Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Dr. H. Osborn1
Michælmas 1997
1 A
LT
EXed by Paul Metcalfe – comments and corrections to pdm23@cam.ac.uk.
Revision: 2.5
Date: 1999-06-06 14:10:19+01
Introduction v
1 Basics 1
1.1 Review of earlier work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Dirac Formalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Continuum basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Action of operators on wavefunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Momentum space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.4 Commuting operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.5 Unitary Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.6 Time dependence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3 Multiparticle Systems 13
3.1 Combination of physical systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Multiparticle Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.1 Identical particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.2.2 Spinless bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2.3 Spin 12 fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Two particle states and centre of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Perturbation Expansions 19
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.2 Non-degenerate perturbation theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 Degeneracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
iii
iv CONTENTS
Introduction
These notes are based on the course “Foundations of Quantum Mechanics” given by
Dr. H. Osborn in Cambridge in the Michælmas Term 1997. Recommended books are
discussed in the bibliography at the back.
Other sets of notes are available for different courses. At the time of typing these
courses were:
Probability Discrete Mathematics
Analysis Further Analysis
Methods Quantum Mechanics
Fluid Dynamics 1 Quadratic Mathematics
Geometry Dynamics of D.E.’s
Foundations of QM Electrodynamics
Methods of Math. Phys Fluid Dynamics 2
Waves (etc.) Statistical Physics
General Relativity Dynamical Systems
Physiological Fluid Dynamics Bifurcations in Nonlinear Convection
Slow Viscous Flows Turbulence and Self-Similarity
Acoustics Non-Newtonian Fluids
Seismic Waves
v
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2
then we say that d3 x |ψ| is the probability of finding the particle in the infinitesimal
region d3 x (at x).
Superposition Principle
1
2 CHAPTER 1. BASICS
This has various properties which you can investigate at your leisure.
Interpretative Postulate
Given a particle in a state represented by a wavefunction ψ (henceforth “in a state
2
ψ”) then the probability of finding the particle in state φ is P = |(φ, ψ)| and if the
wavefunctions are normalised then 0 ≤ P ≤ 1. P = 1 if ψ ∼ φ.
We wish to define (linear) operators on our vector space — do the obvious thing.
In finite dimensions we can choose a basis and replace an operator with a matrix.
For a complex vector space we can define the Hermitian conjugate of the operator A
to be the operator A† satisfying (φ, Aψ) = (A† φ, ψ). If A = A† then A is Hermitian.
Note that if A is linear then so is A† .
In quantum mechanics dynamical variables (such as energy, momentum or angular
momentum) are represented by (linear) Hermitian operators, the values of the dynam-
ical variables being given by the eigenvalues. For wavefunctions ψ(x), A is usually
a differential operator. For a single particle moving in a potential V (x) we get the
2
Hamiltonian H = − 2m ∇2 + V (x). Operators may have either a continuous or dis-
crete spectrum.
If A is Hermitian then the eigenfunctions corresponding to different eigenvalues
are orthogonal. We assume completeness — that any wavefunction can be expanded
as a linear combination of eigenfunctions.
The expectation value for A in a state with wavefunction ψ is
Aψ , defined to be
2 2
i λi |ai | = (ψ, Aψ). We define the square deviation ∆A to be
(A −
Aψ ) ψ
2
Time dependence
This is governed by the Schrödinger equation
∂ψ
ı = Hψ,
∂t
where H is the Hamiltonian. H must be Hermitian for the consistency of quantum
mechanics:
∂
ı (ψ, ψ) = (ψ, Hψ) − (Hψ, ψ) = 0
∂t
if H is Hermitian. Thus we can impose the condition (ψ, ψ) = 1 for all time (if ψ is
normalisable).
If we consider eigenfunctions ψi of H with eigenvalues Ei we can expand a general
wavefunction as
ıEi
ψ(x, t) = ai e− t ψi (x).
If ψ is normalised then the probability of finding the system with energy Ei is |ai |2 .
1.2. THE DIRAC FORMALISM 3
We can also rewrite  = i |ψi λi
ψi | and if λj = 0 ∀j then we can define
−1
−1
 = i |ψi λi
ψi |.
We now choose an orthonormal basis {|n} with
n|m = δnm and the complete-
ness relation 1̂ = n |n
n|. We can thus expand |ψ = n an |n with an =
n|ψ.
