Organised Crime and Trafficking in Eastern Africa

Crgan|sed Cr|me and
1raff|ck|ng |n Lastern
Afr|ca
A D|scuss|on aper
lot Jlscossloo ot tbe keqloool Mlolstetlol Meetloq oo
ltomotloq tbe kole of low ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty lo osteto Aftlco
Noltobl, keoyo, 2J-24 Novembet 2009
Crganlsed Crlme and 1rafflcklng ln LasLern Afrlca age 2

1A8LL CI CCN1LN1S

LxecuLlve Summary................................................................................................................3

1. lnLroducLlon ...................................................................................................................3

2. ConLrlbuLlng lacLors ......................................................................................................9

3. Crganlsed Crlme and Crlmlnal MarkeLs.......................................................................13

4. 1rafflcklng ln ersons and MlgranL Smuggllng ............................................................13

3. llrearms 1rafflcklng .....................................................................................................23

6. urug 1rafflcklng............................................................................................................28

7. LnvlronmenLal Crlme...................................................................................................32

8. CounLerfelLlng..............................................................................................................36

9. Money Launderlng.......................................................................................................39

10. lracy............................................................................................................................42

11. Concluslon and Way lorward ......................................................................................46

LkLCU1IVL SUMMAk

ln 2009, unCuC lnlLlaLed an exploraLory sLudy of lssues relaLlng Lo organlzed crlme and Lrafflcklng,
as a background Lo Lhe developmenL of Lhe 2009-12 8eglonal rogramme for LasLern Afrlca:
ltomotloq tbe kole of low ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty. ln boLh Lhls dlscusslon paper and ln Lhe 8eglonal
rogramme, LhlrLeen counLrles of LasLern Afrlca are consldered, lncludlng kenya, 1anzanla, uganda,
8urundl, 8wanda, u[lbouLl, LrlLrea, LLhlopla and Somalla, as well as Lhe lndlan Ccean lslands off Lhe
LasLern Afrlcan coasL Seychelles, Comoros, MaurlLlus and Madagascar.

LasLern Afrlca has experlenced conslderable progress Lowards susLalnable developmenL over Lhe lasL
years, buL aL Lhe same Llme, Lhe economlc crlsls, ongolng exLreme poverLy and lnequallLy, cllmaLe
change and a conLlnuous LhreaL of escalaLlng vlolence and confllcL ln Lhe reglon have conLlnued Lo
LhreaLen LasLern Afrlca's progress, and provlde a ferLlle ground for Lhe Lwln LhreaLs of organlzed
crlme and Lrafflcklng Lo flourlsh. CovernmenLs ln Lhe reglon have made efforLs Lo develop and
lmplemenL pollcles Lo Lurn Lhe Llde, buL lL ls ofLen Lhe case LhaL corrupLlon, weak governance and
rule of law have undermlned Lhose efforLs.

1hls dlscusslon paper examlnes Lhe daLa and envlronmenL regardlng Lhe dlfferenL aspecLs of
organlzed crlme and Lrafflcklng ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon, poslng Lhe quesLlon of wheLher or noL
Lhere are growlng Lrends of concern, and wheLher Lhey pose a slgnlflcanL LhreaL Lo Lhe developlng
sLablllLy and socleLles of LasLern Afrlca. 1he reporL explores Lhe followlng areas:

1. 1roffickinq in persons ond miqront smuqq/inq: uesplLe slgnlflcanL efforLs by governmenLs,
lnLernaLlonal agencles and nCCs Lo ellmlnaLe Lrafflcklng ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng, lL ls
sLlll a ma[or concern ln Afrlca. uue Lo Lhe large mlgraLlon flows resulLlng from formal economlc
unlons and expanslve, open borders, Lhe Lrafflcklng and smuggllng of people are noL easlly
deLecLed. 1he prospecL of beLLer llvlng condlLlons elsewhere, ls mosL frequenLly Lhe moLlvaLlng
facLor for Lrafflcklng ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng, as many people deslre Lo move closer Lo
areas LhaL presenL Lhem wlLh lncreased opporLunlLles. An uneven regulaLory framework, poor
lnLernaLlonal cooperaLlon, lack of awareness among boLh Lhe pollce and Lhe populaLlon has
made Lrafflcklng dlfflculL. As Lrafflcklng neLworks become more organlzed and ruLhless, so Lhe
problem becomes lncreaslngly more promlnenL.

2. lireorms troffickinq: no accuraLe daLa ls avallable on Lhe exLenL of lllegal small arms and llghL
weapons (SALW) avallable ln Lhe reglon. ln recenL years Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon has recelved
lncreased lnLernaLlonal aLLenLlon for Lhe excesslvely hlgh amounLs of weapons ln clvlllan hands,
and ln response, many governmenLs have underLaken weapons amnesLy and desLrucLlon
programmes. 8uL vlolenL confllcLs wlLhln and aL Lhe borders of Lhe reglon are seen as an on-
golng source for Lhe llllclL Lrade ln SALW, and as a consequence, an lncreaslng level of vlolence ln
local communlLles. lurLhermore, evldence ls comlng Lo llghL LhaL SALW Lrafflcklng ls belng
connecLed Lo plracy and mlgranL smuggllng, as Lhe same groups expand Lhelr acLlvlLles and Lhus
Lhelr lnfluence ln Lhe reglon.

3. uruq troffickinq: Whlle LasLern Afrlca ls noL parLlcularly LhreaLened as a desLlnaLlon for drug
Lrafflcklng, mosL counLrles ln Lhe reglon are used as LranslL polnLs Lo oLher desLlnaLlons.
Cannabls ls Lhe mosL culLlvaLed, smuggled and consumed drug ln Lhe reglon, followed by heroln
and Lo a much lesser exLenL cocalne. Low selzure flgures reporLed by CovernmenLs are more
llkely Lo be an lndlcaLor of week border conLrols and lnsufflclenL resources Lo drug conLrol
acLlvlLles, raLher Lhan a slgn LhaL drug Lrafflcklng ls noL Laklng place. WesL Afrlca has recenLly
recelved conslderable aLLenLlon as a drug rouLe, and as mechanlsms are sLrengLhened Lhere, Lhe
LasLern Afrlca reglon wlll come under LhreaL as Lrafflckers seek new rouLes across Lhe conLlnenL.

