B.

Tech 1
st
SEMESTER/ 2
nd
SEMESTER
CHEMISTRY-I
MODULE-I
STRUCTURE AND BONDING

BY:
B. Muni
Module-I
(Structure & Bonding)
Learning Objectives-:
1. Failure of Classical Mechanics. 2. Plancks quantum
theory of radiation 3. Wave- particle duality of material
particles. 4. The uncertainty principle. 5. Schrodingers
wave equation. 6. Interpretation of 7. Wave mechanical
treatment of covalent bond. 8. The Molecular Orbital
theory. 9. Molecular Orbital treatment of homo-nuclear diatomic
molecules. 10. Molecular Orbital treatment of hetero-
nuclear diatomic molecules. 11. Metallic bond
1. Failure of Classical Mechanics:-
Classical mechanics is the theory of mechanics dealing with the
relationship between force and motion for large objects based on Newtons
laws of motion. According to classical mechanics-:
An object travels in a path with precise position and momentum at each
instant.
Any type of particle can be exited to a state of arbitrary energy.
Particle and wave natures are quite distinct concepts.
From the above facts, it is clear that movement of body is related to
kinematics and dynamics with reference to speed, momentum, angle, time
period, distance covered etc. In other words classical mechanics in fact only
an approximate description of the motion of the particles and the
approximation is invalid when it is applied to microscopic particles like
molecules, atoms, electrons etc. Some of the important phenomenon where
classical mechanics is fails to explain the facts are black body radiations,
Photo-electric effects, Atomic and molecular spectra etc.
(a) BlackBody radiation:-
A black body is an object which is capable of emitting and
absorbing all frequencies of radiation uniformly such as an empty
closed, heated container having a pin hole.

A hot object emits electromagnetic radiation because its atoms
and electrons are ceaselessly being accelerated. The atoms vibrate
around their mean position and their electrons are moved from location
to location. At high temperature an appreciable portion of the radiation
is in the visible region of the spectrum and as the temperature is
further raised, a higher proportion of short wave length blue light is
generated.
2
From the above observation it is found that:-
(i) The shorter wavelength contributes more to the energy density
(total energy/volume of black body) as the temperature is raised and
hence the prescribed colour shifts towards blue. This shift was
summarised by Wilhelm Wien in a statement known as Wiens
displacement law which states that: - The wavelength corresponding to
the maximum contribution to the energy density (max) is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature T Mathematically:

max

T
1

max
T = Constant -------------------(1)
Where the value of constant is 0.29 x 10
-2
mk
(ii) As temperature raised a sharp rise in the emittance (Power i.e.
rate of energy output divided by the surface area). This feature was
noticed by Josef Stefan and he established a law called Stefan
Boltzmans law which states that: - The total rate at which a black body
emits heat radiation is proportional to the forth power of its absolute
temperature. Mathematically:-
E

T
4
or E =

T
4
-------------------- (2)
Where E is the emittance, T is the absolute temperature and

is the
proportionality constant known as Stefans constant and is equal to
56.7 x 10
-9
wm
-2
k
-4
Explanation of Black-body radiation on the basis of classical
mechanics
Considering the oscillatory electromagnetic waves within the
cavity, Rayleigh and Jeans calculated the contribution to the energy
density in a wave length range of width to classically. According to
them: - Energy density in the wave length range to + is given by

