non-zero. T h e o r e m 1 . 2 ( Remainder Theorem) If a polynomial f(x) is divided by x-a, then the remainder is f(a). Let q(x) be the quotient and r (constant)be the remainder when f is divided by x-a. then f(x)=(x-a)q(x)+r is an identity. Thus f(a)=r. T h e o r e m 1 . 3 ( Factor Theorem) If f is a polynomial, then x-a is a factor of f iff f(a)=0.
58

By Remainder theorem, f(a) is the remainder when f is divided by x-a; hence, if f(a)=0, then x-a is a factor of f. Conversely, if x-a is a factor of f, then f(x)=(x-a)g(x) and hence f(a)=0.

Example 1.29
divided by 2x+1.

Find the remainder when f(x)=4x5+3x3+6x2+5 is

The remainder on dividing f(x) by x-(- =x+ is f(- )=6. If q(x) be the quotient, then f(x)=q(x)(x+ )+6= when f is divided by 2x+1. Synthetic division Synthetic division is a method of obtaining the quotient and remainder when a polynomial is divided by a first degree polynomial or by a finite product of first degree polynomials. Let q(x)=b0xn-1+b1xn-2++bn-1 be the quotient and R be the remainder when f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1++an is divided by x-c. Then a0xn+a1xn-1++an=( b0xn-1+b1xn-2++bn-1)(x-c)+R. Above is an identity; equating coefficients of like powers of x, a0=b0, a1=b1cb0, a2=b2-cb1,,an-1=bn-1-cbn-2,an=R-cbn-1. Hence b0=a0,b1=a1+cb0,b2=a2+cb1,,bn-1=an-1+cbn-2,R=an+cbn-1. The calculation of b0,b1,,bn-1,R can be performed as follows: a0 a1 a2 an-1 an (2x+1)+6. Hence 6 is the remainder

cb0 cb1 cbn-2 cbn-1 b 0 b1 b2 . bn-1 R

Example 1.30 Find the quotient and remainder when 2x3-x2+1 is

divided by 2x+1. 2 -1 -1 0 1 1 -

.. 2 -2 1

59

Thus 2x3-x2+1=(x+ )(2x2-2x+1)+ =(2x+1)(x2-x+ )+ ; hence the quotient is x2-x+ and the remainder is .

Example

1.31 Find the quotient and remainder when x4-

3x3+2x2+x-1 is divided by x2-4x+3. x2-4x+3=(x-1)(x-3). We divide x4-3x3+2x2+x-1 by x-1 and then the obtained quotient again by x-3 by method of synthetic division. We get x43x3+2x2+x-1=(x-1)[x3-2x2+1]+0=(x-1)[(x-3){x2+x+3}+10]= (x24x+3)(x2+x+3)+10(x-1); hence the quotient is x2+x+3 and the remainder is 10(x-1). Applications of the method (1) To express a polynomial f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1++an as a polynomial in x-c. Let f(x)=A0(x-c)n+A1(x-c)n-1++An. Then f(x)=(x-c)[A0(x-c)n-1+A1(xc)n-2++An-1]+An. Thus on dividing f(x) by x-c, the remainder is An and the remainder is q(x)= A0(x-c)n-1+A1(x-c)n-2++An-1. Similarly if q(x) is divided by x-c, the remainder is An-1. Repeating the process n times, the successive remainders give the unknowns An,,A1 and A0=a0. (2) Let f(x) be a polynomial in x. to express f(x+c) as a polynomial in x. Let f(x)=a0xn+a1xn-1++an=A0(x-c)n+A1(x-c)n-1++An; by method explained above , the unknown coefficients can be found out in terms of the known coefficients a0,,an. Now f(x+c)=A0xn++An.

Example 1.32 Express f(x)=x3-6x2+12x-16=0 as a polynomial in x2 and hence solve the equation f(x)=0. Using method of synthetic division repeatedly, we have 2 1 -6 12 -16 8 Hence f(x)=(x-2)3-8=0. Thus x-2=2,2w,2w2 (w is an Hence x=4,2+2w,2+2w2.

2 -8 imaginary cube roots of unity) ---------------------------1 -4 2 4 -4 -8

60

----------------------1 -2 2 -----------1 0 0

Example 1.33 If f(x) is a polynomial of degree

is
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

2 in x and a,b are unequal, show that the remainder on dividing f(x) by (x-a)(x-b) .