4. nvironmento/ crime: ro[ecLs show LhaL envlronmenLal crlme ln LasLern Afrlca ls on Lhe rlse.
1here ls growlng concern abouL Lhe lllegal Lrade ln flora and fauna, wlldllfe and
polluLlon/dumplng of Loxlc wasLe. Whlle Lhe amounL of envlronmenLal crlmes may noL seem Lo
raLe hlgh on Lhe lnLernaLlonal scale, Lhe lmpacL of Lhese crlmes ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon are
enormous. LnvlronmenLal crlme reaches deep lnLo communlLles, and 8esource-based confllcLs
are easlly Lrlggered. More lmporLanLly, Lurnlng Lhe Llde on envlronmenLal damage ls a huge
endeavor, and Lhus Llmely lnLervenLlons of a prevenLaLlve naLure can be far more effecLlve Lhan
lnvesLlgaLlng and prosecuLlng afLer Lhe facL.

3. counterfeitinq: LasLern Afrlca ls emerglng as a slgnlflcanL markeL for cheap counLerfelL goods.
AlLhough Lhls may noL seem Lhe mosL presslng problem for Lhe reglon, Lhe facL LhaL counLerfelL
medlclnes, pesLlcldes, food and drlnks enLer Lhe reglon unchecked, ls a LhreaL Lo Lhe healLh and
well-belng of Lhe populaLlons. llgures show low arresLs, buL once agaln, Lhls should noL lndlcaLe
LhaL Lhe problem ls noL serlous, buL perhaps LhaL lnsufflclenL resources and aLLenLlon are belng
dedlcaLed Lo Lhe problem.

6. Money /ounderinq: Address money launderlng effecLlvely ls compllcaLed, as lL requlred
excellenL cooperaLlon beLween a range of parLners, boLh naLlonally and lnLernaLlonally.
8esources are requlred Lo conducL lnvesLlgaLlons over a long perlod, as cases are ofLen complex
and far flung. 1he level of commlLmenL Lo Lhe lssue, resources avallable and capaclLy ln reglon
have made lL exLremely vulnerable Lo lnLernaLlonal money launderlng acLlvlLles.

7. Pirocy: lracy operaLlons Loday are lncreaslngly organlzed and have Lurned lnLo a mulLl-mllllon
dollar lndusLry, and Lhe concenLraLlon of Lhls acLlvlLy has been off Lhe coasL of LasLern Afrlca.
1he frequency, scope and sophlsLlcaLlon of recenL plracy operaLlons lndlcaLe LhaL lL ls a serlous
organlzed crlme problem, whlch ls havlng an enormous lmpacL on local economles, and feedlng
naLlonal organlzed crlme neLworks.

Whlle lL ls noL posslble Lo esLabllsh a deflnlLlve LhreaL analysls based upon Lhe daLa currenLly
avallable ln Lhe reglon, Lhere ls enough evldence Lo polnL Lo dlsLurblng Lrends. 1he reglon, wlLh lLs
exLenslve coasLllne, weak border conLrols, llmlLed cross border and reglonal cooperaLlon, under-
resourced pollce forces, corrupLlon aL all levels and ln some cases lack of pollLlcal wlll Lo address
crlme ln a susLalnable way, have creaLed an envlronmenL ln whlch organlzed crlme can flourlsh. 1he
unCuC 8eglonal rogramme "romoLlng Lhe 8ule of Law and Puman SecurlLy ln LasLern Afrlca,
2009-2012" alms aL supporLlng Lhe efforLs of Member SLaLes ln Lhe reglon Lo respond Lo evolvlng
human securlLy LhreaLs and promoLe good governance.
1. IN1kCDUC1ICN

llqote 1. Mop of tbe osteto Aftlco keqloo

ln 2009, unCuC lnlLlaLed an exploraLory sLudy of lssues relaLlng Lo organlzed crlme and Lrafflcklng,
as a background Lo Lhe developmenL of Lhe 2009-12 8eglonal rogramme for LasLern Afrlca:
ltomotloq tbe kole of low ooJ nomoo 5ecotlty. ln boLh Lhls dlscusslon paper and ln Lhe 8eglonal
rogramme, LhlrLeen counLrles of LasLern Afrlca are consldered, lncludlng kenya, 1anzanla, uganda,
8urundl, 8wanda, u[lbouLl, LrlLrea, LLhlopla and Somalla, as well as Lhe lndlan Ccean lslands off Lhe
LasLern Afrlcan coasL Seychelles, Comoros, MaurlLlus and Madagascar. 1he Lerm LasLern Afrlca ls
used ln Lhe paper when referrlng Lo all of Lhe counLrles ouLllned above. 1hls ls lnLended as a
referral, as Lhe reglon ls culLurally very heLerogeneous conLalnlng pasLoral communlLles roamlng ln
border areas, dlverse eLhnlc groups llvlng ln rural reglons, as well as fasL growlng urban areas.
unCuC recognlzes LhaL counLrles and people wlLhln Lhe reglon have dlfferenL soclal and pollLlcal
backgrounds and someLlmes Lense or even hosLlle relaLlonshlps, and Lhe naLure of Lhe analysls and
Lhe response was merely Lo hlghllghL Lrends, ldenLlfy lssues whlch parLlcularly requlre a reglonal
response, buL Lo leave room for lndlvldual naLlonal approaches.

ln recenL years, Lhere has been conslderable progress Lowards susLalnable economlc and human
developmenL ln LasLern Afrlca. CounLrles ln Lhe reglon have recorded hlgh levels economlc growLh
and reglonal cooperaLlon was hlgh on Lhe agenda for lssues ranglng from peace and securlLy Lo
healLh. AL Lhe same, however, cerLaln developmenLs ralse new LhreaLs Lo ongolng susLalnable
developmenL ln Lhe reglon. 1he worldwlde economlc crlsls ls undermlnlng Lhe economlc growLh
experlenced by Lhese developlng economles, and Lhe reglon, already sufferlng severe droughLs and
floods, ls lncreaslngly affecLed by cllmaLe change, whlch LhreaLens Lo furLher undermlne agrlculLural
developmenL and llvellhoods lf no acLlon ls Laken.

SLark lnequallLy remalns an lssue, wlLh more Lhan 30 of Lhe populaLlon ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon
llvlng on less Lhan $2 a day. PealLh and human securlLy lssues, varylng from Lhe hlgh spread of
Plv/Alds Lo counLless deaLhs caused by curable dlseases such as 18, measles and cholera, are sLlll
paramounL ln Lhe reglon, adversely affecLlng scores of people ln Lhe prlme of Lhelr llves.

