When East meets West: the effect of cultural tone congruity in ad music and message on consumer ad memory and

attitude
Yung-Cheng Shen
Yuan-ze University

Ting-Chen Chen
Procter & Gamble Co., Taiwan

Research on the effect of congruity between an ads message and its background music on consumer memory indicates that ad music that is congruent with an ads message can enhance the consumers memory of the ad. Based on Heckler and Childers (1992) study on the nature of incongruity, we suggest that cultural tone incongruity between an ads message and its music can also lead to better ad memory. We demonstrate that East/West cultural tone incongruity between an ads message and its music does increase the consumers memory for the target ad, but it can also have an adverse effect on consumers attitudes towards the ad. This memory enhancement effect is stronger for high-attention respondents than for low-attention respondents. Moreover, the incongruity also leads to retroactive memory interference for the ad that immediately precedes the target ad. However, the predicted effect of proactive memory interference for the ad following the target ad was not found. Finally, the academic and managerial implications of the study for global product advertising are discussed.

Introduction
Global marketing activities frequently need to develop localised advertising campaigns for different markets around the world. In developing these advertising campaigns, cross-cultural elements are often integrated into these ads. For instance, global advertising usually employs local celebrities to endorse products. Cross-cultural elements serve a strategic objective: to better acquaint local consumers with particular products because the
International Journal of Advertising, 25(1), pp. 5170 2006 Advertising Association Published by the World Advertising Research Center, www.warc.com

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familiarity local consumers have with these cultural elements can help reduce the psychological distance between consumer and product. Besides celebrities, other cross-cultural elements used in global product advertising may exist. One such element is the background music used in television commercials (TVCs). Because music is considered a carrier of culture (see, for example, Albers-Miller & Gelb 1996; Cheng & Schweitzer 1996), using music in global advertising may involve the issue of congruity in cultural meanings. In consumer research that examined the effects of congruity in ad elements (e.g. Bruner 1990) it was generally found that congruity between ad elements could improve consumers ad memory. For example, Kellaris et al. (1993) found that consumer memory is better when an ads music and its message are congruent with each other. Houston et al. (1987) also found that memory of an ad improves when the picture and the text copy of an ad deliver the same message. On the other hand, Srull and Lichtenstein (1985) pointed out that an incongruity of information leads message receivers to process the message with more cognitive efforts, resulting in stronger associations between new and existing information; ad memory can be enhanced as a consequence. Heckler and Childers (1992) also indicated that unexpected incongruent information can enhance memory. The present study employs Heckler and Childers framework on the nature of incongruity to explore how the incongruity in cultural tone between an ads message and its music can affect ad memory and attitudes towards ads. An experiment that explored these issues of incongruity was conducted in Taiwan. There are two major reasons why it is important to study the Taiwanese market. First, as one of the booming economies in Asia, Taiwan has gone through many economic and socio-political transformations in recent years. Historically speaking, the business practices and culture of Taiwan were developed under the influence of both eastern and western civilisations. Thus the Taiwanese market provides a good basis for studying cultural congruity. Second, Taiwan is a good barometer for China, whose economic potential, now that its doors are opening to the world, has been widely noticed by the world community. China is becoming a huge world market because of its booming economic development. Indeed, in many respects, the economic developments in China parallel Taiwans earlier experiences. Because China and Taiwan share many cultural and social similarities, such as language, religion and social customs, understanding

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Taiwans market helps to serve as a useful reference for understanding the future development of the Chinese market. The present study thus focuses on the Taiwanese market, where diverse cultures meet with similar economic development patterns to those in China. Diverse cultures thus provide a good platform for studying the issue of cultural congruity. This paper is organised as follows. The next section presents a brief review of research on the issue of congruity; this is followed by the rationale and specific experimental hypotheses of the present study. The detailed experimental data and discussions of the academic and managerial implications of the study are then reported.