We now consider a linear operator Â, and then Â|ψ = n an Â|n = m am |m,
with am =
m|Â|ψ = n an
m|Â|n. Further, putting Amn =
m|Â|n we get
am = n Amn an and therefore solving Â|ψ = λ|ψ is equivalent to solving the
equation Aa = λa. Amnis called the matrix representation of Â. We also have
matrix
ψ| = n a∗n
n|, with an ∗ = m a∗m A†mn , where A†mn = A∗nm gives the Hermitian
conjugate matrix. This is the matrix representation of † .
The relationship between x̂ and p̂ is [x̂i , p̂j ] = ıδij . In one dimension [x̂, p̂] = ı.
We have a useful rule for calculating commutators, that is:
Â, B̂ Ĉ = Â, B̂ Ĉ + B̂ Â, Ĉ .
x̂, p̂2 = [x̂, p̂] p̂ + p̂ [x̂, p̂]
= 2ıp̂.
δ(p − p) =
p |p = da
p |a
a|p
ıa(p−p )
2
= |N | da e
= |N | 2π δ(p − p)
2
12
So, because we are free to choose the phase of N , we can set N = 1
2π and
1 12 ıxp
thus
x|p = 2π e . We could define |p by
12
1 ıxp
|p = dx |x
x|p = dx |xe ,
2π
x|p̂|ψ = dp
x|p̂|p
p|ψ
= dp p
x|p
p|ψ
12
1 ıxp
= dp pe
p|ψ
2π
d
= −ı dp
x|p
p|ψ
dx
d d
= −ı
x|ψ = −ı ψ(x).
dx dx
The commutation relation [x̂, p̂] = ı corresponds to x, −ı dx
d
= ı (acting on
ψ(x)).
p|V (x̂)|ψ = dx
p|V (x̂)|x
x|ψ
12
1 ıxp
= dx e− V (x)
x|ψ
2π
1 ıx(p −p)
= dx dp V (x)ψ̃(p )e
2π
= dp Ṽ (p − p )ψ̃(p ),
ıxp
where Ṽ (p) = 1
2π dx e− V (x). Thus in momentum space,
p2
Hp ψ̃(p) = ψ̃(p) + dp Ṽ (p − p )ψ̃(p ).
2m
1.2. THE DIRAC FORMALISM 7
Proof. Suppose Â|ψ = λ|ψ and the vector subspace Vλ is the span of the eigenvec-
tors of  with eigenvalue λ. (If dim Vλ > 1 then λ is said to be degenerate.)
As  and B̂ commute we know that λB̂|ψ = ÂB̂|ψ and so B̂|ψ ∈ Vλ . If λ is
non-degenerate then B̂|ψ = µ|ψ for some µ. Otherwise we have that B̂ : Vλ → Vλ
and we can therefore find eigenvectors of B̂ which lie entirely inside Vλ . We can label
these as |λ, µ, and we know that
Â|λ, µ = λ|λ, µ
B̂|λ, µ = µ|λ, µ.
These may still be degenerate. However we can in principle remove this degener-
acy by adding more commuting operators until each state is uniquely labeled by the
eigenvalues of each common eigenvector. This set of operators is called a complete
commuting set.
This isn’t so odd: for a single particle in 3 dimensions we have the operators x̂1 , x̂2
and x̂3 . These all commute, so for a single particle with no other degrees of freedom
we can label states uniquely by |x. We also note from this example that a complete
commuting set is not unique, we might just as easily have taken the momentum opera-
tors and labeled states by |p. To ram the point in more, we could also have taken some
weird combination like x̂1 , x̂2 and p̂3 .
For our single particle in 3 dimensions, a natural set of commuting operators in-
volves the angular momentum operator, L̂ = x̂ ∧ p̂, or L̂i = ijk x̂j p̂k .
We can find commutation relations between L̂i and the other operators we know.
These are summarised here, proof is straightforward.
• L̂i , x̂l = ıilj x̂j
• L̂i , x̂2 = 0
• L̂i , p̂m = ıimk p̂k
• L̂i , p̂2 = 0
• L̂i , L̂j = ıijk L̂k
• L̂i , L̂2 = 0
p̂2
If we have a Hamiltonian Ĥ = 2m + V (|x̂|) then we can also see that L̂, Ĥ = 0.
We choose as a commuting set Ĥ, L̂2 and L̂3 and label states |E, l, m, where the
eigenvalue of L̂2 is l(l + 1) and the eigenvalue of L̂3 is m.