By division algorithm, let f(x)=(x-a)(x-b)q(x)+rx+s, where rx+s is the remainder. Replacing x by a and by b in turn in this identity, f(a)=ra+s, f(b)=rb+s; solving for r,s and substituting in the expression rx+s,we get required expression for remainder.

Example 1.34

If x2+px+1 be a factor of ax3+bx+c, prove that a2c2=ab. Show that in this case x2+px+1 is also a factor of cx3+bx2+a.

Let ax3+bx+c=( x2+px+1)(ax+d) (*) (taking into account the coefficient of x3). Comparing coefficients, d+ap=0,a+pd=b,d=c whence the result a2-c2=ab follows. Replacing x by 1/x in the identity (*), we get cx3+bx2+a=( x2+px+1)(dx+a): this proves the second part. If f(x) is a polynomial of degree n, then f(x)=0 is called a polynomial equation of degree n. If b is a real or complex number such that f(b)=0, then b is a root of the polynomial equation f(x)=0 or is a zero of the polynomial f(x). If (x-b)r is a factor of f(x) but (x-b)r+1 is not a factor of f(x), then b is a root of f(x) of multiplicity r: a root of multiplicity 1 is called a simple root. Thus 2 is a simple root of x3-8=0 but 2 is a root of multiplicity 3 of (x-2)3(x+3)=0.

Example 1.35 Show that 1.

1,,n are all zeros of the polynomial on the left; by factor theorem, each of (x-1),,(x-n) are factors of the polynomial and hence (x-1)(x-n) is a factor of the n th degree polynomial on the left; equating coefficient of xn from both side, we get the constant of proportionality
61

on the right.

Algebra) T h e o r e m 1 . 4 ( Fundamental Theorem of Classical Algebra) Every polynomial equation of degree 1 has a root, real or complex. Corollary A polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots, multiplicity of each root being taken into account. Corollary If a polynomial f(x) of degree n vanishes for more than n distinct values of x, then f(x) =0 for all values of x.

Example 1.36 x2-4=(x+2)(x-2) is an identity since it is satisfied by

more then two values of x; in contrast (x-1)(x-2)=0 is an equality and not an identity. T h e o r e m 1 . 5 If b is a multiple root of the polynomial equation f(x)=0 of multiplicity r, then b is a multiple root of f(1)(x)=0 of multiplicity r-1. Thus to find the multiple roots of a polynomial equation f(x)=0, we find the h.c.f. g(x) of the polynomials f(x) and f(1)(x). The roots of g(x)=0 are the multiple roots of f(x)=0.

Example 1.37
x5+2x4+2x3+4x2+x+2=0.

Find the multiple roots of the equation

Let f(x)= x5+2x4+2x3+4x2+x+2. Then f(1)(x)=5x4+8x3+6x2+8x+1. The h.c.f. of f and f(1) are obtained by method of repeated division(at each stage, we can multiply by a constant of proportionality to our convenience; that does not affect the outcome): 5 8 6 8 1| 1 (x 5) 5 2 10 2 10 4 20 1 5 2 10

58681. 2 (x5) 10 10 4 20 16 12 60 12 4 20 16 10 50 2

..

62

4 (x1/4) 1

48 12

4 1

48 12

12

12 |

5 5

8 60

6 5

8 60

. -52 -52 1 -52 1 -624

-624 -52

625 1 0 1| 1 1 12 0 1 1 12 0 625

. 12 12 0 0 12 12

.. Thus the h.c.f. is x2-1. Thus f(x)=0 has two double roots( that is, multiple roots of multiplicity 2) i and i.

Polynomial equations with Real Coefficients T h e o r e m 1 . 6 If a+ib is a root of multiplicity r of the polynomial equation f(x)=0 with real coefficients, then a-ib is a root of multiplicity r of f(x)=0. N o t e 1+i is a root of x2-(1+i)x=0 but not so is 1-i.

Example 1.38
real.

Prove that the roots of

are all

63

 The given equation is

=-5 (*). Let a+ib be a root of the

polynomial equation (*) with real coefficients. Then a-ib is also a root of (*).Thus ( ) +( ) +( ) =-5 and ( ) +( ) +( ) =-5. Subtracting,-2ib[
( ) ( ) ( )

]=0

which

gives

b=0.