LasLern Afrlca ls also a confllcL prone reglon, wlLh Lhe LhreaL of emerglng new vlolenL confllcLs
remalnlng hlgh. 1he reglon ls home Lo one of Lhe mosL lnsecure counLrles ln Lhe world, Somalla, and
lL borders varlous oLher varlous oLher confllcL-Lorn sLaLes, mosL noLably Sudan and Lhe uemocraLlc
8epubllc of Congo. ln addlLlon, kenya experlenced lnLernal confllcLs ln 2008 wlLh Lhe rooL causes of
Lhe vlolence remalnlng unaddressed. 8order reglons beLween LLhlopla and LrlLrea remaln volaLlle,
and ln Lhe Lord's 8eslsLance Army (L8A) ln uganda ls sLlll acLlve. As a resulL of Lhese wars and
confllcL, refugee camps are prevalenL LhroughouL Lhe reglon, and Lhe spread of fear and vlolence by
mlllLlas, gangs and armed pasLorallsLs are of ever presenL concern.

1here ls a perslsLenL LhreaL LhaL LasLern Afrlca wlll splral lnLo a vlclous clrcle of underdevelopmenL,
whlch ls exacerbaLed by weak governance, weak rule of law sLrucLures and hlgh levels of lnequallLy.
CovernmenLs ln Lhe reglon aLLempL Lo develop pollcles almed aL fosLerlng susLalnable developmenL,
buL ln some cases, Lhelr efforLs have fallen shorL due Lo a lack of good governance and hlgh levels of
corrupLlon, creaLlng a slLuaLlon LhaL bolsLers Lhe poslLlon of organlzed crlme LhroughouL Lhe reglon.
Comblned Lhese facLors dlmlnlsh Lhe chances for economlc, pollLlcal and soclal developmenL and fall
Lo prevenL Lhe confllcLs and clvll wars ln Lhe reglon.

Such an envlronmenL allows llllclL acLlvlLles Lo flourlsh. AlLhough recenL evldence suggesLs LhaL
many Afrlcan counLrles have been affecLed by organlzed crlmlnal groups, llLLle aLLenLlon has Lhus far
been glven Lo a sysLemaLlc analysls of Lhe problem ln Lhe LasLern reglon of Lhe conLlnenL. uesplLe
Lhe lack of rellable daLa, Lhe exlsLence of organlzed crlme and LransnaLlonal Lrafflcklng ln llllclL goods
such as flrearms, drugs and counLerfelL producLs ls noL conLesLed. 1here ls much anecdoLal evldence
Lo suggesL LhaL wlLh Lhe growLh of lnLernaLlonal Lrade, lLs geographlcal locaLlon and long coasLllne,
and lnsLablllLy along wlLh weak law enforcemenL sLrucLures, Lhe reglon ls becomlng an lmporLanL
LranslL locaLlon for llllclL drugs and Lrafflcked persons headlng Lo Lhe Mlddle LasL, Lurope and
elsewhere. lurLhermore, Lhe long Lerm lmpacL on blodlverslLy and envlronmenLal resources of Lhe
reglon are adversely lmpacLed, as envlronmenLal crlmes occur largely unhlndered. 1he healLh and
llves of Afrlcans ln Lhls reglon are puL aL rlsk due Lo Lhe wldespread presence of counLerfelL
medlclnes. Armed confllcLs and vlolenL crlmes such as plracy are perpeLuaLed due Lo Lhe presence
and Lrade ln Small Arms and LlghL Weapons (SALW). 1he quesLlon now ls noL wheLher Lhese
acLlvlLles undermlne Lhe sLaLes ln LasLern Afrlca, buL raLher ls Lo whaL exLenL Lhese acLlvlLles pose a
LhreaL Lo Lhe developmenL of Lhese socleLles, and whaL would be Lhe consequence lf no furLher
acLlon ls Laken.

8educlng Lhe spread of (organlzed) crlme and Lhe llllclL Lrafflcklng ls cruclal for developmenL ln Lhe
reglon. 1he ob[ecLlve of Lhls reporL ls Lo provlde an broad overvlew of llllclL LransnaLlonal acLlvlLles
and Lhe lnvolvemenL of organlzed crlme ln Lhe LasLern Afrlcan reglon, whlch Lhus far has noL been
sub[ecL Lo comprehenslve sLudy.

1he paper ls based on unCuC daLa, secondary lnformaLlon, and lnLervlews wlLh represenLaLlves
from governmenL lnsLlLuLlons, lnLernaLlonal organlzaLlons and nCCs. 8ecause of Lhe low avallablllLy
of ob[ecLlve and rellable daLa, Lhls paper cannoL glve a deLalled accounL of organlzed crlmlnal
acLlvlLles across LasLern Afrlca, buL lL ls lnLended Lo provlde a basls for furLher dlscusslon and
lnvesLlgaLlon. AlLhough accuraLe flgures abouL Lhe occurrence of llllclL LransnaLlonal Lrafflcklng and
Lhe connecLlon beLween Lrafflcklng and organlzed crlme are noL readlly avallable, Lhere ls some
proof of lLs exlsLence. lor example, flgures from Lhe kenya Wlldllfe Servlce show, envlronmenLal
crlme ln kenya ls on Lhe rlse (see chapLer 7 of Lhls reporL). An ln-depLh sLudy from Lhe Small Arms
Survey shows how Lhe easy avallablllLy of ammunlLlon fuels confllcL ln Lhe border reglon beLween
uganda, Sudan and kenya (see chapLer 3). 1he daLa from Lhe harmaceuLlcal SecurlLy lnsLlLuLe ln
comblnaLlon wlLh research from WPC (see chapLer 8) lndlcaLe Lhe avallablllLy of counLerfelL
medlclnes ln Afrlca musL be hlgh, buL Lhey are noL easlly deLecLed and Lhus noL adequaLely
addressed.