8 CHAPTER 1. BASICS
∂
ı |ψ(t) = Ĥ|ψ(t).
∂t
∂
ı ÂH (t) = ÂH (t), Ĥ ,
∂t
which is easily proven.
For a Hamiltonian Ĥ = 2m p̂(t)
1 2
+ V (x̂(t)) we can get the Heisenberg equations
for the operators x̂H and p̂H
d 1
x̂H (t) = p̂H (t)
dt m
d
p̂H (t) = −V (x̂H (t)).
dt
These ought to remind you of something.
Chapter 2
In quantum mechanics there are two basic solvable systems, the harmonic oscillator
and the hydrogen atom. We will examine the quantum harmonic oscillator using al-
gebraic methods. In quantum mechanics the harmonic oscillator is governed by the
Hamiltonian
1 2 1
Ĥ = p̂ + 2 mω 2 x̂2 ,
2m
with the condition that [x̂, p̂] = ı. We wish to solve Ĥ|ψ = E|ψ to find the energy
eigenvalues.
We define a new operator â.
mω 12 ıp̂
â = x̂ +
2 mω
mω 12 ıp̂
↠= x̂ − .
2 mω
9
10 CHAPTER 2. THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
1 =
n|n
= Cn2
0|ân â†n |0
= Cn2
0|ân−1 â↠â†n−1 |0
Cn2
=
n − 1|â↠|n − 1
Cn−1
2
Cn2
=
n − 1|N̂ + 1|n − 1
Cn−1
2
Cn2
= (n − 1 + 1)
n − 1|n − 1
Cn−1
2
Cn2
=n .
Cn−1
2
Cn−1 − 12
We thus require Cn = √
n
and as C0 = 1 we get Cn = (n!) and so we have
the normalised eigenstate (of N̂ ) |n = √1n! â†n |0 (with eigenvalue n). |n is also an
eigenvector of Ĥ with eigenvalue ω n + 12 . The space of states for the harmonic
oscillator is spanned by {|n}.
We also need to ask if there exists a non-zero state |ψ such that ↠|ψ = 0. Then
√ √
↠|n = n + 1|n + 1 and â|n = n|n − 1.
For example
12
m|x̂|n =
m|â + ↠|n
2mω
12
√ √
= n
m|n − 1 + n + 1
m|n + 1
2mω
12
√ √
= n δm,n−1 + n + 1 δm,n+1 .
2mω
This is non-zero only if m = n ± 1. We note that x̂r contains terms âs â†r−s , where
0 ≤ s ≤ r and so
m|x̂r |n can be non-zero only if n − r ≤ m ≤ n + r.
Ĥt Ĥt
It is easy to see that in the Heisenberg picture âH (t) = eı âe−ı = e−ıωt â.
Then using the equations for x̂H (t) and p̂H (t), we see that
Also, Ĥâ†H (t) = â†H (t)(Ĥ + ω), so if |ψ is an energy eigenstate with eigenvalue
E then â†H (t)|ψ is an energy eigenstate with eigenvalue E + ω.
1 And such problems always occur in Tripos papers. You have been warned.
12 CHAPTER 2. THE HARMONIC OSCILLATOR
Chapter 3
Multiparticle Systems
We see that dim(V1 ⊗ V2 ) = dim V1 dim V2 . We also write the basis vectors of
V1 ⊗V2 as |r, s. We can define a scalar product on V1 ⊗V2 in terms of the basis vectors:
r , s |r, s =
r |r1
s |s2 . We can see that if {|r1 } and {|s2 } are orthonormal
bases for their respective vector spaces then {|r, s} is an orthonormal basis for V1 ⊗V2 .
Suppose Â1 is an operator on V1 and B̂2 is an operator on V2 we can define an
operator Â1 × B̂2 on V1 ⊗ V2 by its operation on the basis vectors:
Â1 × B̂2 |r1 |s2 = Â1 |r1 B̂2 |s2 .
p̂2i
Ĥi = + 1 mω x̂2i i = 1, 2.
2m 2
We have two independent vector spaces Vi with bases |ni where n = 0, 1, . . . and
âi and â†i are creation and annihilation operators on Vi , and
Ĥi |ni = ω n + 12 |ni .