Conceptual background and research hypotheses

Much research addressing the issue of congruity in advertising has been concerned with the effects of schema congruity between ad elements on ad effectiveness. The general finding was that congruity between ad elements has positive influences on ad memory. Childers and Houston (1984) found that consumer memory for a brand name is better when the pictorial element is integrated with words in advertisements. Likewise, Houston et al. (1987) found that when pictures and words in ads convey the same messages, consumer memory is also better. Studies addressing the effects of congruity in an ads music also revealed similar conclusions. MacInnis and Park (1991) found that when the message and music are congruent, consumers pay more attention to the ads. Kellaris et al. (1993) also found that consumers ad memory is improved when ad music with high attention-attracting value is congruent with the ads message. Past research has been varied in the definition of the concept of congruity. Heckler and Childers (1992) proposed a general framework for congruity that posits two dimensions underlying it: relevance and expectance. Relevance represents how related two stimuli are. Expectance refers to the degree to which a stimulus fits ones expectation. Heckler and Childers found that both expected-relevant stimuli, as well as unexpected-irrelevant and unexpected-relevant stimuli can lead to better memory performance, while expected-irrelevant stimuli result in worse recall performance. Using the relevance-expectedness distinction as the framework for congruity, research on an ads message and its congruity with music, as MacInnis and Park (1991) and Kellaris et al. (1993) discov-

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ered, can be classified under the expected-relevant quadrant. As Heckler and Childers (1992) indicated, not only can expected-relevant stimuli enhance memory, but also unexpected stimuli (both relevant and irrelevant) can lead to better memory of the ad. Therefore, although Kellaris et al. (1993) have found better memory with relevant and expected ad music, it is possible that unexpected ad elements associated with an incongruent schema can also lead to better memory of the ads (Heckler & Childers 1992). One such schema of incongruity is the incongruity of an ads cultural tone. Advertising has long been recognised as a carrier of culture that reflects cultural values and norms. Indeed, advertising and cultures have long been found to influence each other (Albers-Miller & Gelb 1996). Research has pointed out that cultural differences lead to differences in advertising. Reciprocally, advertising is also found to cause changes in cultural values (Tansey et al. 1990; Culter & Javalgi 1992; Ramaprasad & Hasegawa 1992; Cheng & Schweitzer 1996). Given the close, dynamic relationships between advertising and culture, it is of interest to ask what would happen when the elements of an ad carry incongruent cultural meanings. Cultural tone incongruity implies expressions of cultural meaning that carry incompatible schemas. In todays global business environment, it is important to understand what would happen when ads contain incongruent cultural elements. For example, a western and modern TVC visual coupled with traditional ancient Chinese music would ostensibly create cultural tone incongruity due to the strong contrast between modern western culture and traditional ancient Chinese culture. The present study suggests that when an ads music and message imply incongruent cultural tones, consumers experience surprise as a result of the incongruity. This surprise would then lead them to expend more cognitive resources to process the ads (Mandler 1982; Srull & Lichtenstein 1985; Meyers-Levy & Tybout 1989). These increased cognitive resources can enhance memory as a result (Manchanda et al. 2002). Research has indicated that inconsistency in the stimulus-schema is an important factor determining whether consumers perceive humour and surprise (Kellaris & Mantel 1996). In a similar vein, the present study suggests that the unexpected incongruity between an ads message and its music attracts consumers attention and leads them to process the ad more intensively. Therefore, there is more elaboration of

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the ad message at a deeper cognitive level due to the incongruity (Heckler & Childers 1992). Ad memory is expected to be enhanced as a result. This relationship may be formally stated as follows: H1-1: When an ad consists of a message and music that are incongruent in cultural tone, consumer memory of the ad is better than when message and music are congruent in cultural tone.

In addition to the main effect of incongruent ad music on ad memory, this study also suggests that the memory enhancement effect due to the presence of incongruent ad music is stronger for consumers who pay more attention when viewing the TV commercial than for those who pay less attention. High-attention consumers who invest greater cognitive effort in processing ad information are more likely than low-attention consumers to detect the cultural tone incongruity between an ads message and its music; thus their memory is strengthened by the incongruity. Thus, this study also hypothesises an interaction effect between the musical incongruity and a consumers attention: H1-2: The effect of memory enhancement from an ad due to cultural tone incongruity between an ads music and its message is stronger for high-attention consumers than for low-attention consumers.

