Chapter 2 Control Volumes and Units 2011

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Macroscopic & Microscopic Approach

A substance consists of a large number of particles called molecules. The properties of the substance naturally depend on the behavior of these particles. Macroscopic approach (Classical Thermodynamics): Based on the gross or average effects of many molecules. Microscopic approach (Statistical Thermodynamics): Deal with average values of all particles under consideration.
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Basic Concepts & Definitions

Thermodynamics system: It is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. Surrounding: The region outside the system is called surrounding. Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that separate the system from its surroundings is called boundary. It can be fixed or movable.
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Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems

A closed system or control mass consists of a fixed amount of mass and no mass may cross the system boundary. The closed system boundary may move.
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Examples of closed systems are sealed tanks and piston cylinder devices (Note: The volume need not be fixed).
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An open system, or control volume, has mass as well as energy crossing the boundary, called a control surface. Examples are pumps, compressors, turbines, valves, and heat exchangers.
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BITS F111 / ES C112 H YDERABAD C AMPUS THERMODYNAMICS An isolated system is a general system of fixed mass (closed system) where no heat or work may cross the boundaries. It is a collection of a main system and its surroundings that are exchanging mass and energy among themselves and no other system. Isolated System Boundary
Heat = 0 Work = 0 Mass = 0 Across Isolated Boundary
Work Surr 4 Mass Surr 1 Surr 2 System Heat Mass Surr 3
The universe by default is an isolated system.
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BITS F111 / ES C112 H YDERABAD C AMPUS THERMODYNAMICS Suggest appropriate models for the following operations:
(a) Pumping of water (using a pump from a ground level tank to elevated tank) (b) Cooking of food (held in a covered container) (c) Generation of steam (by heating a steady stream of water entering a boiler)
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Properties of a System
Any observable characteristic of a system is called a property. Examples are pressure P, temperature T, volume V, and mass m. Not all properties are independent. Some are defined in terms of other ones. For example, m kg 3 Density is defined as the mass per unit volume, =
V m
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance, s = H O
2
Specific volume is defined as the volume per unit mass, Properties may be intensive or extensive.
V 1 = = m
m3 kg
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Extensive properties are those that vary directly with size or extent of the system. Intensive properties are those that are independent of the size of a system, such as temperature, pressure, and density.
If the value of any extensive property is divided by the mass of the system, the resulting property is intensive and is called a specific property. Eg. Specific volume, Specific total energy, Specific internal energy
Volume V v= = mass m m3 kg
e=
E m
9
kJ kg
u=
U m
kJ kg
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Property Temperature Pressure Internal energy Volume Mass Dynamic viscosity Entropy Enthalpy
Examples of Properties
Intensive Extensive symbol T p U V m S H s h u v specific property units K Pa (N/m) J/kg m/kg kg Ns/m J/kgK J/kg
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State and Equilibrium

The state of a system is the condition of the system described by the values of its properties.
A system is said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium if it maintains thermal, mechanical, phase and chemical equilibrium. Thermodynamics deals with equilibrium states.
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Thermal equilibrium requires that the temperature be uniform throughout the system.
Mechanical equilibrium implies an equality of pressure throughout the system. A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical composition doesnt change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
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Process
A process is a change of a system from one equilibrium state to another. The series of states through which a system passes during a process is called the path of the process.
When a process proceeds in a very slow manner that the system remains infinitesimally close to equilibrium state at all times, it is called a quasi-static, or quasi-equilibrium process.
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The quasi-equilibrium process is an idealized process. But many actual processes closely approximate it, and they can be modeled as quasi-equilibrium with negligible error. Engineers are interested in quasi-equilibrium for two reasons: They are easy to analyze. Work-producing devices deliver the most work when they operate on quasiequilibrium process.
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Plotted with thermodynamics properties as co-ordinates are very useful in visualizing the process. The P-V diagram of a compression process is shown below.
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The prefix iso- is often used to designate a process for which a particular property remains constant. Some of these processes are:
Process
isobaric isothermal isochoric isentropic
Property held constant

Pressure Temperature Volume Entropy
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The State Postulate (State Principle)

The state of a system is described by its properties. No need to specify all the properties in order to fix a state. The number of properties required to fix the state of a simple, homogeneous system is given by the state postulate: The thermodynamic state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.
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BITS F111 / ES C112 H YDERABAD C AMPUS THERMODYNAMICS A system is called a simple compressible system in the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational, and surface tension effects. These effects are due to external force fields and are negligible for most engineering problems.
Otherwise, an additional property needs to be specified for each effects that is significant. If the gravitational effects are to be considered, the elevation z needs to be specified in addition to the two properties necessary to fix the state.
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H YDERABAD C AMPUS Independent properties: One property can be varied while the other one is held constant. Temperature and specific volume are independent properties. p and T are independent properties in single-phase systems.
Dependent properties:
Function of independent property (or properties). p = f(T) or T = f(p) in two-phase systems.
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Cycle
A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end of the process. The change in any property y for a cycle is mathematically given by dy = 0 Where the symbol denotes the cyclic integral for the closed path. The cyclic integral of a property is always zero.
P 2
Process B
Process A
1 V
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A property change for a process with given end states 1 and 2 is described mathematically
dy = y
1
y1 = y
The change in the value of a property that occurs when a system is altered from one equilibrium state to another is always the same, regardless of the process used to bring about the change.
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Energy
Viewed as the capacity to do work or the ability to cause changes. It can be stored within a system and can be transferred from one system to another. From the molecular view point: Intermolecular potential energy (forces between molecules). Molecular kinetic energy (translational velocity of individual molecules). Intramolecular energy (molecular and atomic structure and related forces).
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From the molecular view point:

Energy that is transferred as heat, the change in properties, and the total amount of energy (relative to some base) water contains at any instant. How energy is stored in the water doesnt concern.
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Continuum
It is very convenient to disregard the atomic nature of a substance and view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes.
V v = lim V V m V = smallest volume

for which mass can be considered a continuum.
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Pressure
Defined as normal force per unit area. SI unit for pressure is Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2 1 bar = 105 Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa Standard atmosphere is defined as the pressure produced by a column of mercury (13595 kg/m3) exactly 760 mm (29.92 in) in height at 273.15 K and under standard gravitational acceleration (9.80665 m/s2). 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x 105 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 14.696 lbf/in2 or psi (pound-force per square inch).
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The pressure in a fluid increases with depth as a result of the weight of the fluid.
The pressure in a gas tank may be considered to be uniform since weight of the gas is too small to make a significant difference.
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Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position is called the absolute pressure. It is measured relative to absolute vacuum, that is, absolute zero pressure. Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric Note: Pressure values in numerical problems must be absolute. If atmospheric pressure is not given, then use standard value. Absolute, gauge, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities
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Pgauge = Pabs Patm (for pressure above Patm) Pvacuum = Patm Pabs (for pressure below Patm)
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Gauge pressure
Most pressure measuring device are calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate the difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the gauge pressure.
Bourdon tube gage

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Some basic pressure gages

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Barometer
Apparatus used to measure pressure; derived from the Greek word "baros" meaning "weight".
Patm A = gh A Patm = gh
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P0 A + mg = P0 A + AHg Upward acting force = PB A Upward force = Downward force PB = P0 + gH
Consider a column of fluid of height H standing above point B in the manometer. The force acting downward at point B is
Example of pressure measuring using a column of fluid. Since points A and B are at the same elevation, pressure at that level must be equal. Therefore, P = PA = PB
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P = P P0 = gH
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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, these two would also be in thermal equilibrium with each other. This simple fact is known as the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
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Thermometric Properties
The temperature of a chosen system is determined by bringing a second body, a thermometer, into contact with the system and allowing thermal equilibrium to be reached. The value of the temperature is found by measuring some temperature-dependent property of the thermometer. Any such property is called a thermometric property (repeatable and predictable). Commonly used properties of materials employed in temperature sensing devices include:
Volume of gases, liquids, and solids : eg. mercury in glass thermometer. Pressure of gases at constant volume: eg. constant-volume thermometer. Electric resistance of solids : electrical resistance sensors involves both normal conductors (such as platinum) as well as semiconductors. Electromotive force of two dissimilar solids : eg. thermocouples. Intensity of radiation (high temp): eg. optical pyrometers. Chapter:2
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Temperature Scale
Temperature scales aim at using a common basis for temperature measurements. All the temperature scales are based on some easily reproducible states, the freezing and boiling point of water, also called the as the ice point and the steam point. The temperature of ice and water, which are in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure is said to be at the ice point. The temperature of water and steam, which are in equilibrium at 1 atm pressure is said to be at the steam point.
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The temperature scales in SI and English system are the Celsius scale (formerly called the centigrade scale) and the Fahrenheit scale. On Celsius scale, the ice and steam points are assigned the values 00C and 1000C, respectively. The corresponding values on the Fahrenheit scale are 320F and 2120F. These are often referred to as two-point scales.
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A more useful temperature scale in thermodynamics is the thermodynamics temperature scale or absolute scale. They are Kelvin scale and Rankine scale. Independent of the properties of any substance or substances. Temperature scale relationships: Kelvin scale: T(K) = T(0C) + 273.15 Rankine scale: T(0R) = T(0F) + 459.67 T(0F) = 1.8 T(0C) + 32 T(0R) = 1.8 T(K) T(K) = T(0C) T(0R) = T(0F) Lowest possible temperature: -273.15 0C = 0 K = -459.67 0F = 0 0R
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Numerical Problems
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Convert the following readings of pressure into absolute pressure (kPa), assuming the atmospheric pressure to be 760 mm of Hg. a) 90 cm Hg gauge b) 40 cm Hg vacuum c) 1. 2 m water gauge d) 0.1 bar vacuum
Hint: 1 atm = 760 mm Hg = 1.01325 bar = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2 = 10.3323 m H20.
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Reading of B is 300kPa Absolute pressure of chamber 2 = ?
1
B
Ans: 901.325 kPa
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A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser measures 0.66 m Hg. What is the absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa, when the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa? Ans: 13.3 kPa
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A large exhaust fan in a lab room keeps the pressure inside at 10 cm water relative vacuum to the hallway? What is the net force on the door measuring 1.9 m by 1.1 m? Ans: 2050 N
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A pipe flowing light oil (density = 910 kg/m3) has a manometer attached as shown in figure below. What is the absolute pressure in the pipe flow?
Ans: 106.4 kPa

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Chapter 2 Control Volumes and Units 2011

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BITSPILANI

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Macroscopic & Microscopic Approach

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Basic Concepts & Definitions

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Closed, Open, and Isolated Systems

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

The universe by default is an isolated system.

Thursday, 04 August 2011

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

State and Equilibrium

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

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BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

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BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Property held constant

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BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

The State Postulate (State Principle)

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Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

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BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

From the molecular view point:

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V v = lim V V m V = smallest volume

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BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Thursday, 04 August 2011

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

BITS F111 / ES C112 THERMODYNAMICS

Bourdon tube gage

Some basic pressure gages