ln LasLern Afrlca, as elsewhere on Lhe conLlnenL, Lhe lack of quanLlLaLlve daLa presenLs Lhe blggesL
challenge ln developlng an overvlew of llllclL Lrafflcklng. ln Lhls sLudy, unCuC aLLempLs Lo offer some
lnslghLs on Lhe exLenL of llllclL Lrafflcklng and organlzed crlme ln LasLern Afrlca. Powever, Lhe
absence of rellable daLa prevenLs a deflnlLlve concluslon belng drawn on Lhe exLenL Lo whlch
organlzed crlme and llllclL Lrafflcklng have peneLraLed Lhe reglon. uaLa ls elLher noL collecLed, noL
easy accesslble, or LreaLed as confldenLlal. uaLa LhaL ls avallable ls ofLen noL rellable, as Lhe meLhods
of collecLlng are noL conslsLenL and Lhe rellablllLy of reporLlng by vlcLlms ls uncerLaln. 1hus lL
currenLly ls noL posslble Lo sLaLe how large Lhe problems surroundlng Lhe lssues of llllclL Lrafflcklng
and organlzed crlme ln LasLern Afrlca acLually are. 1he slze of Lhese problems varles per counLry and
Loplc, and even wlLhln lndlvldual counLrles Lhere are confllcLlng vlews on Lhls sub[ecL due Lhe lack of
accuraLe daLa, changlng exLernal clrcumsLances and percepLlons on safeLy and securlLy ln a counLry.

lL should also be noLed, LhaL a growlng body of global llLeraLure and analysls polnLs Lo Lhe
meLhodologlcal dlfflculLles assoclaLed wlLh sLudylng llllclL and clandesLlne acLlvlLles, lncludlng Lhose
relaLed Lo organlzed crlme. Such dlfflculLles lnclude Lhe posslblllLy of collecLlng daLa from mulLlple
sources and Lhe challenge of drawlng concluslons based on fragmenLary daLa. uesplLe Lhese hurdles
Lhe amounL of llLeraLure focuslng on Lhese Lhemes ln Lhe academlc flelds of soclology and
crlmlnology ls growlng. Powever, few pleces focus on Lhe cenLral problems assoclaLed wlLh crlmlnal
groups and neLworks ln LasLern Afrlca.

neverLheless, relevanL lnformaLlon regardlng organlzed crlme and lllegal acLlvlLles ls scaLLered
LhroughouL varlous sources, such as a varleLy of reporLs from lnLernaLlonal and reglonal research
lnsLlLuLlons and nCCs. Such lnformaLlon ls fragmenLed, buL coupled wlLh anecdoLal evldence of
developmenL professlonals worklng ln Lhe reglon, Lhere ls a sufflclenL lnformaLlon Lo skeLch Lrends ln
some ma[or flelds of crlmlnal acLlvlLy (chapLers 4-10). ln comblnaLlon wlLh Lhe faclllLaLlng facLors for
crlme and developmenL presenLed ln chapLer 2, lL ls posslble Lo draw some prellmlnary concluslons,
whlch emphaslze Lhe need Lo addresslng LransnaLlonal llllclL Lrafflcklng ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon.
1he flnal chapLer of Lhe reporL ouLllnes areas LhaL need Lo recelve sLrucLural aLLenLlon and presenLs
and lnlLlal proposals on how Lhls could be accompllshed (chapLer 11). 8egardless of Lhe lack of
quanLlLaLlve daLa, Lhe Lrends polnL Lo Lhe need Lo Lake lmmedlaLe acLlon Lo sLem Lhe growLh of
organlsed crlme and Lrafflcklng acLlvlLles ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon.

2. CCN1kI8U1ING IAC1CkS

Crganlsed crlme and corrupLlon have Lhe power Lo hold LasL Afrlcan counLrles ln a vlclous clrcle of
under-developmenL. llllclL Lrafflcklng and Lhe assoclaLed problem of organlzed crlme adversely
affecLs socleLy, LhreaLens human securlLy, hampers developmenL, obsLrucLs lnvesLmenL and corrupLs
sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons. 1he flndlngs of a prevlous unCuC sLudy hlghllghL Lhree broad lmpacLs of crlme on
developmenL:
1

1. ctlme etoJes Aftlcos soclol ooJ bomoo copltol: Crlme degrades Lhe quallLy of llfe and can force
skllled workers overseas, whlle Lhe dlrecL lmpacLs of vlcLlmlzaLlon, as well as fear of crlme, may
lmpede Lhe developmenL of Lhose LhaL remaln.

2. ctlme Jtlves bosloess owoy ftom Aftlco: 8oLh forelgn and domesLlc lnvesLors vlew lncreaslng
crlme levels ln Afrlca as a slgn of lnsLablllLy. Crlme drlves up Lhe cosL of dolng buslness, whlch
serves as a dlslncenLlve Lo lnvesL. 1he Lourlsm secLor, whlch ls becomlng an lncreaslngly
slgnlflcanL conLrlbuLor Lo economlc growLh ln Lhe reglon ls parLlcularly senslLlve Lo crlme lssues.

3. ctlme ooJetmloes tbe oblllty of tbe stote to ptomote Jevelopmeot: MosL profoundly, crlme and
corrupLlon desLroy Lhe LrusL relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe people and Lhe sLaLe, Lhus undermlnlng
democracy. Aslde from dlrecL losses Lo naLlonal funds due Lo corrupLlon, crlme can erode Lhe Lax
base as Lhe rlch brlbe Lax offlclals and Lhe poor recede lnLo Lhe shadow economy. unfalr Lax
reglmes and brlbe-seeklng offlclals fuel lnequallLy and lncrease lnformallLy, boLh of whlch are
assoclaLed wlLh crlme. ln addlLlon, Lhe revenue LhaL does manage Lo flnd lLs way lnLo Lhe
naLlonal coffers may be dlverLed lnLo grafL rlch publlc works pro[ecLs, aL a cosL Lo educaLlon and
healLh servlces. When people lose confldence ln Lhe crlmlnal [usLlce sysLem, Lhey may engage ln
vlgllanLlsm, whlch furLher undermlnes Lhe sLaLe.

Some of Lhe maln facLors LhaL faclllLaLe Lhese processes are descrlbed below as Lhey have ma[or
lmpacL on Lhe exlsLence of llllclL Lrafflcklng Loplcs and organlzed crlme we wlll descrlbe ln Lhe nexL
chapLers of Lhls reporL.