13
14 CHAPTER 3. MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS
The three dimensional harmonic oscillator follows similarly. In general if Ĥ1 and
Ĥ2 are two independent Hamiltonians which act on V1 and V2 respectively then the
Hamiltonian for the combined system is Ĥ = Ĥ1 + Ĥ2 acting on V1 ⊗ V2 . If {|ψr }
and {|ψs } are eigenbases for V1 and V2 with energy eigenvalues {Er1 } and {Es2 }
respectively then the basis vectors {|Ψr,s } for V1 ⊗ V2 have energies Er,s = Er1 + Es2 .
2
We can interpret d3 x1 . . . d3 xN |Ψ(x1 , x2 , . . . , xN )| as the probability density
that particle i is in the volume element d3 xi at xi . We can obtain the probability
density for one particle by integrating out all the other xj ’s.
∂
For time evolution we get the equation ı ∂t |Ψ = Ĥ|Ψ, where Ĥ is an operator
N
on H .
If the particles do not interact then
N
Ĥ = Ĥi
i=1
where Ĥi acts on Hi but leaves Hj alone for j = i. We have energy eigenstates in each
Hi such that Ĥi |ψr i = Er |ψr i and so |Ψ = |ψr1 1 |ψr2 2 . . . |ψrN N is an energy
eigenstate with energy Er1 + · · · + ErN .
1
and the corresponding eigenvalues are 2Er and Er +Es . The factor of 2− 2 just ensures
normalisation and
√1
N!
(|ψr1 1 . . . |ψrN N + permutations thereof) if ri = rj
1 Spin will be studied later in the course.
16 CHAPTER 3. MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS
1
3.2.3 Spin 2
fermions
In this case (which covers electrons, for example) a single particle state (or wavefunc-
tion) depends on an additional discrete variable s. The wavefunctions are ψ(x, s) or
ψs (x). The space of states for a single electron H = L2 (R3 ) ⊗ C2 has a basis of the
form |x|s ≡ |x, s and the wavefunctions can be written ψs (x) =
x, s|ψ. A basis
of wavefunctions is {ψrλ (x, s) = ψr (x)χλ (s)}, where r and λ are labels for the basis.
λ takes two values and it will later be seen to be natural
to take λ = ± 21 .
χλ (1)
We can also think of the vector χλ = , in which case two possible basis
χλ (2)
1 0
vectors are and . Note that χ†λ χλ = δλλ .
0 1
The scalar product is defined in the obvious way:
φr λ |φrλ =
ψr |ψr
χλ |χλ ,
which equals δrr δλλ if the initial basis states are orthonormal.
The two electron wavefunction is Ψ(x1 , s1 ; x2 , s2 ) and under the particle exchange
operator Û we must have Ψ(x1 , s1 ; x2 , s2 ) → −Ψ(x2 , s2 ; x1 , s1 ). The two particle
states belong to the antisymmetric combination (H1 ⊗ H2 )A .
For N electrons the obvious thing can be done.
We can now examine two non-interacting electrons, with Ĥ = Ĥ1 + Ĥ2 and take
Hi independent of spin. The single particle states are |ψi |χs .
The two electron states live in (H1 ⊗ H2 )A , which has a basis
If we neglect the interaction term we can analyse this as two hydrogen atoms and
glue the results back together as above. The hydrogen atom (with a nuclear charge 2e)
−2e2
has En = 8π 0n
2 , so we get a ground state for the helium atom with energy 2E1 with
no degeneracy and a first excited state with energy E1 + E2 with a degeneracy of four.
Hopefully these bear some relation to the results obtained by taking the interaction into
account.
1
P̂ = p̂1 + p̂2 p̂ = (p̂1 − p̂2 )
2
1
X̂ = (x̂1 + x̂2 ) x̂ = x̂1 − x̂2 .
2
Then X̂i , P̂j = ıδij , [x̂i , p̂j ] = ıδij and X̂, P̂ and x̂, p̂ commute respectively.
2 2
We can rewrite the Hamiltonian as Ĥ = 2M P̂
+ ĥ, ĥ = p̂m + V (x̂), where M = 2m and
we can decompose H2 into HCM ⊗ Hint . HCM is acted on by X̂ and P̂ and has wave-
functions φ(X). Hint is acted on by x̂, p̂ and any spin operators. It has wavefunctions
ψ(x, s1 , s2 ). We take wavefunctions Ψ(x1 , s1 ; x2 , s2 ) = Φ(X)ψ(x, s1 , s2 ) in H2 .