Hence all roots of given equation must be real.

Example 1.39 Prove that the roots of Example 1.40

1+i is a root.

are all

real where a1,,an,b are all positive real numbers and b>ai for all i. Solve the equation f(x)=x4+x2-2x+6=0 , given that

Since f(x)=0 is a polynomial equation with real coefficients, 1-i is also a root of f(x)=0. By factor theorem,(x-1-i)(x-1+i)=x2-2x+2 is a factor of f(x). by division, f(x)=( x2-2x+2)(x2+2x+3). Roots of x2+2x+3=0 are -1 i. Hence the roots of f(x)=0 are 1 i, -1 i. is a root of multiplicity r of the polynomial T h e o r e m 1 . 7 If a+ equation f(x)=0 with rational coefficients, then a- is a root of multiplicity r of f(x)=0 where a,b are rational and b is not a perfect square of a rational number. Since every polynomial with real coefficients is a continuous function from R to R, we have T h e o r e m 1 . 8 (Intermediate Value Property) Let f(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients and a,b are distinct real numbers such that f(a) and f(b) are of opposite signs. Then f(x)=0 has an odd number of roots between a and b. If f(a) and f(b) are of same sign, then there is an even number of roots of f(x)=0 between a and b.

Example 1.41

Show that for all real values of a, the equation (x+3)(x+1)(x-2)(x-4)+a(x+2)(x-1)(x-3)=0 has all its roots real and simple.

Let f(x)= (x+3)(x+1)(x-2)(x-4)+a(x+2)(x-1)(x-3). Then = , f(-2)<0, f(1)>0, f(3)<0, = . Thus each of the intervals ( ,2),(-2,1),(1,3),(3, ) contains a real root of f(x)=0. Since the equation is of degree 4, all its roots are real and simple.

64

T h e o r e m 1 . 9 (Rolles Theorem) Let f(x) be a polynomial with real coefficients . Between two distinct real roots of f(x)=0 ,there is at least one real root of f(1)(x)=0. Note (1) Between two consecutive real roots of f(1)(x)=0, there is at most one real root of f(x)=0. (2) If all the roots of f(x)=0 be real and distinct, then all the roots of (1)(x)=0 are also real and distinct. f

Example 1.42 Show that the equation f(x)=(x-a)3+(x-b)3+(x-c)3+(xd)3=0, where a,b,c,d are not all equal , has only one real root. Since f(x)=0 is a cubic polynomial equation with real coefficients, f(x)=0 has either one or three real roots. If be a real multiple root of f(x)=0 with multiplicity 3, then is also a real root of f(1)(x)=3[(x-a)2+(x-b)2+(x-c)2+(xd)2]=0, and hence =a=b=c=d (since ,a,b,c,d are real), contradiction. If f(x)=0 has two distinct real roots, then in between should lie a real root of f(1)(x)=0, contradiction since not all of a,b,c,d are equal. Hence f(x)=0 has only one real root.

Example 1.43 Find the range of values of k for which the equation
f(x)=x4+4x3-2x2-12x+k=0 has four real and unequal roots. Roots of f(1)(x)=0 are -3,-1,1. Since all the roots of f(x)=0 are to be real and distinct, they will be separated by the roots of f(1)(x)=0. Now = ,f(-3)=-9+k,f(-1)=7+k,f(1)=-9+k, = . Since f(3)<0, f(-1)>0 and f(1)<0, -7<k<9.

Example 1.44

If c1,c2,,cn be the roots of xn+nax+b=0, prove that (c1-c2)(c1-c3)(c1-cn)=n(c1n-1+a).

By factor theorem, xn+nax+b=(x-c1)(x-c2)(x-cn).Differentiating w.r.t. x, n(xn-1+a)= (x-c2)(x-cn)+(x-c1)(x-c3)(x-cn)++ (x-c2)(x-c3)(xcn).replacing x by c1 in this identity, we obtain the result.

