JACINTA WANJIRU 056601 SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Systematic sampling is a random sampling technique which is frequently chosen by researchers for its simplicity and its periodic quality. by Joan Joseph Castillo (2009) In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or subject from the population. Then, the researcher will select each nth subject from the list. The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done manually and the results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of the population are repeated for every nth individual which is highly unlikely. Consider the following example: We were to sample a planned neighborhood where each street has ten houses on each block. This places houses #1, 10, 11, 20, 21, 30... on block corners; corner blocks may be less valuable, since more of their area is taken up by street front etc. that is unavailable for building purposes. If we then sample every 10th household, our sample will either be made up only of corner houses (if we start at 1 or 10) or have no corner houses (any other start); either way, it will not be representative. The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.

1. Starting number: The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals in the population. This integer will correspond to the first subject. 2. Interval: The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference between any two consecutive numbers in the progression. The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12 subjects. He first picks his starting number, 5. Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be individuals 5, 13, 21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 97. Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique where they first identify the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the population with the sample size to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then used as the constant difference between subjects i.e. where k, the sampling interval (sometimes known as
the skip), is calculated as:

, where n is the sample size, and N is the population size.

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

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The main advantage of using systematic sampling over simple random sampling is its simplicity. It allows the researcher to add a degree of system or process into the random selection of subjects. Another advantage of systematic random sampling over simple random sampling is the assurance that the population will be evenly sampled. There exists a chance in simple random sampling that allows a clustered selection of subjects. This is systematically eliminated in systematic sampling.

DISADVANTAGE OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

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The process of selection can interact with a hidden periodic trait within the population. If the sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the trait, the sampling technique will no longer be random and representativeness of the sample is compromised. E.g.: every third house along the street might always be the middle one of a terrace of three.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING
When populations vary, it is advantageous to sample each subpopulation (stratum) independently. Stratification is the process of dividing members of the population into homogeneous subgroups before sampling. The strata should be mutually exclusive: every element in the population must be assigned to only one stratum. The strata should also be collectively exhaustive: no population element can be excluded. Then random or systematic sampling is applied within each stratum. This often improves the representativeness of the sample by reducing sampling error. It can produce a weighted mean that has less variability than the arithmetic mean of a simple random sample of the population. Stratified random sampling refers to a sampling method that has the following properties.
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The population consists of N elements. The population is divided into H groups, called strata. Each element of the population can be assigned to one, and only one, stratum. The number of observations within each stratum Nh is known, and N = N1 + N2 + N3 + ... + NH-1 + NH . The researcher obtains a probability sample from each stratum.

Proportionate Versus Disproportionate Stratification

All stratified sampling designs fall into one of two categories, each of which has strengths and weaknesses as described below.
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Proportionate stratification. With proportionate stratification, the sample size of each stratum is proportionate to the population size of the stratum. This means that each stratum has the same sampling fraction.

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Proportionate stratification provides equal or better precision than a simple random sample of the same size. Gains in precision are greatest when values within strata are homogeneous. Gains in precision accrue to all survey measures.

Disproportionate stratification. With disproportionate stratification, the sampling fraction may vary from one stratum to the next.
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The precision of the design may be very good or very poor, depending on how sample points are allocated to strata If variances differ across strata, disproportionate stratification can provide better precision than proportionate stratification, when sample points are correctly allocated to strata. With disproportionate stratification, the researcher can maximize precision for a single important survey measure. However, gains in precision may not accrue to other survey measures.

Recommendation: If costs and variances are about equal across strata, choose proportionate stratification over disproportionate stratification. If the variances or costs differ across strata, consider disproportionate stratification.

ADVANTAGES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Stratified sampling offers several advantages over simple random sampling.
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A stratified sample can provide greater precision than a simple random sample of the same size. Because it provides greater precision, a stratified sample often requires a smaller sample, which saves money. A stratified sample can guard against an "unrepresentative" sample (e.g., an all-male sample from a mixed-gender population). We can ensure that we obtain sufficient sample points to support a separate analysis of any subgroup.

DISADVANTAGES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

 

Difficulty in identifying appropriate strata. More complex to organize and analyze results.

CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

In this type of sampling you randomly select clusters rather than randomly select individual type units (such as individual people) in the first stage of sampling. y A cluster has more than one unit in it. (Some examples of clusters are schools, classrooms, and teams.)

We discuss two types of cluster sampling in the chapter, one-stage and two-stage. (Note that more stages are possible in multistage sampling; that is discussed in more advanced books on sampling.) The first type of cluster sampling is one-stage cluster sampling. y y To select a one-stage cluster sample, first randomly select a sample of clusters. Then you include in your final sample all of the individual units that are in the randomly selected clusters. (For example, if you randomly selected 15 classrooms you would include all of the students in those 15 classrooms.)

The second type of cluster sampling is called two-stage cluster sampling. y In the first stage you randomly select a sample of clusters (i.e., just like you did in one-stage cluster sampling). In the second stage, you take a random sample of the elements in each of the clusters that you selected in the first stage (e.g., in stage two you might randomly select 10 students from each of the 15 classrooms you selected in stage one).

Important points about cluster sampling: y Cluster sampling is an equal probability sampling method (EPSEM) only if the clusters are approximately the same size. (Remember: EPSEM is very important because that is what produces representative samples.) If the clusters are not the same size, you can fix the problem by using the technique called "probability proportional to size" (PPS). This will make your cluster sampling an equal probability sampling method (EPSEM), and it will, therefore, produce representative samples.

ADVANTAGES OF CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

y This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an entire country when
using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate his limited resources to the few randomly selected clusters or areas when using cluster samples. Related to the first advantage, the researcher can also increase his sample size with this technique. Considering that the researcher will only have to take the sample from a number of areas or clusters, he can then select more subjects since they are more accessible.

DISADVANTAGES OF CLUSTER RANDOM SAMPLING

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From all the different type of probability sampling, this technique is the least representative of the population. The tendency of individuals within a cluster is to have similar characteristics and with a cluster sample, there is a chance that the researcher can have an overrepresented or underrepresented cluster which can skew the results of the study. This is also a probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling error. This is brought by the limited clusters included in the sample leaving off a significant proportion of the population unsampled.

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLES

Simple random sampling refers to a sampling method that has the following properties. The population consists of N objects. The sample consists of n objects. All possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur.

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The main benefit of simple random sampling is that it guarantees that the sample chosen is representative of the population. This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid. There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the lottery method. Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers. Population members having the selected numbers are included in the sample.
In small populations and often in large ones, such sampling is typically done "without replacement" ('SRSWOR'), i.e., one deliberately avoids choosing any member of the population more than once. Although simple random sampling can be conducted with replacement instead, this is less common and would normally be described more fully as simple random sampling with replacement ('SRSWR'). Sampling done without replacement is no longer independent, but still satisfies exchangeability, hence many results still hold. Further, for a small sample from a large population, sampling without replacement is approximately the same as sampling with replacement, since the odds of choosing the same individual twice is low. ADVANTAGES OF SRS

Highly representative if all subjects participate; the ideal

DISADVANTAGES OF SRS

Not possible without complete list of population members; potentially uneconomical to achieve; can be disruptive to isolate members from a group; time-scale may be too long, data/sample could change

MULTISTAGE SAMPLING
Multistage sampling is a complex form of cluster sampling. A procedure carried out in phases and usually involves more than one sampling method. The population is divided into sets of primary or first stage sampling units and then a random Sample of secondary stage units is obtained from each of the selected clusters in the first stage. Combination of sampling designs maybe applied. Often used in community-based studies.

Example Nationwide survey of all the 15 regions (Stratified) 1 province per region primary sampling unit (Simple Random) 1 urban and 1 rural brgy secondary sampling unit (Stratified) One cluster of 35 households tertiary sampling unit (Cluster) Choose the household elementary unit (Systematic) Sampling Design is: 3-stage stratified, systematic, cluster, simple random sampling design Advantages of Cluster & Multi-Stage Sampling Cost efficient design Sampling frame for all elementary unit not required Sample is easier to select Disadvantages of Cluster & Multi-Stage Sampling More complicated design to implement More complicated analysis Need for bigger sample size to achieve sample precision Units are widely spread