Senior Science

Bionics
Maintaining Human Function The characteristics that define something as living include: Respiration Reproduction Movement Growth Digestion Response to stimuli Assistance to or replacement if lost or damaged body parts can minimise the effects of loss of function. These can be simple like a wooden crutch or a pair of reading glasses, or highly complex devises, such as cochlear implants or artificial heat valves. They are therefore called biomedical devises. They are made from biomaterials and have been specifically designed to perform functions in or for the human body. Biomaterials are synthetic substances made by chemists to stimulate the hardness, softness, stiffness or elasticity of real living structures. Biomaterials can be simple, such as gauzes and bandages or complex like Teflon and ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene, which is used to make artificial body parts.

The Circulatory System The circulatory system is vital to the life of the person. It transports oxygen; carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones and many other substances are carried around the body and to the cells. These substances are carried in the blood inside vessels like arteries.

The Structure of The Heart The heart is composed of four chambers: two on each side of the heart. The upper chambers of the heart are called the atria, while the lower chambers are called the ventricles. The atria receive the blood and the ventricles pump the blood back out to the lungs or body. Blood entering the right atrium is low in oxygen as it comes to the heart from the body It travels into the heart through a very large vein called the vena cava. The right atrium delivers its blood into the right ventricle by passing it through the tricuspid valve. Blood leave the right ventricle through a passage called the pulmonary artery. This is an unusual artery because it carries deoxygenated blood.

Most other arteries carry only oxygenated blood. Inside the pulmonary artery is the pulmonary semilunar valve, which is forced open when the right ventricle contracts and blood is pumped through it. Blood takes up oxygen in the lungs and then travels along the pulmonary vein into the hearts left atrium. From the left atrium, this oxygenated blood seeps into the lower chamber on the left hand side of the heart the left ventricle. Between the left atrium and the left ventricle is the bicuspid valve. It also prevents blood flowing backwards. When the left ventricle contracts, the blood is forced out under high pressure into the aorta and through the aortic semilunar valve. The aorta is the major artery leading from the heart to the head, brain body and heart muscle.

Coronary Arteries and Veins The muscle that makes up the heart is called the cardiac muscle. This muscle needs a supply of oxygen so thats it can respire to produce the energy to keep the heart pumping the blood. This oxygenated blood supply does not come from inside the chambers of the heart; rather it is delivered to the heart muscle from a branch of the aorta. The vessels carrying this blood are coronary arteries.

Heartbeat and Rhythm Each heartbeat requires a coordination of separate muscle cells to make the heart an efficient pump. Two controlling systems act to keep the heart beating rhythmically: the autonomic nervous system and the nodal system.

The Autonomic Nervous System The autonomic nervous system is the involuntary part of the nervous system that consists of nerves that can temporarily speed up or slow down the heart rate.

The Nodal System The nodal system is a special tissue found only in the heart, which forces the heart to contract at about 75 beats per minute. In this tissue is a group of special cells called the sinoatrial node, which is found in the right atrium.

Interruptions to the Heart s Normal Rhythms When the sounds of a stethoscope or an ECG show an abnormal pattern, this indicates that something may be wrong with the heart There are several situations that cause such abnormalities.

Heart Murmur Blood usually flows silently in the heart if the chambers are smooth and unblocked. However, if the flow of blood is disturbed by obstructions or vibrations of the muscle walls, the flow can become turbulent and may be heard with a stethoscope. These are called heart murmurs.

Ischaemia If the blood supply to the heart muscle is interrupted or inadequate, a condition called ischaemia is present The lack of sufficient oxygen to the heart muscle causes it to contract rapidly to try to resupply oxygen to the heart muscle.

Tachycardia and Bradycardia These two conditions occur when the heart is either beating faster (tachycardia) or slower (bradycardia) than normal.

Damage to the Pacemaker Region of the Heart If the sinoatrial node region of the heart is damaged or malfunctioning, or if the electrical signals to the ventricles are blocked, the coordinated pattern of the heart muscle contractions is interrupted.