1. 5evetol osteto Aftlcoo cooottles ote offecteJ by weok qovetomeots ooJ lostoblllty. Absence of
sLrong democracles, checks and balances, dlvlslon of power, adequaLe leglslaLlon, overslghL
sysLems, effecLlve and humane law enforcemenL, and lack of publlc servlces are common ln
mosL sLaLes, hlnderlng developmenL and undermlnlng Lhe LrusL of Lhe people ln Lhe sLaLe and lLs
lnsLlLuLlons. Comblned wlLh Lhe frequenL erupLlon of confllcLs, Lhese weak sLaLes fosLer
lnsLablllLy. LocaLed elLher wlLhln, or on Lhe borders of Lhe reglon are Lhree confllcL zones: ln
SouLhern Sudan, Lhe LasL of Lhe uemocraLlc 8epubllc of Congo and all over Somalla. 1he confllcL
ln Somalla has encouraged Lhe Lrafflcklng of flrearms ln Lhe reglon and ls a cause of Lhe hlgh
lnflux of refugees, causlng long Lerm deLrlmenLal consequences ln Lhe reglon. ln addlLlon,
confllcLs have splll-over effecLs such as Lhe dlsrupLlon of Lhe local economy, human rlghLs

1
unlLed naLlons Cfflce on urugs and Crlme (unCuC): Crlme and uevelopmenL ln Afrlca", vlenna 2003, page xll
vlolaLlons and Lhe dlsappearance of vlLal sLaLe funcLlons - effecLs LhaL are evldenL ln Lhe
nelghbourlng counLrles ln Lhe reglon. lurLhermore, a prlmary concern aL Lhe momenL ls LhaL Lhe
confllcLs Laklng place ln border reglons, such as Lhe one ln LLhlopla, are noL dlmlnlshlng
slgnlflcanLly, Lhus poslng a long Lerm LhreaL Lo Lhe sLablllLy of Lhe reglon.

Armed confllcL weakens Lhe power and leglLlmacy of sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons and undermlnes
democracy and developmenL. 1hese condlLlons faclllLaLe Lhe emergence of organlzed crlme and
provlde ample opporLunlLles for crlmlnals Lo explolL Lhe slLuaLlon ln Lhe reglon, accumulaLe
lllegal proflLs and ampllfy Lhelr lnfluence. ln such clrcumsLances, crlmlnal neLworks are able Lo
Lake advanLage of Lhe absence or weakness of crlmlnal [usLlce sysLems, and may ofLen collude
wlLh local warlords, conLrol Lhe provlslon of publlc goods and servlces, hamper humanlLarlan
asslsLance, or corrupL and dlsLorL Lhe provlslon of sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons and servlces.

2. low tesootces ooJ low ollocotloo of tesootces to tbe ctlmlool jostlce systems. MosL LasL Afrlcan
counLrles depend parLlally on flnanclal supporL and have low Lax revenues. ln mosL counLrles,
noL enough resources are seL aslde Lo bulld up an adequaLe pollce and [usLlce sysLem. 1o
effecLlvely deLer fuLure offenders, lncapaclLaLe offenders, or rehablllLaLe pasL offenders, Lhere
musL be a cerLaln level of resources avallable so LhaL Lhe crlmlnal [usLlce sysLem can funcLlon
properly. CurrenLly, many Afrlcan counLrles do noL possess adequaLe resources ln Lhls fleld. 1hls
ls evldenced by Lhe facL LhaL Lhe reglon possesses Lhe lowesL pollce force Lo publlc raLlon, as well
as fewer [udges per caplLa Lhan ln any oLher reglon of Lhe world.
2

3. cottoptloo temolos o ctltlcol ptoblem. ln 2002, Lhe Afrlcan unlon (Au) reporLed LhaL Afrlca was
loslng an esLlmaLed $130 bllllon per year Lo corrupLlon. CorrupLlon can range from brlbery of law
enforcemenL offlclals Lo Lhe lnfllLraLlon of sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons. lor example, Lhere are severe
allegaLlons of offlclals ln some counLrles colludlng wlLh organlzed crlmlnals ln cases of drug, arms
and human Lrafflcklng. uue Lo Lhe large dlrecL beneflLs derlved from Lhese crlmlnal acLlvlLles,
governmenL offlclals have no lnLenLlon Lo reduce or conLaln Lhem. CorrupLlon ln LasLern Afrlca
undermlnes buslness performance and reduces lncenLlves for Lrade and lnvesLmenL. 1he
economlc and pollLlcal cosLs lmposed by corrupLlon drasLlcally lmpacL LasLern Afrlcan counLrles
and are dlfflculL Lo eradlcaLe lf corrupLlon becomes a parL of Lhe pollLlcal culLure. Large number
of clLlzens are denled access Lo baslc publlc servlces and suffer from Lhe non-enforcemenL of Lhe
rule of law, such as lneffecLlve publlc safeLy sLandards or envlronmenLal proLecLlon pollcles.
CorrupLlon also dlrecLly conLrlbuLes Lo Lhe lack of publlc lnfrasLrucLure, lnvesLmenL, educaLlon
opporLunlLles, and employmenL whlch harms Lhe mosL vulnerable mosL acuLely, and susLalns Lhe
cycle of poverLy and lnequallLy.

4. 1toospoteocy, occoootoblllty, volce ooJ owoteoess ote low lo most cooottles. Low levels of
educaLlon and Lhe prevalence of auLhorlLarlan pollLlcal sysLems have fosLered a low level of
awareness among clLlzens. lf people do noL know whaL Lo expecL from a governmenL and sLaLe
lnsLlLuLlons, Lhey cannoL reacL accordlngly. 1he lack of accounLablllLy and Lransparency provlded
by lndlvlduals wlLhln governmenL, parllamenL, sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons and reglonal offlces leaves Lhe

2
Lurope and norLh Amerlca e.g. have a pollce raLlo of 346 and 323 respecLlvely per 100.000, whereas Afrlca has a raLlo of 180 per 100.000
clLlzens. Afrlca has 3 [udges compared Lo Lurope wlLh 18 [udges per 100.000 clLlzens (unCuC: Crlme and uevelopmenL ln Afrlca", !une
2003).
clLlzenry ln a vulnerable poslLlon. unawareness or Lhe lack of lnformaLlon creaLes opporLunlLles
for lndlvlduals Lo be explolLed, succumblng Lo Lhe Lragedy of human Lrafflcklng or Lhe rlsks
assoclaLed wlLh counLerfelL medlclne. Lven ln counLrles where people are more aware of Lhelr
rlghLs, and use Lhelr volce Lo demand beLLer servlces and [usL LreaLmenL from Lhelr
governmenLs, responslveness from Lhe governmenL ofLen remalns low. lncreased knowledge
and lnformaLlon LhroughouL Lhe reglon wlll sLrengLhen soclal sLrucLures and pollLlcal
lnvolvemenL, whlch ls cruclal for addresslng llllclL crlmlnal acLlvlLles.