Example 1.45 If a is a double root of f(x)=xn+p1xn-1++pn=0, prove

that a is also a root of p1xn-1+2p2xn-2++npn=0. Since a is a double root of f(x)=0, both f(a)=0 and f(1)(a)=0 hold. Thus an+p1an-1++pn=0 (1) and nan-1+(n-1)p1an-2++pn-1=0(2). Multiplying both
65

side of (1) by n and both side of (2) by a and subtracting, we get p1an1+2p2an-2++npn=0.Hence the result.

Example 1.46 Prove that the equation f(x)=1+x+

have a multiple root.

++ =0 cannot

If a is a multiple root of f(x)=0, then 1+a+ ++ =0 and 1+a+ ++ =0;it thus follows that =0, so that a=0; but 0 is not a root

of given equation. Hence no multiple root. Descartes Rule of signs T h e o r e m 1 . 1 0 The number of positive roots of an equation f(x)=0 with real coefficients does not exceed the number of variations of signs in the sequence of the coefficients of f(x) and if less, it is less by an even number. The number of negative roots of an equation f(x)=0 with real coefficients does not exceed the number of variations of signs in the sequence of the coefficients of f(-x) and if less, it is less by an even number.

Example 1.47

If f(x)=2x3+7x2-2x-3 , express f(x-1) as a polynomial in x. Apply Descartes rule of signs to both the equations f(x)=0 and f(-x)=0 to determine the exact number of positive and negative roots of f(x)=0.

By using method of synthetic division, f(x)=2(x+1)3+(x+1)2-10(x+1)+4. Let g(x)=f(x-1)=2x3+x2-10x+4. By Descartes Rule, g(x)=0 has exactly one negative root, say, c. Thus g(c)=f(c-1)=0; hence c-1(<0) is a negative root of f(x)=0. Since there are 2 variations of signs in the sequence of coefficients of f(-x)and since c-1 is a negative root of f(x)=0, f(x)=0 has two negative roots. Also, f(x)=0 has exactly one positive root ,by Descartes rule. location Sturms Method of location of real roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients Let f be a polynomial with real coefficients and f1 be its first derivative. Let the operation of finding the h.c.f. of f and f1 be performed with the following modifications: The sign of each remainder is to be changed before it is used as the next divisor and the sign of the last remainder is also to be changed. Let the modified remainders be denoted f2,,fr. f,f1,f2,,fr are called Sturms functions. During the process of finding Sturms functions, at

66

any step, we can multiply by positive constant but not by a negative constant. Sturms Theorem T h e o r e m 1 . 1 1 Let f be a polynomial with real coefficients and a,b be real numbers, a<b. The number of real roots of f(x)=0 lying between a and b (a multiple root, if there be any, being counted only once) is equal to the excess of the number of changes of signs in the sequence of Sturms functions f,f1,,fr when x=a over the number of changes of signs in the sequence when x=b.

Example 1.48 Find the number and position of the real roots of the
equation x3-3x+1=0. Let f(x)=x3-3x+1. f(1)(x)=3(x2-1). f1(x)=x2-1.The remainder on dividing f by f1 is -2x+1. Thus f2=2x-1. Dividing 2f1 by f2 (and multiplying by 2 at an intermediate step), the remainder is -3; hence f3 is 1. f 0 + + f1 + + f2 + f3 + + + No.of changes of sign 3 2 0

Hence the equation has 3 real roots,(3-2=)1 negative root and (2-0=)2 positive roots. Location of roots f -2 -1 + f1 + 0 f2 f3 + + No.of changes of sign 3 2(0 to be

treated as continuation) 0 1 2 + + 0 + + + + + + 2 1 0

67

Thus one root lies between -2 and -1; one lies between 0 and 1 and one lies between 1 and 2. Note If at any stage of finding out the sequence of Sturms sequence, we obtain a function all of whose roots are complex, then the h.c.f. process need not be continued further and the determination and location of real roots will be possible from the set of functions f,f1,,fs. This is because fs retains same sign for all values of x and no alteration in the number of changes of sign can take place in the sequence of functions beyond fs.

Example 1.49 Find the number and position of the real roots of the
equation x4+4x3-x2-2x-5=0. f(x)= x4+4x3-x2-2x-5, f1(x)=2x3+6x2-x-1, f2(x)=7x2+2x+9. We can verify all the roots of f2=0 are complex and leading coefficient of f2 is positive; hence f2(x)>0 for all real x. Hence the remaining Sturm functions need not be calculated. f 0 + + f1 + f2 + + + No. of changes of sign 2 1 0

The equation has two real roots, one positive and one negative.