4
8 kT

-------- (3)
From equation (3) it is clear that as decreases, the energy density in
the cavity and hence the power emitted per unit area increases towards
infinity and never passes through a maximum and that oscillators of
very short wave length are strongly excited even at normal room
temperature. Thus according to classical mechanics:-
Even cool objects should radiate in the visible and ultra violate
range.
3
Objects should glow in the dark; in fact there should be no
darkness.
On striking a match-stick, the surrounding should be blasted.
The observed result implies that a large amount of energy is
radiated in the high frequency range of the electro magnetic
radiation and it predicts an infinite intensity at very short
wavelength, while the experimental results always remain finite
and go to 0 as goes to 0.
(b) Photo electric effect:
The phenomena of ejection of electrons from metals when they
are exposed to U.V radiation are called photo electric effect. The
emitted electrons are known as photo electrons. The characteristic
of photo-electric effect are:
Light of any frequency is not able to cause emission of electrons
from the metal surface. There is certain minimum frequency,
called threshold frequency which can just cause the ejection of
electrons, below which there is no photo-electric emission,
regardless of the intensity of the radiation.
The K.E. of the emitted photo-electrons increases linearly with the
frequency of the incident radiation but is independent of the
intensity of the radiation.
The number of photoelectrons emitted is directly proportional to
the intensity of the incident radiation.
If the frequency is above threshold, electros are immediately
ejected even at low intensities. That is photoelectric emission in
instantaneous.
Explanation of Photo electric effect on the basis of
classical mechanics:-
In classical theory light is considered as electro-magnetic wave.
Thus light of higher intensity has higher electric field. This means
light of higher intensity must impart larger K.E. to the liberated
photo-electrons, but experimentally it is not happening.
2. PLANCKS QUANTUM THEORY OF RADIATION-:
According to Max Planck:-
Radiant energy is not emitted or absorbed continuously but
discontinuously in tiny packets of energy known as quanta or
photon.
Each quantum is associated with a definite amount of energy E=h ,
where E is the energy in joules and is the frequency of radiation in
S
-1
and h is fundamental constant known as Plancks constant and its
value is 6.62x10
-34
js.
c h
c
h h E

(4)
A body can emit or absorb energy in whole number multiplies of
quantum i.e. nh E , (where
n
=1, 2, 3.) i.e. energy in fraction of
a quantum cant be lost or absorbed. This is known as quantisation
of energy.
Explanation of Black-Body radiation on the basis of quantum
theory:-
Based on his theory Plank obtained the equation of energy
density of black body radiation as:
d =

,
_

1
1 8
5
kt
hc
e
hc
(5)
4
From the above equation

it is found that as approaches zero,
kt
hc

approaches and
e
kt
hc

approaches infinite too faster than

5

approaches zero. Therefore the denominator in the Planks formula
becomes and so the expression it self approaches zero. Hence the
energy distribution approaches zero at high frequency and hence
eliminates the u.v. catastrophe.
Explanation of photoelectric effect on the basis of quantum
theory
Einstein explained the phenomena of photo-electric effect on the
basis of quantum theory. According to him:--
A light wave consist of bundles of energy known as quanta or photon,
the energy of each photon being equal to h , when a photon of lights
of frequency
0

(threshold frequency) strikes an electron in a metal, it

imparts its entire energy
) (

h
to the electron. This energy enables the
electron to break away from he atom by overcoming the attractive
influence of the nucleus, thus each photon can eject one electron.
If the frequency of light is less than 0

, there will be no ejection of

electron.
If the frequency of light is higher than 0

let it be

, then the energy

) ( h
is utilised in two ways. One part of the energy is used to ejecting
out of electron from the metal surface this minimum energy is
known as work function

.The remaining part of the energy is used to

provide K.E. to the ejected photoelectrons. Thus
Energy of photon ( h ) = work function (
0
h
) + K.E. of the ejected
photo electron (
2
2
1
mu ).. (6)

) 7 ....( .......... )......... ( . ) (
2
1
0 0
2
h E K h h mu
Equation (6) and (7) are known as Einsteins photoelectric
equation. From the equation (7)-:
It is clear that if 0
<
; K.E. will become negative which is not possible.
Thus photoelectron emission will not be possible for incident radiation
having frequency less than
0