Although incongruity between an ads message and its music may lead to a better memory of the ad, one might also predict that it will adversely affect a consumers attitude towards an ad. Past research has provided evidence that greater incongruity can result in negative evaluations. MacInnis and Park (1991) found that a low perceived fit could trigger negative emotions and lead to negative attitudes. Mandler (1982) also found that extreme incongruity, which cannot be resolved through problem solving, gives rise to negative consumer attitudes. Finally, Meyers-Levy and Tybout (1989) further suggested that high schema discrepancies can make consumers feel frustrated and helpless. Negative evaluations follow as a result. Similarly, in the present study, which investigates incongruity between an ads message and its music, it is suggested that although incongruity in cultural tone can strengthen memory, it would also undermine the consumers attitude towards the ad. Therefore:

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H2:

Consumer attitudes towards an ad with an incongruent cultural tone between the ads message and its music would be worse than is the case with an ad with a congruent cultural tone between message and its music.

To ensure proper attitude accessibility (Higgins 1998), respondents in our experiment were shown the target TVC a second time and then filled out the attitude questions in our experimental design. Watching the TVC programming twice would effectively eliminate the difference in attention between high-attention and low-attention groups at the time of consumers attitude judgements. Thus testing the interaction effect of Music congruity Attention on attitudes is no longer diagnostic of the independent variables effects in such cases. As a consequence, a hypothesis of the interaction effect of congruity and attention on attitudes is not presented here. In addition to predicting the effects of the cultural tone incongruity of an ads message and its music on consumers memory of the ad and attitude towards the ad, it is also postulated that such incongruity could interfere with the consumers memory of the ads immediately preceding and following the target ad. (The target ad is the ad with a cultural tone incongruity between the message and the music.) In studies of memory interference in cognitive psychology, two kinds of interference are discussed: retroactive interference and proactive interference. Retroactive interference occurs when newly acquired information interferes with earlier learned information. New information can interfere with the memory of prior information by blocking the memory storage/consolidation process of the prior information (Burns & Gold 1999). Proactive interference occurs when information learned earlier interferes with information input later. This occurs because prior information blocks new information encoding processes (Wickens 1972). In the present study, culturally incongruent ad music is expected to retroactively interfere with the memory of the ad immediately preceding the target ad. When the consumer views an ad containing culturally incongruent tones, this schema incongruity occupies most of the consumers cognitive resources in processing the incongruent information such that the memory storage/consolidation process of the preceding ad is retroactively interfered with:

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H3:

Compared to the ad with culturally congruent music, an ad with culturally incongruent music would retroactively interfere with the memory of the ad that immediately preceded the target ad.

The interaction effect of music congruity and consumer attention on retroactive interference is hard to judge. There are two forces working in opposite directions. First, high-attention consumers who process media information more thoroughly than low-attention consumers should have a better memory of the ad preceding the target ad. Thus they should be less likely to experience retroactive interference from a target ad with incongruent elements. However, since they also have a better memory for the target ad, it could produce a stronger interference effect. Thus the two forces counteract each other and make the net effect difficult to predict. Although we do not have an explicit hypothesis concerning the interaction effect of Ad-music incongruity Attention on retroactive interference, we nonetheless analyse the interaction in the data to see the direction and magnitude of the net effect. A similar rationale also applies to the case of proactive interference. Over-drafting of cognitive resources due to processing the schemaincongruent information in the target ad could block encoding of the ad that immediately follows the target ad, leading to proactive interference. Note that although both retroactive and proactive interference are hypothesised, the working mechanisms are different. Retroactive interference occurs because the target ad with schema-incongruent information interferes with the memory trace consolidation and storage processes of the ad preceding the target ad. Proactive interference, on the other hand, occurs because the target ad interferes with the encoding process of the ad following the target ad. The proactive interference hypothesis is formally described as follows: H4: Compared to the ad with culturally congruent music, the ad with culturally incongruent music would proactively interfere with the memory of the ad that immediately follows the target ad.