Relations between roots and coefficients

Let c1,,cn be the roots of the equation a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an=0. By factor theorem, a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an=a0(x-c1)(x-c2)(x-cn). Equating coefficients of like powers of x,a1=a0( (-1)nc1c2cn. Hence =- , = ,, c1c2cn=(-1)n . ), a2=a0
,.,an=a0

Example 1.50 Solve the equation 2x3-x2-18x+9=0 if two of the roots

are equal in magnitude but opposite in signs.
68

 Let the roots be -a, a, b .Using relations between roots and coefficients, b=(-a)+a+b= and a2b=- . Hence a2=9, that is, a= 3. Hence the roots are 3,3, .

Example 1.51
A.P.

Solve x3+6x2+11x+6=0 given that the roots are in Symmetric functions of roots

A function f of two or more variables is symmetric if f remains unaltered by an interchange of any two of the variables of which f is a function. A symmetric function of the roots of a plolynomial equation which is sum of a number of terms of the same type is represented by any one of its terms with a sigma notation before it: for example, if a,b,c be the roots of a cubic polynomial, then will stand for a2+b2+c2.

Example 1.52 If a,b,c be the roots of x3+px2+qx+r=0, find the value

of (1) (1) (3) = = , (7) , (2) =( ) , (3) ,(4) =p2-2q, (2) , (4) . = ,(5) ,(6) = -2abc , (5) ,(7) . -3abc=-pq+3r, = , (6)

T h e o r e m 1 . 1 1 ( Newton) Let a1,,an be the roots of xn+p1xn-1+p2xn2++pn=0, sr=a1r++anr where r is a non-negative integer. Then (1) (2) sr+p1sr-1+p2sr-2+.+pr-1s1+rpr=0, if 1 sr+p1sr-1+p2sr-2+.+pnsr-n=0, if r n If a1,a2,a3,a4 be the roots of the equation find the value of (1) , (2) ,(3) .

Example 1.53
x4+p2x2+p3x+p4=0,

(1)By Newtons Theorem, s3+p2s1+3p3=0. Here s1=0.Thus s3=-3p3. (2)By Newtons Theorem, s4+p2s2+p3s1+4p4=0. Here s1=0 and s2=-2p2. Thus s4=2(p22-2p4) (3)s6+p2s4+p3s3+p4s2=0. Hence s6=6p4p2+3p32-2p23.

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Transformation of equations
When a polynomial equation is given, it may be possible , without knowing the individual roots, to obtain a new equation whose roots are connected with those of the given equation by some assigned relation. The method of finding the new equation is said to be a transformation. Study of the transformed equation may throw some light on the nature of roots of the original equation. (1) Let c1,,cn be the roots of a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an=0; to obtain the equation whose roots are mc1,mc2,,mcn. (m=-1 is an interesting case) Let d1=mc1. Since c1 is a root of a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an=0, we have a0c1n+a1c1n-1++an-1c1+an=0. Replacing c1 by d1/m, we get a0d1n+ma1d1n-1+m2a2d1n-2++mn-1an-1d1+mnan=0. Thus the required equation is a0xn+ma1xn-1++mn-1an-1x+mnan=0. (2) Let c1,,cn be the roots of a0xn+a1xn-1++an-1x+an=0 and let c1c2cn 0; to obtain the equation whose roots are .

Let d1= . So c1= . Substituting in a0c1n+a1c1n-1++an-1c1+an=0, we get a0+a1d1+a2d12++an-1d1n-1+an d1n=0. Thus are the roots of

anxn+an-1xn-1++a1x+a0=0. (3) Find the equation whose roots are the roots of f(x)=x48x2+8x+6=0, each diminished by 2. f(x)=(x-2)4+8(x-2)3+16(x-2)2+8(x-2)+6=0(by method of synthetic division). Undertaking the transformation y=x-2, the required equation is y4+8y3+16y2+8y+6=0

Example 1.54 If a,b,c be the roots of the equation x3+qx+r=0, find

the equation whose roots are (1) a2+b2,b2+c2,c2+a2, (3) b+c-2a,c+a-2b,a+b-2c. (1) a(b+c)= =qa(b+c),b(c+a),c(a+b), (2)

=q+ . Thus the transformation is

y=q+ . sustituting x=

in x3+qx+r=0 and simplifying, we obtain the

required equation. (2) a2+b2= -c2=-2 -c2=-2q-c2; hence the transformation is y=-2q-x2, or, x2=-(y+2q). the given equation can be written as x2(x2+q)2=r2; thus the transformed equation is (y+2q)(y+q)2=- r2.
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(3)

b+c-2a=

-3a=-3a; the transformation is y=-3x.