(fig-3).
Figure-3
If 0
>
, then K.E

. Thus K.E. of photo electrons depends upon the
frequency of incident radiation.
Each photon ejects one photoelectron from a metal surface. Thus
number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to the number of
photons falling on the surface of metal, which in turn depends on the
intensity of incident light.
5
3. Wave-particle duality of material particles :-( The de-
Broglie relation)
The quantisation of energy in an atom as per Bohr was considered to be
quite arbitrary as there was no reason as to why a discrete set of energy
values were allowed for the electron in the atom. Quantisation however is
inherent in wave motion. Such consideration leads Louis de Broglie to
propose that-: the quantisation of energy in an atom can be explained if one
considered that some sort of wave motion was associated with electronic
motion. That is the electron exhibit the dual behavior of particles and waves.
It is not only electrons but also all other forms of matter like protons,
neutrons, atoms, molecules etc. have dual character. Consider a photon
having energy=E
According to Planck:-

hc
h E
According to Einstein: - E=mC
2
mc
h
or mc
hc


2
Or
mc
h
or
h
mc

1

) 8 ........( ..........
p
h
mv
h
mc
h

Experimental verification of de-Broglie relationship-:
Let an electro of charge e is accelerated by an applied potential
V, then its K.E. is given by: K.E. = Ve. Also K.E. =
2
1
mu
2

m
Ve
U Ve mu
2
,
2
1
2
Putting the value of u in the de-Broglie relation
) 9 ..( ..........
2 2 Vem
h
m
ve
m
h

V gm u s e
erg

28 10
27
10 1 . 9 . . 10 80 . 4 2
sec 10 62 . 6

V
cm
8
10 708 . 0

If the potential is varied between 10 and 10,000 volts, varies
between 0.1226 A
0
and 3.877 A
0
such wavelength falls upper X-ray region.
The wave nature of electron was confirmed experimentally by Davisson
and Germer while the particle nature was proved by scintillation
experiment.
Significance of de-Broglie equation- :
Since electron has a wave character, the electron waves can be
considered to move in a circle. According to Bohr only those orbits are
allowed for the movement of electrons for which angular momentum is
an integral multiple of
2
h
.Thus
mv
nh
r
nh
mvr

2
2
According to de-Broglie,
mv
h


) 10 ......( .......... 2 h r

From the above equation it is found that, integral number of
wavelength can be accommodated in Bohrs orbit having
circumference 2r. This means that there will be always a whole
number of waves in an orbit, the electrons will move in a circular path
and electrons are said to be in phase. When circumference of the orbit
is not a whole number multiple of or the mvr is not a whole number
6
multiple of
2
h
the electron will not move in a circular path and the
electrons are said to be out of phase. Thus dual nature of electron
confirmed the nature of motion of electron in an orbit.
The wave character of large objects has no practical significant. It is
because their wavelength is too small to be observed while the wave
character of microscopic particles in motion has practical significance. It
is because their wavelength is easily observed.
From the above discussion of de-Broglie the moving microscopic
particles because of their wave character are associated with waves
called as matter waves. Such matter waves:-
Are not associated with electric and magnetic fields.
Cant pass through vacuum.
Travels with different velocities as these are associated with different
particles and the velocity is less than that of light.
4. The uncertainty principle:-
According to Heisenberg It is impossible to measure simultaneously
both the position and velocity or momentum of a microscopic moving particle
such as electron with certainty. Mathematically : the product of uncertainty
in position
( ) x
and uncertainty in momentum
px
is approximately
equals to
4
h

) 11 .......( .......... ..........
4
.

h
px x

Where, x is the uncertainty in position along X direction
px
is the
uncertainty in momentum along X- direction. The constancy of the products
of uncertainties means that two are inversely proportional to each other. Thus
if the position of an electro is known with certainty, its momentum cant be
known with certainty and vice-versa. Similarly
4
.
4
.
h
pz z and
h
py y
where,
pz py z y , , ,
are the
uncertainty in position and momentum of the particle along Y and Z axis
respectively (fig-4).
For a particle of mass m moving with a velocity (V) the product of
uncertainty becomes-:
) 12 .......( .......... ..........
4
.
4
.
m
h
Vx x
h
Vx m x