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The study
A laboratory experiment was conducted in which respondents watched TV in a controlled setting. The experimental stimuli were prepared on a video cassette tape in advance. To simulate a natural viewing experience, respondents watched a segment from a TV programme, followed by an advertising section and then another programme segment. After this they answered questions about their memory and attitude towards the ads. The detailed experimental design, material and procedure are described in the next section.

Method
Materials The manipulation of cultural tone congruity was achieved using a modern, western tone in contrast with a traditional eastern tone. After the pilot screening test, a Vidal Sassoon shampoo TVC was selected from a set of candidate TV commercials that featured white female models styling their blonde hair, with dynamic and vibrant expressions and movements typical of western commercials. Traditional or classic Chinese music was used in the ad in order to contrast with the modern, western cultural tone. An initial pilot study selected ten music titles with varying cultural connotations (see Appendix 1 for descriptions of the music titles) out of a total pool of candidate music titles. Focus group discussions were then conducted to further select music of high attention-getting value (Kellaris et al. 1993), with a tone that would be culturally incongruent with the Vidal Sassoon TVC. Three music titles (A Strong Man in China, Unusual Woman and Shanghai Beach see Appendix 1), which had the highest cultural tone incongruity measures and high attention-getting values, were selected. Respondents considered the three titles to be highly incongruent with the target Vidal Sassoon TVC with respect to cultural tone. The main reason for the perceived incongruity was that all three incongruent music titles strongly imply images of ancient Asian/Chinese culture, while the target ad was highly western and modern. A further quantitative study showed that the gap in cultural tone congruity was greatest between the original music in the Vidal Sassoon ad (mean congruity = 6.08, SD = 1.51) and the

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song Unusual Woman (mean congruity = 1.96, SD = 0.87; t(96) = 16.9, p < 0.001). Thus Unusual Woman was selected as the background music to go with the target TVC to create the condition of cultural tone incongruity. To simulate real TV viewing experiences, the respondents were first given a TV programme segment, followed by a series of TV commercials and then another segment of the TV programme. In choosing the programme segments, programmes suitable for a general audience were considered. Programmes targeted at niche audiences or that could elicit extreme emotions were avoided. The popular variety show Super Sunday was chosen for the TV programme segments. Super Sunday is a very popular show in the local market, which targets a family audience of all ages. The programme usually features singing, dancing, interviews and talk show segments. Super Sunday was chosen for two reasons. First, because the programme is designed for a general audience, most respondents would find it familiar and easy to view. Second, the TV commercials in the actual programming usually vary widely in nature. A wide range of product categories are advertised here mainly due to the general target audience of the show. Thus it is easy to manipulate different TV commercials using the Super Sunday variety show. As for the series of TV commercials, there were seven commercials in the series altogether, including the target TV commercial with culturally congruent/incongruent background music. The seven TV commercials were designed to simulate real TV viewing situations by including commercials from varying product categories. The product categories in the seven TV commercials were chosen to be irrelevant with respect to each other in order to avoid possible confounding. The running times of the seven TV commercials were similar in length (roughly 2030 seconds each). To avoid possible memory confounding, all TV commercials selected were more than six years old. Finally, to avoid possible confounding of primacy and recency effects in the short-term memory, the target Vidal Sassoon TVC was placed in the middle position of the TVC series (i.e. the fourth position). Design A 2 2 (Message-music congruity: congruent vs incongruent TV viewing attention: high vs low) between-subject factorial design was employed