Example 1.55 Obtain the equation whose roots exceed the roots of
x4+3x2+8x+3=0 by 1. Use Descartes Rule of signs to both the equations to find the exact number of real and complex roots of the given equation. Let f(x)= x4+3x2+8x+3=(x+1)4-4(x+1)3+9(x+1)2-2(x+1)-1 (by method of synthetic division). By Descartes rule, f(-x) has two variations of signs in its coefficients and hence f(x)=0 has either two negative roots or no negative roots; also f(x)=0 has no positive root(since there is no variation of signs in the sequence of coefficients of f). Undertaking the transformation y=x+1, f(x)=0 transforms to g(y)=y4-4y3+9y2-2y-1; considering g(-y), by Descrtes Rule, g(y)=0 has a negeative root, say,a. Then f(x)=0 has a-1 as a negative root; the conclusion is f(x)=0 has two negative root, no positive root, does not have 0 as one of its roots and consequently exactly two complex conjugate roots (since coefficients of f are all real).

Example 1.56

Find the equation whose roots are squares of the roots of the equation x4-x3+2x2-x+1=0 and use Descartes rule of signs to the resulting equation to deduce that the given equation has no real root.

The given equation, after squaring, can be written as (x4+2x2+1)2=x2(x2+1)2 ; undertaking the transformation y=x2, the transformed equation is (y2+2y+1)2=y(y+1)2, that is, y4+3y3+4y2+3y+1=0. The transformed equation, whose roots are squares of the roots of the original equation, has no nonnegative root by Descartes Rule of signs; hence the original equation has no real root.

Example 1.57

The roots of the equation x3+px2+qx+r=0 are a,b,c. Find the equation whose roots are a+b-2c,b+c-2a,c+a-2b. Deduce the condition that the roots of the given equation may be in A.P.

a+b-2c= =-p-3c. We undertake a transformation y=-p-3x, or,x= . Thus the equation whose roots are a+b-2c,b+c-2a,c+a-2b is (y+p)3-3p(y+p)2+9q(y+p)-27r=0. If the roots of given equation are in A.P., at least one root of transformed equation is zero, that is , the product of all the roots of the transformed equation is 0. Hence the condition is 2p39pq+27r=0.

Example 1.58 Find the equation whose roots are cube of the roots
of the equation x3+4x2+1=0.
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Let the roots of the given equation be a,b,c. Then x3+4x2+1=(x-a)(x-b)(x-c). In this identity, we replace x by xw and xw2, where w is the imaginary cube roots of unity, to obtain x3+1+4x2=(x-a)(x-b)(x-c) x3+1+4x2w2=(xw-a)(xw-b)(xw-c)=(x-aw2)(x-bw2)(x-cw2) x3+1+4x2w=(xw2-a)(xw2-b)(xw2-c)=(x-aw)(x-bw)(x-cw) Multiplying respective sides, (x3+1)3+(4x2)3=(x3-a3)(x3-b3)(x3-c3). Undertaking the transformation y=x3, (y+1)3+4y2=(y-a3)(y-b3)(y-c3). Thus the equation whose roots are a3,b3,c3 is (y+1)3+4y2=0, or, y3+7y2+3y+1=0.