Artificial Pacemakers There are 2 common instances when artificial pacemakers have been designed by engineers for implanting into a heart: o The hearts own pacemaker is not functioning effectively and thus requires a pacemaker to initiate a heartbeat or increase the heart rate. o The electrical signal from the sinoatrial node is blocked from reaching ventricles. Artificial pacemakers have several main components. A pulse generator is a tiny computer held together in a small metal case with a connection for the leads on top. Leads connect the pulse generator to the heart in order to carry both the impulse and information about the hearts natural activity back to the pulse generator.

Artificial Valves Artificial heart valves are either synthetic or taken from animals. The design of artificial heart valves is rather stringent as they are intended for long-term use The hinges of each leaflet have to be able to open and close 80 times per minute for many years after being inserted into the heart. The other artificial valves come from animals.

Homograft valves are obtained from human beings after death, whereas heterograft valves come from animals such as pigs. One of the advantages of both types is the absence of clotting, which occurs occasionally with the use of artificial valves. Most homograft and heterograft will last 10 to 15 years.

The Skeleton The skeletal system is made up of bones, joints, ligaments and cartilage. Your adult skeleton contains 206 bones that carry out the following functions. o Support: Our bones are very light yet also very strong o Protection: Our bones protect the soft organs of our bodies from damage o Movement: The muscles attached to our bones provide our bodies with movement. o Production of Blood Cells: Bone marrow the soft jelly-like tissue filling the places within bones is responsible for producing red blood cells. The bone is the stiff, calcified structure to which the muscles connect. Muscles hold on bones by means of tendons Tendons are fibrous bands of connective tissue that join the muscle to the bone. You can feel your Achilles tendon, which attaches your calf muscle to your heel bone. Cartilage is also present in animal limbs. Ligaments hold two bones together and keep a joint from moving in directions that would cause dislocations

Joints Joints are points of contact between bones. Joints hold the bones together but also allow for movement, just like the flexible parts of a suit of armour or a spacesuit. There are several types of joints, classified by the type of movement that they allow. These include: o Ball and Socket joints: these joints are shaped like a ball in a cup shaped socket. Examples of this include the hip. o Hinge joints: these joints allow movement in only one plane, in the same way that a hinge works on a door. Examples of this include the elbow. o Double Hinge joints: these act in the same way as hinge joints but allow the joint to move in 2 planes. An example of this is the knuckle. o Sliding joints: these joints have flat, slightly curved surfaces to allow the bones to make only sliding movements. An example of this is the wrist. o Pivot joints: these allow one of the bones in the joint to twist or pivot about. An example of this is the radius and ulna of the forearm.

Silicone Silicon is an element that can be found in trace portions in the human body. Silicon forms a highly versatile rubber-like substance called silicone. Silicones useful properties include: o Resistant to acids, ozone and UV light

o Long life expectancy of about 500 years o Totally inert, meaning it will not react with any of the human bodies chemistry. o Able to withstand radiation and able to sterilise implants. o Resistant to high voltages, so that it maintains its strength even when very thin silicone coatings are used. Artificial Joints Artificial joints are used in the human body when the natural joints are inflamed and painful because of chronic rheumatoid arthritis. This disease can affect people of any age but is more common in women between the age of 30 and 40 years Silicone can be used to coat the end of small bones in a joint where the cartilage has been destroyed, such as fingers or toes. Although silicone can withstand the low forces in small joints, it is not able to withstand the much larger forces found in larger joints such as the hip.

Respiratory System The respiratory system of humans includes: o Nose o Pharynx o Larynx o Trachea o Lungs o Diaphragm The main function of the system is to take in and supply oxygen to the blood while removing cellular waste, namely carbon dioxide. Air is taken into our respiratory passages through the nose or mouth. The nose is lined with tiny hairs called cilia, which trap bacteria, pollen and dust particles as they enter it. Mucus also lines the passages of the respiratory system to trap foreign particles while keeping the passageway moist. The pharynx is the passage that links the nose and the mouth to the oesophagus. It is the common passageway for air and food. During the swallowing of the food, the airways are protected by a flap of skin called epiglottis. This flap closes over the windpipe to prevent our airways getting blocked with food. The air flows from the pharynx to the larynx. Air leaves the vocal chords and enters the trachea. The trachea is commonly called the windpipe and is a tube that is held open by tough C-shaped rings of cartilage. The trachea ends at about the mid chest area where it branches into 2 tubes or bronchi Bronchi carry the air into each lung