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for the study. For the congruent condition, the Vidal Sassoon TVC and its original background music were used. For the incongruent condition, the music Unusual Woman was used as the background music. Each respondent was assigned to either one of the two conditions, but not both. TV viewing attention was measured by asking how much attention respondents paid to the programming and TVC during the viewing period. Highattention vs low-attention groups were discerned using the conventional median split of the distribution of the attention measurement. Dependent measures included target ad memory and attitude, as well as the memory for the two TV commercials preceding and following the target ad. Memory performance was measured using unaided free recall. Both the recall of brand names in the TVC and the recall of actual content details in each TVC were measured. Attitude was measured by ten attitude questions adapted from Lutz et al. (1986) and Olney et al. (1991). Finally, a measurement of surprise was also included as a manipulation check to provide evidence that cultural tone incongruity between an ads message and its music induced surprises that lead to an improved memory of the target ad. The question asked whether the respondents felt the music playing in the background of the TVC was surprising to them, on a nine-point Likert scale. Respondents and procedure Respondents comprised 130 students recruited through flyers from the campus of Yuan-ze University, a major university in Taiwan. There were 62 males and 68 females in the respondent group. The average age of the respondents was 23 years (SD = 2.42). They came from various academic backgrounds, such as engineering, management, liberal arts and social sciences. They were paid NT$100 (US$3) for their participation. Respondents were randomly assigned to one of the two experimental conditions (i.e. the music-congruent vs the music-incongruent condition). Each respondent received either the music-congruent treatment or musicincongruent treatment, but not both. On entering the laboratory, they were seated in front of a television set. The experimenter first presented the experimental instructions, which stated the experiment was about consumers media usage behaviour. The experimenter told respondents that they would watch some TV programming, and then would answer some

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questions pertaining to the programming as well as the advertisements in between. Respondents were instructed to pay attention to both the TV programme and the TV commercials in the same way they did at home. Respondents first watched nine and a half minutes of TV programming. Programming started with three minutes of the popular variety show Super Sunday, followed by the seven TV commercials. After the commercials, another three-minute segment of the variety show programme was played. When the programme viewing was finished, respondents filled out the questionnaire that measured dependent variables. To better measure the consumers attitude towards the ad, respondents were shown the target commercial, along with the two commercials immediately preceding and following the target commercial in the series as filler items, again after they filled out the questionnaire for the first time. This was to ensure attitude accessibility (Higgins 1998) and to make sure they knew which ad was being tested for attitude. After they had watched the target ad a second time, they filled out the questionnaire designed to measure the consumers attitude towards the ad. When all measures were completed, respondents were debriefed, paid the due amount of money and thanked for their participation.

Results
Manipulation check A comparison of the surprise level respondents experienced with the target TVC reveals a significant difference between the congruent and incongruent music groups (mean surprise rating = 6.73, SD = 2.86 for the incongruent music group; mean surprise rating = 4.88, SD = 1.77 for the congruent music group; t(70) = 3.2, p < 0.01). Thus, the manipulation of cultural incongruity was successful in inducing surprise. Target TV commercial recall and attitude Respondents recall performances for the target TVC were analysed with respect to the recall of the product categories and the brand names in the TVCs, in addition to the recall of the content details of the TVCs. The brand recall data are first classified into four categories:

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1. No mention of either product or brand at all 2. Correct product category recall 3. Correct brand but incorrect product category recall 4. Correct brand and product recall. 2 tests comparing the recall frequencies reveal significant differences in the target TV commercial between the experimental group (i.e. the incongruent music group; mean recall frequency = 46; mean no-recall frequency = 18) and the control group (i.e. the congruent music group; mean recall frequency = 33; mean no-recall frequency = 33) for the target Vidal Sassoon TVC (2 = 6.52, p < 0.05). For the TVC preceding the target TVC, there is also a significant difference between the experimental group (mean recall frequency = 38; mean no-recall frequency = 26) and the control group (mean recall frequency = 50; mean no-recall frequency = 16; 2 = 3.99, p < 0.05). The 2 test for the TVC following the target TVC shows no significant difference (2 = 0.32, ns). The patterns in the product/brand recall frequency data support both experimental hypotheses H1-1, that a cultural tone incongruity is effective in promoting recall of the target TVC, and hypothesis H3, that an incongruent cultural tone inhibits recall of the TVC preceding the target TVC (i.e. retroactive interference). However, the data do not support H4, that an incongruent cultural tone would suppress the memory of the TVC following the target TVC (i.e. proactive interference). The free recall content was coded by two people blind to the purpose of the study. The Cronbachs of the inter-rate reliability for the three relevant TVCs (i.e. the target TVC, and the TVCs immediately preceding and following the target TVC) are 0.95, 0.94 and 0.94, respectively. Therefore the coded data are reliable enough for further statistical analyses. The recall data are listed in Table 1. A 2 2 (Ad-music congruity Viewing attention) between-subject ANOVA is performed on the target TVC recall data. Data indicate that music has a main effect on recall (F(1, 126) = 6.25, p < 0.05). The respondents who received culturally incongruent ad music demonstrate a better memory for the target TVC (mean recall = 1.86, SD = 1.82) than respondents who viewed the ads with congruent music (mean recall = 1.18, SD = 1.67). This result supports H1-1. The Attention variable also had a main effect (F(1, 126) = 9.55, p < 0.01). High-attention individuals have a better memory
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Table 1: Mean free recall performance