(Figure-4)
7
Significances of uncertainty principle:-
It has no significance for macroscopic objects. It is because the product
of X and PX for such objects is too small that can be neglected.
The principle cant be neglected in case of microscopic particles. It is
because X and PX for such objects is appreciable and cant be
ignored.
As according to this principle, it is not possible to determine the exact
position of electron, hence Bohrs definite orbit has no meaning. The
best we can do is to speak of the probability of finding an electron with
a probable velocity rather than a path for it. Thus the electron levels in
an atom can be imagined in terms of regions around the nucleus where
probability of finding the electron is high.
Electron cannot exist within the nucleus
5. Schrodingers wave equation:-
Basing upon the de-Broglie concept, Heisenbergs uncertainty principle
and Bohrs fixed orbits, Schrodinger derived a mathematical differential
equation which is known as Schrodinger's wave equation. The solution of this
wave equation gives the electron distribution in space as well as the allowed
energy levels of a particle moving in a given field.
Considering the particle nature of electron, the wave motion of a
particle along the X-axis can be represented by the following classical wave
equation:-
) 13 ...( .......... ,.........
2
x ASin
,
_

Where,

= Wave function, A = Maximum value of , = Wave length of the

standing wave traveling along X-axis and
x
= Distance of the particle from
the nucleus.
Differentiating

with respect to
x
x ACos
dx
d

,
_

2

,
_

2
=
x Cos
A

,
_

2 2
Again differentiating:-

x Cos
A
dx
d
dx
d

,
_

2 2
2
2
=
1
]
1

,
_

2
.
2 2
x Sin
A
.
4
2
2
A

.
x Sin
,
_

2

2
2
dx
d

2
2
4
Or
2
2
dx
d
+

2
2
4
= 0 -------------------- (14)
The eqn. (14) represents the wave motion of the electron along X axis only.
If the electron is considered to move along X, Y & Z axis then-:

2
2
2
2
2
2
dz
d
dy
d
dx
d
+ +
+

2
2
4
= 0
Or
0
4
2
2
2
+

-------- (15), Where

2
is known as the Laplecian operator
and
2
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
dz
d
dy
d
dx
d
+ +
From de-Broglie:
2 2
2
2
2 2
2
2
. .
2
2
1 1
h
m
E K
h
m
X mv
h
v m
mv
h

Putting the value of

2
1

in equation (15),
8

( ) ) 16 .....( .......... )......... . . ( 0
8
, 0 . .
8
0
2
. . 4
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
E P E K asE V E
h
m
or
E K
h
m
h
m
E K
+ +
+ +

Or
8 8
2
2
2
2
2 2

E V
m
h
V E
m
h
+

Or

E V
m
h

,
_

2
2
2
8

E H
------------------- (17)
(Where
H

is known as Hamiltonian operator)

The equation (16) and (17) are the two different forms of Schrodingers wave
equation and represents both the particle & wave properties.
Significance of wave function:-
The wave function is a solution to Schrodinger equation. It
represents amplitude of wave and describes how this amplitude varies with
distance and direction. The Schrodinger wave equation has many solutions as
it is a second order differential equation i.e. many values for

is possible.
Out of which some are imaginary and invalid. Thus all values of

may not
be significant. The significant values of

are known as eigen functions.

The significant values of

gives significant values of total energy E of the

electron and the values are called eigen values. The significant or acceptable
wave function must satisfy the following conditions-:

must be finite and single valued, i.e. for each value of the variables
x, y, z there is only one value of

()=

( +2n)

and its first derivative with respect to its variable must be
continuous. i.e.

&
dx
d
is a continuous function of x.
For bound states

must remain at .

must be normalised, i.e.

+

1
2
dx
, i.e. probability of finding the
electron around the nucleus from - to + in the space must be
unity.
6. Interpretation of :-
Though has no any physical interpretation a physical interpretation is
given to

2
(If

is real) or

(If

is complex) the product

function

is always a real quantity.