ıP.X
This simplifies the Schrödinger equation, we can just have φ(X) = e and then
P2
E = 2M + Eint . We thus need only to solve the one particle equation ĥψ = Eint ψ.
Under the particle exchange operator Û we have
with a plus sign for bosons and a minus sign for fermions. In the spinless case then
ψ(x) = ψ(−x).
If we have a potential V (|x̂|) then we may separate variables to get
x
ψ(x, s1 , s2 ) = Yl R(|x|)χ(s1 , s2 )
|x|
x x
with Yl − |x| = (−1)l Yl |x| . For spinless bosons we therefore require l to be even.
3.4 Observation
Consider the tensor product of two systems H1 and H2 . A general state |Ψ in H1 ⊗H2
can be written as
|Ψ = aij |ψi 1 |φj 2
i,j
with |ψi 1 ∈ H1 and |φj 2 ∈ H2 assumed orthonormal bases for their respective vector
spaces.
18 CHAPTER 3. MULTIPARTICLE SYSTEMS
Suppose we make a measurement on the first system leaving the second system
unchanged, and find the first system in a state |ψi 1 . Then 1
ψi |Ψ = j aij |φj 2 ,
which we write as Ai |φ2 , where |φ2 is a normalised state of the second system. We
2
interpret |Ai | as the probability of finding system 1 in state |ψi 1 . After measurement
system 2 is in a state |φ2 .
If aij = λi δij (no summation) then Ai = λi and measurement of system 1 as |ψi 1
determines system 2 to be in state |φi 2 .
Chapter 4
Perturbation Expansions
4.1 Introduction
Most problems in quantum mechanics are not exactly solvable and it it necessary to
find approximate answers to them. The simplest method is a perturbation expansion.
We write Ĥ = Ĥ0 + Ĥ where Ĥ0 describes a solvable system with known eigenvalues
and eigenvectors, and Ĥ is in some sense small.
We write Ĥ(λ) = Ĥ0 + λĤ and expand the eigenvalues and eigenvectors in
powers of λ. Finally we set λ = 1 to get the result. Note that we do not necessarily
have to introduce λ; the problem may have some small parameter which we can use.
This theory can be applied to the time dependent problem but here we will only discuss
the time independent Schrödinger equation.
substitute into the Schrödinger equation and require it to be satisfied at each power
of λ. The normalisation constant N is easily seen to be 1 + O(λ2 ). The O(1) equation
is automatically satisfied and the O(λ) equation is
(1) (1)
Note that we can always replace |ψn with |ψn + α|n and leave this equation
(1)
unchanged. We can therefore impose the condition
n|ψn = 0. If we apply
n| to
19
20 CHAPTER 4. PERTURBATION EXPANSIONS
this equation we get En =
n|Ĥ |n — the first order perturbation in energy. If we
(1)
r|Ĥ |n
r|ψn(1) = −
r − n
and therefore
|r
r|Ĥ |n
|ψn(1) = − .
r − n
r=n
Note that we are justified in these divisions as we have assumed that the eigenvalues
are non-degenerate. On doing the same thing to the O(λ2 ) equation we see that
∂ 1
|ψn (λ) = − |ψr (λ)
ψr (λ)|Ĥ |ψn (λ).
∂λ Er (λ) − En (λ)
r=n
∂ Ĥ
Also ∂λ = Ĥ and so
∂2 ∂
En (λ) = 2
ψn (λ)|Ĥ |ψn (λ).
∂λ2 ∂λ
En(1) = ω n + 12
1 1
En(2) = − ω n + .
2 2
4.3 Degeneracy
The method given here breaks down if r = n for r = n. Perturbation theory can be
extended to the degenerate case, but we will consider only the first order shift in r .
We suppose that the states |n, s, s = 1 . . . Nn have the same energy n . Nn is the
degeneracy of this energy level.
As before we pose a Hamiltonian Ĥ = Ĥ0 + λĤ such that Ĥ0 |n, s = n |n, s
and look for states |ψ(λ) with energy E(λ) → n as λ → 0.