Preceding TVC High attention Incongruent music Congruent music 2.25 (1.67)* 2.59 (1.99) Low attention 0.78 (1.02) 1.69 (1.89) Target TVC High attention 2.71 (2.1) 1.37 (1.62) Low attention 1.19 (1.24) 1.05 (1.72) Following TVC High attention 1.64 (2.15) 2.07 (2.05) Low attention 1.39 (1.4) 1.03 (1.46)

Note: Numbers in parentheses are standard deviations.

for the target ad (mean recall = 2.05, SD = 1.99) than low-attention individuals (mean recall = 1.12, SD = 1.5). More importantly, there is an interaction effect between Music Attention on the target ad memory (F(1, 126) = 4.07, p < 0.05). There is a significant increase in a high-attention respondents memory of the target ad when given incongruent music than when given congruent music (mean recall in the incongruent music condition = 2.71, SD = 2.11; mean recall in the congruent music condition = 1.37, SD = 1.62; F(1,53) = 7, p < 0.05); but the difference between congruent and incongruent music conditions in the low-attention respondents is not significant (mean recall in the congruent music condition = 1.05, SD = 1.72; mean recall in the incongruent music condition = 1.19, SD = 1.24; F(1,73) = 0.17, ns). An incongruent cultural tone better promotes the memory of the target TVC when respondents pay more attention to the programming. These results support H1-2. The Cronbachs of the reliability among the attitude measurement items was also computed. The Cronbachs values for both the cognitive dimension of the attitude (Cronbachs = 0.73) and the affect dimension of the attitude (Cronbachs = 0.87) were higher than the conventional criterion of 0.7. Thus the multi-item attitude measure has a high reliability for further analyses. The 2 2 (Music congruity Attention) ANOVA reveals a significant main effect of music congruity (F(1, 128) = 35.19, p < 0.01) on attitude towards the ad. The attitude towards the ad in the incongruent music condition (mean attitude = 4.18, SD = 1.37) is significantly lower than the attitude in the congruent music condition (mean attitude = 5.54, SD = 1.24). An incongruent cultural tone leads to more negative attitudes towards the ad. This result supports H2.
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Retroactive and proactive memory interference Retroactive memory interference was investigated by comparing the memory performance of the experimental group (i.e. the incongruent music group) and the control group (i.e. the congruent music group) on the ad immediately preceding the target TVC (a juice drink TVC). A 2 2 between-subject ANOVA reveals a main effect of music congruity (F(1, 126) = 4.51, p < 0.05). Lower recall is found in the incongruent music group (mean recall = 1.42, SD = 1.52) than in the group that received congruent ad music (mean recall = 2.06, SD = 1.97). Therefore, the hypothesis H3 on retroactive memory interference is supported. Nonetheless, the interaction effect on retroactive interference is not significant (F(1, 126) = 0.93, ns). The sample mean difference in memory performance of high-attention respondents (mean = 2.25, SD = 1.67 for the incongruent music condition; mean = 2.59, SD = 1.99 for the congruent music condition; mean difference = 0.34) is less than that of low-attention respondents (mean = 0.78, SD = 1.02 for the incongruent music condition; mean = 1.69, SD = 1.89 for the congruent music condition; mean difference = 0.91), but the effect is not strong enough to be statistically significant. As reasoned in the previous section, two opposing forces work to determine the joint effect of the retroactive interference. High-attention consumers have better memory for the TVC preceding the target TVC, but they also experience more interference from the incongruent target TVC music. The net effect seems to indicate that the memory for the TVC preceding the target TVC is stronger than the interference effect from the target TVC in high-attention consumers. Thus high-attention consumers experience less retroactive interference from the incongruent music than low-attention consumers. However, given the non-significant result of the statistical analysis, the validity of this conclusion is weak. Finally, although the data patterns are consistent with the predicted proactive interference effect, ANOVA reveals neither main nor interaction effects for the hypothesis H4 concerning the effect of cultural tone incongruity on proactive memory interference. The main effect of music congruity is not significant (F(1, 126) = 0.012, ns). The memory performance of the incongruent music group (mean = 1.5, SD= 1.76) is not different from that of the congruent music group (mean = 1.45, SD = 1.79). The interaction effect also fails to reach significance (F(1, 126) = 1.64, ns). The mean
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difference in memory performance of high-attention respondents (mean = 1.64, SD = 2.15 for the incongruent music condition; mean = 2.07, SD = 2.05 for the congruent music condition; mean difference = 0.43) due to the incongruent target TVC music is not different from that of low-attention consumers (mean = 1.39, SD = 1.4 for the incongruent music condition; mean = 1.03, SD = 1.46 for the congruent music condition; mean difference = 0.36). Thus H4 is not supported. A possible explanation of why the retroactive but not proactive interference was observed in the experimental data will be discussed below.