Let

= Ae
-2x
, then

* = A* e
-2x
and

* = Ae
-2x
XA*e
-2x
=
2
A
For a particle wave, if a particle is moving in one direction
2
or
*

represents the probability of finding it within unit distance. In an
infinitesimal interval dx around a point the probability is dx
2
or
*
dx.
Normalisation of wave function-:
If
2
dx or *dx represents the probability of finding the particle
at any point y, then the integration over the entire range of possible
location i.e. the total probability must be unity because the particle has to
be somewhere within that range. Mathematically-:

1
2
dx
Or

1
*
dx
.. (18)
In three dimension
1
2

d

) , , ( dz dy dx d
---------- (19)
9
Wave function which satisfies the equation (18) & (19) is called a
normalised wave function and the condition is called normalization
condition, which must be satisfying every significant wave function.
If after solving Schrodinger equation, the wave function does not satisfy
the equation (18), it must be multiplied by a factor, called the normalization
factor. Ex- If
) (x
is a function and

c dx
2

{ 1 c } then the
normalization factor will be
c
1
and the normalised wave function will be
) (
1
x
c

.
Condition of orthogonality-:
For any two wave function
i

and j

corresponding to the
energy values E
i
and E
j
respectively, the following condition must be
fulfilled

0

d
j i ------ (20)
such condition is called the condition or orthogonality of the wave
function. The function
i

and j

are said to be orthogonal.

Combining the condition of normalisation & orthogonally
) 21 .( .......... .......... , 0 , 1 j i for d and j i for d
j i j i


Wave function satisfying equation (21) are said to be form ortho-normal
set of wave function.
10
7. Wave mechanical treatment of covalent bond:-
According to Lewis a covalent bond is formed by mutual sharing of
electrons between the participating atoms. This concept satisfactorily
explains the bonding between atoms all of which have tendency to gain
electrons in order to acquire the stable noble gas configuration. It also
explains the polarity of covalent bond. However it fails to explain the
following things:-
How electrons are arranged in molecules?
What are the forces of attractive interaction in a molecule?
What is the concept of bond energy?
In order to overcome the said difficulties, wave mechanical model of
covalent bond comes in to play. It gives two comprehensive theories
which are Valence bond theory and Molecular orbital theory
The VBT: -
According to valence bond theory:-
A molecule is considered to be form the overlapping of atomic orbital
containing unpaired electrons.
Molecule is composed of atoms which retain their individual character
when linked to the other atoms.
The atomic orbital overlapping with each other must have the same
symmetry and the same energy.
The developing of atomic orbital forms two types of bonds one of
which is bond (by head-on overlap) and other is bond (by side wise
overlap)fig-5.
Figure-5
11
Limitation of VBT:-
It gives no explanation for the formation of co-ordinate covalent
bond.
O
2
molecules must be digenetic as no unpaired electrons are there
but actually it is paramagnetic.
No explanation for formation of odd electron molecules on ions such
as H
2+
where no pairing of electros occurs.
8. The Molecular orbital Theory:-
According to MOT, the molecule can be treated in the same way as an
atom, except that in the molecule an electron moves in the field of more than
one nucleus depending upon the number of atoms contained in the molecule.
Thus atomic orbitals are mono-centric while molecular orbitals are poly-
centric. The molecular orbitals can be formed by the linear combination of
atomic orbital (LCAO).
The LCAO approximation:-
Atomic orbital having similar in magnitude or roughly of same energy
overlaps one another as much as possible. If A and B are two atomic orbital
having the wave functions
A
&
B
respectively, then the molecular orbital
obtained from the linear combination of
A
&
B
is given by:-
B A t
-------------------(22)
i.e. The combination of
A
&
B
gives two MOs of which one is represented
as
b
and the other as *(fig-6).
B A
b
+ ---------------(23)
B A
*
----------------(24)
If we see for the electronic charge distribution , then :
B A B A b 2 ) (
2 2 2
+ + ------------(25)
B A B A 2 ) (
2 2 2 *
+ ------------(26)
Figure-6
i.e. the electronic charge
density is more in
b
and less in *,
this is due to the addition and
12
subtraction of wave functions
A
&
B
respectively. Due to more electronic
charge density the
b
is having less
energy as compared to *(fig-7).
Figure-7
The various molecular orbitals
formed by the combination of their
respective atomic orbitals are as
follows -:
Atomic
orbital
s
Atomic
orbital
s
Bondin
g Mo
Anti
bonding
Mo
1s 1s s 1
*
1s
2s 2s s 2
*
2s
z
p 2
z
p 2
z
p 2
z
p 2 * (z
-axis is
the
inter-
nuclear
axis)
x
p 2
x
p 2
x
p 2
x
p 2 *
y
p 2
y
p 2
y
p 2
y
p 2 *
x
p 2
and y
p 2
are degenerate
orbitals. Similarly
x
p 2 *
and y
p 2 *
are also degenerate orbital.
9. Molecular orbital treatment
of Homo-nuclear diatomic
molecule:-
Like in an atom, the electron
are belong to varying energy levels in
a molecule also the electrons are
belong to varying energy level and
can be defined by four quantum
numbers.
The principle quantum number
and the subsidiary quantum numbers
have the same significance as in
atomic orbital.
The magnetic quantum number
is replaced by a new quantum
number . In a diatomic molecule,
the line joining the nucleus is taken
as a reference direction and
represents the quantisation of
angular momentum in
2
h
units with
respect to their axis. takes the
same value as m takes for atoms.
=-l ...-3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2+l.
When =0, the orbitals are
symmetrical around the axis and are
called orbital, when = 1 t , they
are called