3. lovetty ooJ loepoollty. Lven afLer Lhe economlc growLh of recenL years, poverLy and lnequallLy
remaln rampanL. Slums and slum populaLlons are on Lhe rlse. lnequallLy, especlally ln urban
areas has lncreased. ln more rural areas, as Lhe smaller Lowns around Lake vlcLorla ln kenya,
uganda and 1anzanla, lnequallLy ls also rlslng as Lhe populaLlons ln Lhese Lowns lncreases and
publlc servlces and lnfrasLrucLure remaln lnsufflclenL for Lhe growlng number of people.
3
eople
lack [obs, soclal securlLy and educaLlon and many are unable Lo escape from Lhe poverLy Lrap on
Lhelr own. ?oung people are especlally hard hlL as Lhey lncreaslngly have access Lo lnformaLlon
abouL opporLunlLles elsewhere ln Lhe world, buL remaln wlLhouL a [ob and a proper educaLlon Lo
lmprove Lhelr llve. ln addlLlon, weak or blased properLy rlghLs worsen Lhe problem and revenues
of economlc growLh ends up ln Lhe pockeLs of Lhe hlgher or mlddle class.

6. uemoqtopblc tteoJs. Afrlca hosLs Lhe world's youngesL populaLlon - 43 of Lhe populaLlon of
Lhe conLlnenL ls under Lhe age of 13. Accordlng Lo many conducLed sLudles, crlme ls mosL llkely
commlLLed by people beLween Lhe ages of 12 and 30. ln LasLern Afrlcan counLrles Lhe medlan
age ls 16 Lo 19 years, meanlng LhaL a greaLer parL of Lhe socleLy ls vulnerable Lo becomlng
lnvolved ln crlmlnal acLlvlLy, lf noL glven alLernaLlve meLhods of leglLlmaLe employmenL and
llvellhood generaLlon.
4

7. Ceoqtopblcol locotloo. LasLern Afrlcan counLrles have become an ldeal LranslL polnL for lllegal
goods. uue Lo Lhe reglon's long coasLllne, lLs remoLe lslands, and porous borders presenLs an
easy enLry polnL Lo Lhe whole conLlnenL. lurLhermore, belng locaLed souLh of Lhe world's ma[or
heroln produclng reglons, lL can be used as a LranslL polnL from easL Lo wesL, or up Lo Lhe norLh.
ln addlLlon, Lhe geographlcal feaLures of LasLern Afrlca are exacerbaLed by hlgh levels of
corrupLlon, whlch furLher ease Lhe Lransfer of goods Lhrough Lhe reglon by permlLLlng access vla
offlclal border crosslngs.

8. 5ootce oteo fot commoJltles. LasLern Afrlca ls rlch ln naLural resources such as Llmber and
wlldllfe producLs, and also borders reglons abundanL ln Lhem as well. lor example, lvory and
Llmber are smuggled ln large quanLlLles from Lhe reglon Lo a number of desLlnaLlon counLrles ln
boLh Lhe wesL and Asla.

9. uestlootloo motkets fot llleqol commoJltles. LasL Afrlcan SLaLes have become a markeL for
counLerfelL goods, meanlng LhaL Lhe reglon ls no longer malnly a deparLure or LranslL locaLlon for
llllclL goods. CounLerfelL medlclnes, drugs, flrearms and vlcLlms of human Lrafflcklng are wldely

3
un PablLaL 2009
4
unCuC: Crlme and uevelopmenL ln Afrlca", !une 2003
avallable, and Lhelr avallablllLy wlll conLlnue Lo spread lf noL proper and coherenL acLlon ls Laken
Lo sLem Lhe flow of lllegal acLlvlLles and producLs.

A lasLlng success ln boLh endlng crlme and lmprovlng developmenL can only be achleved lf Lhe
underlylng facLors are addressed. Cnly by enforclng Lhe rule of law, enhanclng Lhe capaclLles of
regulaLory, law enforcemenL and [udlclal lnsLlLuLlons, and lnLroduclng a [usL prlson sysLem, as well as
lmprovlng levels of cooperaLlon wlLhln and beLween counLrles, can LasL Afrlcan sLaLes and oLher
acLors ln Lhe world hope Lo creaLe Lhe condlLlons necessary for susLalnable developmenL LhroughouL
Lhe reglon.

3. CkGANI2LD CkIML AND CkIMINAL MAkkL1S

Whlle Lhere ls no lnLernaLlonally accepLed deflnlLlon of organlzed crlme", Lhe unlLed naLlons
ConvenLlon agalnsL 1ransnaLlonal Crganlzed Crlme (un1CC) deflnes an organlzed crlme group" as
a sLrucLured group of Lhree or more persons exlsLlng for a perlod of Llme and acLlng ln concerL wlLh
Lhe alm of commlLLlng one or more serlous crlmes or offences esLabllshed ln accordance wlLh Lhls
ConvenLlon, ln order Lo obLaln, dlrecLly or lndlrecLly, a flnanclal or oLher maLerlal beneflL".
3
1hls ls a
raLher broad deflnlLlon, whlch does noL conslder organlzed crlme solely ln Lerms of mafla-sLyle
organlzaLlons wlLh a sLrlcL hlerarchlcal sLrucLure, buL would also lnclude sLreeL gangs or vlgllanLe
groups under Lhe deflnlLlon of organlzed crlme.

1he breadLh of Lhe deflnlLlon of organlsed crlme ls of parLlcular relevance ln LasLern Afrlca, where
crlmlnal groups Lake Lhe form of loose and flexlble neLworks. 1hose neLworks are deflned by Lhe
acLlvlLles of key lndlvlduals who engage ln llllclL acLlvlLy ln ofLen shlfLlng alllances.
6
LasLern Afrlcan
crlmlnal neLworks are generally characLerlzed by Lhelr greaL fluldlLy and flexlblllLy, quallLles LhaL
acLually can be used Lo greaL advanLage ln modern, globallzed markeLs, lncludlng lllegal ones. 1he
followlng acLors/neLworks can be dlsLlngulshed:

4. Notloool ctlmlool syoJlcotes. ln some lnsLances wlLh llnks Lo lnLernaLlonal syndlcaLes ln Asla or
Lurope engaged ln dlverse acLlvlLles such as Lrafflcklng ln drugs, guns and persons, ofLen uslng
Lhe same rouLes for all commodlLles.