Cardans Method of solving a cubic equation

Example 1.59 Solve the equation:x3-15x2-33x+847=0.
Step 1 To transform the equation into one which lacks the second degree term. Let x=y+h. The transformed equation is y3+(3h-15)y2+(3h2-30h-33)y+(h315h2-33h+847)=0. Equating coefficient of y2 to zero, h=5. Thus the transformed equation is y3-108y+432=0 (*) Step 2 Cardans Method Let a=u+v be a solution of (*). Then a3-108a+432=0 . also a3=u3+v3+3uv(u+v)= u3+v3+3uva; so a3-3uva-(u3+v3)=0. Comparing, uv=36 and u3+v3=-432. Hence u3 and v3 are the roots of t2+432t+363=0. Hence u3=216=v3. The three values of u are -6,-6w and -6w2, where w is an imaginarycube roots of unite. Since uv=36, the corresponding values of v are -6,-6w2,-6w. Thus the roots of (*) are -12,6,6 and thus the roots of the given equation are (using x=y+5) -7,11,11.

Example 1.60 Solve the equation:x3+3x+1=0.

FERRARIS METHOD OF SOLVING A BIQUADRATIC EQUATION We try to write down the given biquadratic equation ax4+4bx3+6cx2+4dx+e=0 in the form (ax2+2bx+p)2-(mx+n)2=0; equating
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coefficients of like powers of x, we get p,m,n; in the process we express the given biquadratic expression as product of two quadratic expressions and hence solve the given equation.

Example 1.61

Solve the equation x4-10x3+35x2-50 x+24=0.

We try to find p,m,n such that the given equation can be written in the form (x2-5x+p)2-(mx+n)2=0. Equating coefficients of like powers of x, we get 35=25+2p-m2,-50=-10p-2mn and 24=p2-n2. Eliminating m and n, (p2-24)(2p-10)=m2n2=(5p-25)2 (*) p=5 is a solution of (*), hence m=0,n= 1. Thus the given equation is (x25x+5)2-1=0, that is, (x2-5x+6)(x2-5x+4)=0. Hence the roots of given equation are 1,2,3,4.

Example 1.62 Solve the equation x4+12x-5=0.

We try to find p,m,n such that the given equation can be written in the form (x2+p)2-(mx+n)2=0; equating coefficients of like powers of x, we get p2-n2=-5, 2mn=-12,2p-m2=0. Eliminating m,n, we get 36=m2n2=(p2+5)2p; hence p=2. Thus m= 2, n= 3. Since mn=-6<0, we take m=2, n=-3. Thus the given equation can be written in the form (x2+2)2-(2x-3)2=0, that is, x2+2x5=0 and x2-2x+5=0. Hence the roots of given equation are -1 , 1 2i.

CHAPTER III

INEQUALITIES
I1(Weierstrass) If a1,,an are all positive real numbers less than 1 and sn=a1++an, then 1-sn<(1-a1)(1-an)< and 1+sn<(1+a1)(1+an)< .

I2(Cauchy-Schwarz) If a1,,an and b1,,bn be real numbers , then (a12++an2)(b12++bn2) (a1b1++anbn)2, equality occurs when ai=kbi for all i for some non-zero real k or when ai=0 for all I or bi=0 for all i. I3If a1,,an be n positive real numbers, not all equal, and p,q are rational numbers, then > or

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<

according as p and q have the same or

opposite signs. I4(A.M.,G.M.,H.M.)If a1,,an be n positive real numbers, then . I5(Weighted A.M.,G.M.,H.M.)If a1,,an be n positive real numbers and p1,,pn be n positive rational numbers, then . I6If a>0,a 1, and x,y are positive rational numbers, then if x>y. I7If a >0,a 1 and m be a rational number, then am-1> or <m(a-1) according as m does not or does lie between 0 and 1. I8If a1,,an be n positive real numbers, not all equal, and m be a rational number, then according as m does not or does lie between 0 and 1. I9(Holder) If a1,,an; b1,,bn;.;l1,,ln be m sets of positive real numbers each containing n members and if be positive =1, then rational numbers such that . I10(Jensen) Let a1,,an be n positive real numbers and r,s are positive rational numbers. Then (a1r++anr)1/r>(a1s++ans)1/s, if r<s. I11(Minkowski)Let a1,,an and b1,,bn be all positive real numbers and r is a positive rational number. Then r++anr)1/r+(b1r++bnr)1/r [(a1+b1)r++(an+bn)r]1/r, when r>1. (a1 (a1r++anr)1/r+(b1r++bnr)1/r [(a1+b1)r++(an+bn)r]1/r, when 0<r<1.