Discussion and general conclusions

Summary of results The present study investigates how cultural tone incongruity in an ads message and its music affects consumer ad memory and attitudes towards the ad. The key findings are summarised below. First, it is found that an ad with culturally incongruent background music strengthens consumer memory of the ad when compared with the same ad containing culturally congruent music. This result is consistent with the prediction derived from the Heckler and Childers (1992) study that unexpected incongruity can lead to better memory. Second, this incongruity effect on memory is more pronounced in highattention consumers than in low-attention consumers. High-attention consumers who devote more cognitive resources to processing the TVC information can better detect the incongruity. Hence their memory is more influenced by the incongruent information than that of low-attention consumers. Third, the memory enhancement effect is accompanied by a greater likelihood of an adverse effect on attitude towards the ad. MacInnis and Park (1991) and Meyers-Levy and Tybout (1989) have provided evidence that schema incongruity can lead to negative emotions such as frustration and helplessness. Negative attitudinal judgments follow as a result. This prediction is also supported by the experimental data. Fourth, the target ad with incongruent music causes retroactive interference in which the memory for the ad immediately preceding the target ad is negatively influenced. This effect was hypothesised to come from the surprise generated by the incongruent music, which disrupted the storage/

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consolidation memory process of the ad preceding the target ad. Furthermore, although the Music congruity Attention interaction data imply that high-attention consumers are more resistant to the interference effect than are low-attention consumers, this effect is not strong enough to reach statistical significance. The memory of high-attention consumers for the ad preceding the target TVC is somewhat stronger than the interference effect due to the incongruent target TVC in the sample data. Finally, neither the main effect nor the interaction effect is observed for the proactive interference. A possible explanation is that in retroactive interference the target TVC presents incongruent visual and auditory information that overshadows the information storage process of the previous TVC of which the visual and auditory stimuli are absent when the target TVC is being shown. That is, the memory consolidation process of the preceding TVC is blocked by the target TVC. In contrast, in proactive interference the visual and auditory information of the TVC following the target TVC is present at the time when interference occurs. The strong visual and auditory cues of the TVC following the target TVC may inhibit the proactive interference effect from the target TVC. The dominance of visual information from the TVC following the target TVC may thus draw respondents attention away from processing the incongruent information in the target TVC. Thus the predicted proactive interference is not supported by the experimental data. Academic implications Kellaris et al. (1993) indicated that high ad message/music congruity increases ad memory for music with high attention-getting value. The present study employed the incongruity framework of Heckler and Childers (1992) and found that incongruent message/music can also increase ad memory. Nonetheless, the underlying mechanism of this memory enhancement effect is different from that of Kellaris et al. (1993). In the Kellaris et al. (1993) study, improved ad memory is achieved through music with high attention-getting value. In the present study, which also used selected ad music with high attention-getting value, memory enhancement is achieved through schema conflict of cultural tones (especially in high-attention consumers). Thus, although the present study is different from that of Kellaris et al. (1993), the two do not