5. lomlly oetwotks wlLh exLended famlly across counLry borders.

6. loJepeoJeotly owoeJ bosloesses wlLh conLracLors, such as employmenL agencles whose
acLlvlLles Lake place ln a grey zone beLween legal and lllegal acLlvlLles.

7. loosely boseJ ocpoolotooces/otqoolzotloos movlng llllclL goods on a llmlLed scale.

undersLandlng Lhe varleLy of groups and neLworks offers lnslghL lnLo Lhelr modus operandl and can
lead Lo Lhe means by whlch Lhey can be effecLlvely counLered.

1ransnaLlonal organlzed crlme by deflnlLlon concerns more Lhan one counLry. ln Lhe case of LasLern
Afrlca, Lhls may lnvolve locals colludlng wlLh oLhers from ouLslde Lhe reglon - for example, Aslan
groups and oLher forelgn naLlonals - or lL may lnvolve clLlzens of Lhe reglons based ln Lhelr home
counLry malnLalnlng relaLlons wlLh expaLrlaLes llvlng abroad. Accordlng Lo experL oplnlon, Lhe
lmporLance and relevance of cerLaln groups ln Lhe reglon ls growlng, such as Somall groups or Lhe
Munglkl-group ln kenya. 1he laLLer emerged as a rellglous secL ln Lhe laLe 1980s, presenLlng a
reslsLance movemenL agalnsL modernlzaLlon and globallzaLlon, buL has evolved lnLo a crlmlnal
organlzaLlon. 1oday Lhe group ls purporLed Lo be engaged ln exLorLlon and proLecLlon rackeLs,

3
ArLlcle 2(a) of Lhe un ConvenLlon agalnsL 1ransnaLlonal Crganlzed Crlme
6
unCuC: 8esulLs of a lloL Survey of lorLy SelecLed Crganlzed crlmlnal Croups ln SlxLeen CounLrles", vlenna 2002
malnly ln Lhe slum areas of nalrobl. Munglkl ls ofLen referred Lo as kenya's Cosa nosLra, ?akuza, or
kenyan Mafla due Lo lLs mafla-Lype organlzaLlon and acLlvlLles.

8esldes naLlonal or reglonal LasLern Afrlcan groups, arresL flgures lndlcaLe LhaL also WesL Afrlcan
crlmlnal neLworks and groups are acLlve ln Lhe reglon. 8eporLs and lnLervlews suggesL LhaL aparL
from WesL Afrlcans and some Luropean groups, Lhe presence of Aslan crlmlnal neLworks has grown
rapldly ln recenL years. Powever, undersLandlng Lhe role and exLenL of Aslan groups ln lllegal
acLlvlLles ls exLremely dlfflculL, especlally ln Lhe Lrade ln counLerfelL medlclne. LlLLle ls known as Lo
how Lhese operaLlons are conLrolled and Lhe exLenL Lo whlch Lhey cross-over beLween leglLlmaLe
and llleglLlmaLe acLlvlLles, as well as Lhe degree Lo whlch corrupLlon ls lnvolved.

rellmlnary revlews of Lhe varlous Lypes of crlmlnal markeLs ln whlch crlmlnal groups are lnvolved ln
Lhe LasLern Afrlcan reglon ls provlded below and lnclude:

1rafflcklng ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng
llrearms Lrafflcklng
urug Lrafflcklng
LnvlronmenLal crlme
CounLerfelL
Money launderlng
lracy

1he followlng secLlons of Lhe paper wlll revlew Lhe avallable lnformaLlon on each of Lhese areas of
crlmlnal acLlvlLy, presenLlng Lhe envlronmenL, known facLs, Lhe legal framework, and posslble
lnLervenLlons Lo counLer Lhem.


4. 1kAIIICkING IN LkSCNS AND MIGkAN1 SMUGGLING

4.1.lntroduction
uesplLe slgnlflcanL efforLs by governmenLs, lnLernaLlonal agencles and nCCs Lo ellmlnaLe Lrafflcklng
ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng, lL ls sLlll a ma[or concern ln Afrlca. uue Lo Lhe large mlgraLlon
flows resulLlng from formal economlc unlons and expanslve, open borders, Lhe Lrafflcklng and
smuggllng of people are noL easlly deLecLed. 1he prospecL of beLLer llvlng condlLlons elsewhere, ls
mosL frequenLly Lhe moLlvaLlng facLor for Lrafflcklng ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng, as many
people deslre Lo move closer Lo areas LhaL presenL Lhem wlLh lncreased opporLunlLles. 1hls ls [usL as
Lrue for people movlng wlLhln a slngle counLry, from a rural Lo an urban area, as lL ls for Lhose
movlng across lnLernaLlonal borders.

An exacL number of human Lrafflcklng and mlgranL smuggllng cases ls dlfflculL Lo esLlmaLe due Lo Lhe
lack of sLaLlsLlcal evldence LhaL resulLs from a number of facLors. lor example, ln many cases
lndlvlduals wllllngly begln Lhe mlgraLlon process and Lo some exLenL, a number of parenLs are
dlrecLly lnvolved ln Lhe Lrafflcklng of Lhelr own chlldren, Lhus maklng lL dlfflculL Lo obLaln rellable
daLa on human Lrafflcklng. Such slLuaLlons make lL dlfflculL Lo gauge Lhe full exLenL by whlch socleLy
ls affecLed by human Lrafflcklng and mlgranL smuggllng. Powever, lL does noL mean LhaL Lhese Lwo
phenomena do noL have a profound lmpacL upon Lhe counLrles of LasL Afrlca and Lhelr socleLles.
1hls ls evldenced by Lhe amounL of aLLenLlon glven Lo Lhese lssues ln recenL years. Whlle u[lbouLl,
LLhlopla, LrlLrea, 8wanda and 1anzanla have enacLed speclflc anLl-Lrafflcklng ln persons leglslaLlon,
8urundl, kenya, MaurlLlus and uganda are ln Lhe process of adopLlng anLl-Lrafflcklng leglslaLlon,
elLher havlng already presenLed drafL laws Lo Lhe leglslaLlve bodles or belng ln an advanced sLage of
Lhe drafLlng process.
7
ln addlLlon, ln mosL counLrles Lhere are laws ln place for Lrafflcklng relaLed
offences LhaL enable crlmlnal [usLlce professlonals Lo Lake acLlon. ln splLe of Lhese efforLs Lhough,
Lhe vasL ma[orlLy of people remaln vulnerable Lo Lhe acLlons of Lrafflckers due Lo a lack of awareness
on Lhe parL of Lhe publlc and Lhe absence of lnvesLlgaLlve and prosecuLlon capaclLy on Lhe parL of
law enforcemenL offlclals, as well as Lo a weak overall legal framework and long, porous borders LhaL
beneflL organlzed crlmlnal and Lrafflcklng neLworks.