orbital and when= 2 t

they are called orbitals and so on.
13
The maximum number of
electron that can be stay in a
molecular orbital is only two.
In order to fill the
electrons in molecular orbitals-:
First the electrons of both atoms
are summed up and are fed into
various molecular orbitals following
Paulis exclusion principle, aufbau
Principle and Hunds rule. i.e. there
cant be more tan two electron in a
molecular orbital , orbital with lower
energy fills first and pairing of
electrons in degenerate orbitals will
not be possible until all available
orbitals contains one electron each.
The order of energies of
different molecules are :
s 1 < s 1 * < s 2 < s 2 * <
py px 2 2
<
pz 2
<
py px 2 * 2 *
<
pz 2 *
(up to N
2
)
and s 1 < s 1 * < s 2 < s 2 * <
pz 2
<
py px 2 2
<
py px * 2 *
<
pz 2 *
(beyond N
2
).
Prediction of character of
molecules on the basis of
MOT:-
If there is presence of unpaired
electros in any molecular orbital,
then the molecule is paramagnetic.
If N
b
> N
a
, the molecule is
stable, N
b
< N
a
molecule is unstable
and if N
b
= N
a
, the molecule does not
exist. Where N
b
is the number of
electrons in Bonding M.O. and N
a
is
the number of electrons in anti-
bonding molecular orbital.
B.o of a molecule = (N
b
N
a
).
The molecular energy level
diagram for molecules in general
will be (fig-8):-
Figure-8

(1) The H
2
Molecule:-
1
H - 1s
1
1s
1
H
1,
Total number of electron in H
2
=1+1=2
Electronic configuration ofH
2
= 1s
2
,
( ) ( ) 1 0 2
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - Diamagnetic,
Stability:-Stable.
(2) Li
2
Molecule:-
3
Li - 1s
2
, 2s
1
2s
1
, 1s
2
- Li
3
Total number of electron in Li
2
=
3+3=6
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
or kk, 2s
2
( ) ( ) 1 2 4
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - Diamagnetic
Stability:-Stable.
(3) B
2
Molecule:-

5
B: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2p
1
, 2p
1
, 2s
2
, 1s
2
-B
5
Total number of electron in B
2
=5+5=10
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2px
1
=2py
1
( ) ( ) 1 4 6
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B