The difference with the previous method is that we expand |ψ(λ) as a power series
in λ in the basis of eigenvectors of Ĥ0 . That is
|ψ(λ) = |n, sas + λ|ψ (1) .
s
As the as are arbitrary we can impose the conditions
n, s|ψ (1) = 0 for each s and
n. We thus have to solve Ĥ|ψ(λ) = E(λ)|ψ(λ) with E(λ) = n + λE (1) . If we take
the O(λ) equation and apply
n, r| to it we get
as
n, r|Ĥ |n, s = ar En(1)
s
which is a matrix eigenvalue problem. Thus the first order perturbations in n are
the eigenvalues of the matrix
n, r|Ĥ |n, s. If all the eigenvalues are distinct then
the perturbation “lifts the degeneracy”. It is convenient for the purpose of calculation
to choose a basis for the space spanned by the degenerate eigenvectors in which this
matrix is “as diagonal as possible”.1
1 Don’t ask...
22 CHAPTER 4. PERTURBATION EXPANSIONS
Chapter 5
For a particle with position and momentum operators x̂ and p̂ with the commutation
relations [x̂i , pˆj ] =
ıδij we define L̂ = x̂ ∧ p̂. It can be seen that L̂ is Hermitian and
it is easy to show L̂i , L̂j = ıijk L̂k .
5.1 Introduction
We want to find out if there are other Hermitian operators J which satisfy this com-
mutation relation.1 We ask on what space of states can this algebra of operators be
realised, or alternatively, what are the representations?
We want
[Ji , Jj ] = ıijk Jk .
We will choose one component of J whose eigenvalues
label the states. In accor-
dance with convention we choose J3 . Note that J2 , J3 = 0, so we can simultaneously
diagonalise J2 and J3 . Denote the normalised eigenbasis by |λ µ, so that
[J± , J3 ] = ±J±
[J+ , J− ] = 2J3
J2 = 1
2 (J+ J− + J− J+ ) + J32
= J+ J− − J3 + J32
= J− J+ + J3 + J32 .
1 The ~ is taken outside - you can put it back in if you want, it is inessential but may or may not appear in
exam questions. Since we are now grown up we will omit the hats if they do not add to clarity.
23
24 CHAPTER 5. GENERAL THEORY OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
J3 J± |λ µ = (µ ± 1) J± |λ µ
λ µ|J∓ J± |λ µ = λ − µ2 ∓ µ ≥ 0.
We can now define states |λ (µ ± n) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . . We can pin them down
more by noting that λ − µ2 ∓ 2µ ≥ 0 for positive norms. However the formulae we
have are, given λ, negative for sufficiently large |µ| and so to avoid this we must have
µmax = j such that J+ |j = 0: hence λ − j 2 − j = 0 and so λ = j(j + 1).
We can perform a similar trick with J− ; there must exist µmin = −j such that
J− | − j = 0: thus λ = j (j + 1). So j = j and as −j = −j = j − n for some
n ∈ {0, 1, 2, . . . } we have j = 0, 12 , 1, 32 , . . . .
In summary the states can be labelled by |j m such that
J2 |j m = j(j + 1)|j m
J3 |j m = m|j m
1
J± |j m = ((j ∓ m) (j ± m + 1)) 2 |j m ± 1
1
5.1.1 Spin 2
particles
This is the simplest non-trivial case. We have j = 12 and a two dimensional state space
with a basis | 12 12 and | 12 − 12 . We have the relations J3 | 12 ± 12 = ± 21 | 12 ± 12 and
J+ | 12 2
1
=0 J− | 12 2
1
= | 12 − 12
J+ | 12 − 2
1
= | 12 2
1
J− | 12 − 2
1
= 0.
5.1. INTRODUCTION 25
The matrices σ are 2 × 2 matrices (called the Pauli spin matrices). Explicitly, they
are
0 2 0 0 1 0
σ+ = σ− = σ3 =
0 0 2 0 0 −1
1 0 1 −ı 0 −ı
σ1 = (σ+ + σ− ) = σ2 = (σ+ − σ− ) = .
2 1 0 2 ı 0
Note that σ12 = σ22 = σ32 = 1 and σ † = σ. These satisfy the commutation relations
[σi , σj ] = 2ıijk σk (a slightly modified angular momentum commutation relation)
and we also have σ2 σ3 = ıσ1 (and the relations obtained by cyclic permutation), so
σi σj + σj σi = 2δij 1. Thus if n̂ is a unit vector we have (σ.n̂)2 = 1 and we see that
σ.n̂ has eigenvalues ±1.
matrices s= 2 σ and so s = 4 1.
1 2 3 2
We define the angular momentum
1 0
The basis states are χ 12 = and χ− 12 = .
0 1
√
0 2 √0 1 0 0
S+ = 0 0 2 S3 = 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 −1
†
and S− = S+ .