EXAMPLES
1. If a,b,c be all real numbers, prove that a2+b2+c2 ab+bc+ca a2+b2+c2 ab+bc+ca)=1/2[(a-b)2+(b-c)2+(c-a)2] 0. 2. If a,b,c be positive real numbers, prove that

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2(a2+b2)=(a+b)2+(a-b)2 (a+b)2. and

Hence

Similarly

. Adding respective sides, we get the

result. 3. If a,b,c be all positive real numbers and n be a positive rational number, prove that an(a-b)(a-c)+bn(b-a)(b-c)+cn(c-a)(c-b) 0. If a=b=c, nothing remains to prove. If a=b c, LHS equals cn(c-a)2>0. Next, let no two of a,b,c are equal. Since the expression on the left is symmetric in a,b,c, we can assume without loss of generality a>b>c. Then an(a-b)(a-c)+bn(b-a)(b-c)=(a-b)[an(a-c)-bn(b-c)]>0 (since a>b and n positive). Also cn(c-a)(c-b)>0. Hence an(a-b)(a-c)+bn(b-a)(bc)+cn(c-a)(c-b) 0. 4. If a,b,c,d be positive real numbers, not all equal, prove that (a+b+c+d)( >16. By I3, 5. If n be a positive integer, prove that By = Weierstrass inequality, . Hence. .

. Hence the result.

6. If n>1, prove (1+2++n)(1+ By I3, prove that a1< a1= . > <an. . =1. Hence.

7. If a1,,an be n positive real numbers in ascending order of magnitude,

8. If a,b,c be real numbers, prove that (a+b-c)2+(b+c-a)2+(c+ab)2 ab+bc+ca. LHS= 3(a2+b2+c2)-2(ab+bc+ca) 3(ab+bc+ca)2(ab+bc+ca)=ab+bc+ca. 9. If a,b,c,x,y,z are real numbers and a2+b2+c2=1=x2+y2+z2, prove that 1 ax+by+cz 1. By Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, (ax+by+cz)2 ( a2+b2+c2)( x2+y2+z2)=1. Hence. 10. If a,b,c be positive real numbers, prove .

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 11. 12. .

. Hence the result. If a,b,c be positive real numbers, prove . Hence. If a,b,c be positive real numbers, 3.

. Hence Again, . 13. If a,b,c be positive real numbers, , . Hence

> , unless

a=b=c. = >1. Hence 14. >3> .

If a,b,c be positive real numbers and a+b+c=1, prove

. Hence the result. 15. If a,b,c be positive real numbers and a+b+c=1, prove that

> 1)= >

(by I8, since m=2 does not lie between 0 and

=9. Hence the result. real numbers, prove that

16. If a,b,c,d are positive 6+b6+c6+d6 abcd(a2+b2+c2+d2). a . (a2+b2+c2+d2). Hence.

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17. If a,b,c,d are positive real 4)(1+b4)(1+c4)(1+d4) (1+abcd)4. (1+a By Holders inequality,

numbers,

prove

that ]

[1.1.1.1+

. Hence. If a,b,c,d are four positive real 18. 4+b4+c4+d4) (a+b+c+d)(a3+b3+c3+d3) 16abcd. 4(a . Thus 4

numbers,

19. If a,b,c,d be positive and s=a+b+c+d, then 81abcd (s-a)(s-b)(ss4. c)(s-d) = . Hence (s-a)(sb)(s-c)(s-d) Again, s4. . Similarly others. Hence 81abcd (s-a)(s-

b)(s-c)(s-d). 20. If a,b,c,d be positive and s=a+b+c+d, then . . Adding similar terms, . 21. n= n= 22. Again, . If n be a positive integer >1, then nn>1.3.5(2n-1) , ,,n= If n be a positive integer >1, prove that . Thus ,, 23. . Hence ,n= > . . Hence

. Multiplying respective sides, we get the result.

. Multiplying respective sides, we get the result. If n be a positive integer, prove . Hence the result. .

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24.

If n be a positive integer, prove Let a=1, m= from am-1 m(a-1), we get Hence .

25.

If a1,,an be positive and s=a1++an, prove that . = = . Hence.

26.

If a,b,c be positive rational, prove . = . Hence.

27.

If a,b,c are positive rationals,(a+b)c(b+c)a(c+a)b< , unless a=b=c.

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79