Character: - paramagnetic
14
Stability:-Stable.
Figure-9(a)
Figure-9(c)
Figure-9(b)
Figure-9(d)
15
Figure-9(e)
(4)C
2
Molecule:-
6
C: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, , 2p
2
2p
2,
2s
2
, 1s
2
-C
6
Total number of electron in C
2
=6+6=12
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2px
2
=2py
2
( ) ( ) 2 4 8
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - Diamagnetic
Stability:-Stable
(5)N
2
Molecule:-
7
N: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2p
3
2p
3
,

2s
2
, 1s
2
-N
7
Total number of electron in N
2
=7+7=14
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2px
2
=
2py
2
, 2pz
2
( ) ( ) 3 4 10
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - Diamagnetic
Stability:-Stable
(6)O
2
Molecule:-
8
O: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2px
2
, 2py
1
, 2pz
1

2pz
1
2py
1
, 2px
2
, 2s
2
, 1s
2
- O
8
Total number of electron in N
2
=8+8=16
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2pz
2
2px
2
=2py
2
,*2px
1
= *2py
1
( ) ( ) 2 6 10
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - paramagnetic
Stability:-Stable
Figure-9(f)
(7)F
2
Molecule:-
9
F: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2px
2
, 2py
2
, 2pz
1

2pz
1,
2py
2
, 2px
2
,

2s
2
, 1s
2
- F
9
Total number of electron in N
2
=9+9=18
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2pz
2
2px
2
=2py
2
,*2px
2
= *2py
2
( ) ( ) 1 8 10
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - Diamagnetic
Sability:-Stable
16
E
E
Note-:
The molecules He
2
, Be
2
cant
exist as their N
b
=N
a
and hence the
B.O. is zero.
He
2
= 2+2=4 E.C = 1s
2
, *1s
2
,
( ) ( ) 0 2 2
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Be
2
= 4+4=8, E.C. = 1s
2
, *1s
2
,
2s
2
,
*2s
2
,
( ) ( ) 0 4 4
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Higher the bond order less will be the
bond length and more will be the
stability.
10. Molecular orbital treatment
of
Hetero nuclear diatomic
molecules:
(a) The NO molecule-:
7
N: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2p
3

8
O: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2px
2
, 2py
1
, 2pz
1

Total number of electron in NO
=7+8=15
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2pz
2
2px
2
=2py
2
,*2px
1
= *2py
0
( ) ( ) 5 . 2 5 10
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - paramagnetic
Stability:-Stable
Figure-9(g)
Figure-9(h)
(b)The CO molecule-:
6
C: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2p
2

8
O: - 1s
2
, 2s
2
, 2px
2
, 2py
1
, 2pz
1

Total number of electron in CO
=6+8=14
E.C:- 1s
2
, *1s
2
, 2s
2
, *2s
2,
2px
2
=
2py
2
, 2pz
2
( ) ( ) 3 4 10
2
1
2
1
.
a b
N N O B
Character: - Diamagnetic
Stability:-Stable
11. Metallic bond-:
It has been observed that
metals generally have low ionisation
energies because the valency
electrons can be taken out relatively
easily. This implies that valency
electrons in metals loosely band to
the kernel. In other wards, there can
be complete freedom of movement of
electrons in the vacant valency
orbitals around the nucleus. The
valency electrons of metallic atoms
thus are not localised at each atom.
They do not belong to one atom in
particular. They are mobile and move
about from one kernel to another in
the crystal. According to electron Sea
model given by A.A Lorentz, a metal
behaves as if it is an assemblage of
positive ions (Kernels) immersed in a
17
sea of mobile electrons. Thus each
electron belongs to a number of
positive ions and each positive ion
belongs to a number of electrons and
the force that binds a metal atom to a
number of electrons within its sphere
of influence is known as metallic bond
Figure10.
Figure-10

18