5.1.3 Electrons
Electrons are particles with intrinsic spin 12 . The angular momentum J = x̂ ∧ p̂ + s, s
are the spin operators for spin 12 .
The basic operators for an electron are x̂, p̂ and s. We can represent these operators
by their action on two component wavefunctions:
ψ(x) = ψλ (x)χλ .
λ=± 12
p̂2
H= + V (x) + U (x)σ.L
2m
where L = x̂ ∧ p̂.
If V and U depend only on |x| then [J, H] = 0.
26 CHAPTER 5. GENERAL THEORY OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
J3 |J M = M |J M
±
J± |J M = NJ,M |J M ± 1
±
with NJ,M = (J ∓ M ) (J ± M + 1). We look for states in V which satisfy
J+ |J J = 0 and J3 |J J = J|J J. The maximum value of J we can get is j1 + j2 ;
and |j1 + j2 j1 + j2 = |j1 j1 1 |j2 j2 2 . Then J+ |j1 + j2 j1 + j2 = 0. Similarly this
is an eigenvector of J3 with eigenvalue (j1 + j2 ). We can now apply J− repeatedly to
form all the |J M states. Applying J− we get
−
The coefficents α and β can be determined from the coefficents Na,b , and we must
have α + β = 1. If we choose |ψ a state orthogonal to this;
2 2
J3 |ψ can be computed and it shows that |ψ is an eigenvector of J3 with eigenvalue
(j1 + j2 − 1). Now
and so ψ|J− |φ = 0 for all states |φ in V . Thus J+ |ψ = 0 and
j
1 +j2 j
1 +j2
(2J + 1) = (J + 1)2 − J 2 = (2j1 + 1) (2j2 + 1) .
J=|j1 −j2 | J=|j1 −j2 |
5.3. THE MEANING OF QUANTUM MECHANICS 27
Electrons
Electrons have spin 12 and we can represent their spin states with χ± 12 (s). Using this
notation we see that two electrons can form a symmetric spin 1 triplet
χ 2 (s
)χ 1 (s )
1
1 2 2
χm (s1 , s2 ) = √2 χ 12 (s1 )χ− 12 (s2 ) + χ− 12 (s1 )χ 12 (s2 )
1
χ 1 (s )χ 1 (s )
−2 1 −2 2
Suppose n = (sin θ, 0, cos θ) (a unit vector) and let us find the eigenvectors of
cos θ sin θ
σ.n = .
sin θ − cos θ
2
As (σ.n) = 1 we must have eigenvalues ±1 and an inspired guess gives χ↑,n and
χ↓,n as
Thus (reverting to ket vector notation) if an electron is in a state |↑ then the prob-
ability of finding it in a state |↑, n is cos2 θ2 and the probability of finding it in a state
|↓, n is sin2 θ2 .
Now, suppose we have two electrons in a spin 0 singlet state;
1
|Φ = √ {|↑1 |↓2 − |↓1 |↑2 } .
2
Then the probability of finding electron 1 with spin up is 12 , and after making this
measurement electron 2 must be spin down. Similarly, if we find electron 1 with spin
down (probability 12 again) then electron 2 must have spin up. More generally, suppose
we measure electron 1’s spin along direction n. Then we see that the probability for
28 CHAPTER 5. GENERAL THEORY OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM
0 ≤ p Sz(1) , Sn(1) , Sm
(1)
, Sz(2) , Sn(2) , Sm
(2)
≤1
(1) (2)
which is nonzero only if Sdirn = −Sdirn and
p({s}) = 1.
{s}
Bell inequality
P Sn(1) = 1, Sm
(2)
= 1 ≤ P Sz(1) = 1, Sn(2) = −1 + P Sz(1) = −1, Sm
(2)
=1 .
φ θ θ+φ
The Bell inequality gives sin2 2 ≤ cos2 2 + cos2 2 which is not in general true.
References
◦ P.A.M. Dirac, The Principles of Quantum Mechanics, Fourth ed., OUP, 1958.
I enjoyed this book as a good read but it is also an eminently suitable textbook.
There must be a good, modern textbook for this course. If you know of one please
send me a brief review and I will include it if I think it is suitable. In any case, with
these marvellous notes you don’t need a textbook, do you?
Related courses
There are courses on Statistical Physics and Applications of Quantum Mechanics in
Part 2B and courses on Quantum Physics and Symmetries and Groups in Quantum
Physics in Part 2A.
29