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conflict with each other. Not only can congruent music lead to better memory but also music incongruent in cultural tone can result in better ad memory performance. The observed retroactive interference also has academic implications. Ads for similar brands or product categories juxtaposed together have been shown to interfere with each other (Burke & Srull 1988). The present study points out salient ads that draw consumers attention can also induce retroactive interference. Generally speaking, any factors that attract consumers attention to process information at a deep cognitive level could potentially cause memory interference. Managerial implications Many advertisements employ strategies of schema incongruity to impress consumers. Inconsistency of stimulus-schema is an important factor in determining whether consumers perceive humour or surprise (Kellaris & Mantel 1996). A possible downside of this strategy is that memory is improved at the expense of a decrement in attitude towards the ad. In todays global economic environment, developers of local advertisements for global products should be careful when selecting music for use in TV commercials. The music selected should not carry a cultural tone incongruent with the visual messages. Although an incongruent cultural tone can enhance a consumers memory for an ad, it can also have an adverse effect on attitude towards the ad. The other managerial issue concerns memory interference. A TVC placed before an attractive ad is vulnerable to possible memory interference. TVCs placed after an attractive ad, in contrast, do not seem to suffer such a problem. Therefore, media planners should be cautious about ad placement. It seems that, besides managing the Gross Rating Point (GRP), the context in which an ad is placed also influences its effectiveness. Limitations and future directions The present study points out that a culturally incongruent tone in an ads music can influence ad memory and attitudes. But cultural tone incongruity is just one type of incongruity in Heckler and Childers (1992) classification scheme. There are other types of congruity relationship, such as

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visual copy or ad message endorser congruity that should be investigated in future research. Another limitation concerns the effects of other individual difference variables. The present study demonstrated the moderating role of viewers attention to the programming in the effects of culturally incongruent ad music. Other variables, such as a consumers involvement with the advertised product, could also affect the relationship between music congruity and memory. The present study did not address these individual difference variables. Future studies should also consider these factors.

Appendix 1: Candidate music descriptions

No. Title 1 Shanghai Beach Description Cultural associations

Old Cantonese song depicting The music is related to Shanghai in the 1920s. The music Shanghai at the turn of early delivers a transitional theme between the old and new era 20th century in the biggest city of China. Relaxing and demonstrating European elegance. It delivers western conceptions of peacefulness and is light in tone. American-style folk music depicting AfricanAmerican culture with a casual, happy, relaxing and lively tone. Traditional Taiwanese love song describing a womans love. Traditional Chinese Kung-Fu music strong, traditional, energetic and inspiring. Hip-hop music fashionable and modern. Music for the younger generation. South-east Asian music with a passionate and oceanic tone; connotes soothing and relaxing holiday atmosphere. It delivers a sense of peacefulness, happiness, and comfort.

Chambre avec Vue European folk music

Chrysler ad music

American folk music

4 5

Unusual Woman A Strong Man in China Swear underwear ad music City Night

Traditional Taiwanese music Traditional Chinese song

American-style hip-hop music

South-east Asian slow soul music Instrumental music with strong drum rhythms

Nan-Shan life insurance ad music Bolero

1928 piece by French composer Maurice Ravel

Mysterious Middle Eastern tone presenting harvesting ceremonies. It also demonstrates empiric atmosphere, signifying victory of wars.

10

Mongo Santa

Rhythmic Latin samba music

Latino festival; Brazilian kind of passion and happiness. Leisurely and relaxing.

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About the authors

Yung-Cheng Shen is an assistant professor at Yuan-ze University in Taiwan. His current research interests focus on consumer brand attitudes and choices, brand management, advertising effects, and consumer behavior on the Internet. Ting-Chen Chen was a graduate student at Yuan-ze University. She earned her MBA degree in July 2003. She is currently working as the Account Manager at the Customer Business Development Division (CBD) of the Procter & Gamble Company. Address correspondence to Yung-Cheng Shen, Assistant Professor, Department of Business Administration, Yuan-ze University, 135 YuanTung Rd, Neili, Taoyuan, 320, Taiwan. Email: ycs@saturn.yzu.edu.tw

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