4.2 uefinitions ond Leqo/ lromework
1wo ma[or areas of lrregular mlgraLlon are lmporLanL for conslderaLlon: Lrafflcklng ln persons and
Lhe smuggllng of mlgranLs. 1rafflcklng ln persons ls deflned ln Lhe alermo roLocol, whlle mlgranL
smuggllng ls deflned by a supplemenLlng proLocol Lo Lhe unlLed naLlons ConvenLlon agalnsL
1ransnaLlonal Crganlzed Crlme (un1CC) known as Lhe roLocol agalnsL Lhe Smuggllng of MlgranLs by
Land, Sea and Alr. Smuggllng of mlgranLs and Lrafflcklng ln persons ofLen represenL overlapplng
areas of crlmlnal acLlvlLy, yeL, Lhey are dlsLlncL crlmes. 1he key dlsLlncLlon ls LhaL smuggled mlgranLs
normally consenL Lo Lhe smuggllng process, and Lhelr relaLlonshlp wlLh Lhe smuggler LermlnaLes
once Lhey arrlve aL Lhelr lnLended desLlnaLlon. Cn Lhe oLher hand, vlcLlms of Lrafflcklng have elLher
never glven Lhelr consenL or Lhelr lnlLlal consenL ls nulllfled by Lhe means used by Lhe Lrafflcker Lo
galn conLrol over Lhe vlcLlm, such as decepLlon and vlolence. Also, Lhe purpose of Lrafflcklng ls
always explolLaLlon, whlch ulLlmaLely generaLes proflLs for Lhe Lrafflckers, whlle smugglers generaLe

7
unCuC Clobal 8eporL on 1rafflcklng ln ersons, lebruary 2009
Lhelr proflLs Lhrough selllng Lhelr servlces Lo Lhelr cllenLs - lllegal enLry Lo anoLher counLry - a
relaLlonshlp LhaL ls LermlnaLed when reachlng Lhe desLlnaLlon counLry.

MosL counLrles ln Lhe reglon have slgned Lhe alermo roLocol and lLC convenLlons, and ln many
sLaLes anLl Lrafflcklng laws have been enacLed and naLlonal laws have been ad[usLed Lo conform Lo
lnLernaLlonal convenLlons. Also, ln pracLlce lnvesLlgaLlons, prosecuLlons and convlcLlons are posslble
ln mosL counLrles based on exlsLlng laws for anLl Lrafflcklng relaLed offenses. Powever, more sLeps
need Lo be Laken ln order Lo close loopholes and lncrease Lhe legal rlsk assoclaLed wlLh Lhese crlmes,
ensure LhaL naLlonal law ls ln llne wlLh lnLernaLlonal sLandards, and LhaL a reglonal framework
addresslng Lhe lssue ls esLabllshed.
8

4.l Miqront 5muqq/inq
MlgranL smuggllng ls a Lhrlvlng buslness ln LasLern Afrlca, due Lo Lhe endurlng pollLlcal and economlc
lnsLablllLy ln Lhe reglon. 1he laLesL sLudy from Lhe lnLernaLlonal CrganlzaLlon for MlgraLlon (lCM)
shows LhaL approxlmaLely 14.3 mllllon people mlgraLe per annum, 10 mllllon of Lhem movlng wlLhln
Lhe counLrles of Lhe LasL Afrlca reglon.
9
Whlle noL all of Lhese lndlvlduals mlgraLe lllegally, many of
Lhem do ln Lhe hope of escaplng a poor and confllcL Lorn sLaLe, Lhls only makes Lhe proflLs Lo be
made from smuggllng Lo be more aLLracLlve. Spurrlng lrregular mlgraLlon, Lhe smuggllng of mlgranLs
furLher exacerbaLes Lhe adverse lmpacLs of unmanaged mlgraLlon on Lhe socleLles as a whole ln boLh
Lhe sendlng and reclplenL counLrles. As a resulL, a vlclous cycle ls repeaLed: economlc developmenL
ls hlndered, creaLlng a breedlng ground for crlme, whlch ln Lurn lncreases Lhe lack of economlc
opporLunlLles, furLher sLalllng human developmenL.

AlLhough currenL daLa ls Loo scaLLered and lncompleLe Lo palnL an accuraLe plcLure of Lhe number of
people smuggled each year and Lhe rouLes and meLhods employed ln smuggllng Lhem, Lhe avallable
evldence reveals Lhree maln Lrends:

MlgranL smugglers are belng uLlllzed aL an lncreaslng raLe. uue Lo lmproved border conLrols,
lrregular mlgranLs lncreaslngly resorL Lo Lhe asslsLance of smugglers, causlng mlgranL smuggllng
Lo become a hlghly proflLable buslness.

MlgranL smugglers are becomlng more organlzed. WlLh a low rlsk of deLecLlon and punlshmenL,
as well as hlgher reLurns, mlgranL smugglers are lncreaslng Lhelr level of organlzaLlon and
cooperaLlon, esLabllshlng professlonal neLworks LhaL Lranscend borders and reglons.

1he mlgranLs are exposed Lo ever lncreaslng levels of danger. MlgranL smugglers consLanLly
change rouLes and meLhods used ln response Lo changlng clrcumsLances. 1he cosL of Lhese
changes ls usually borne by Lhe smuggled mlgranLs, who ofLen pay wlLh Lhelr llves.

MlgranL smuggllng can Lake many forms, from ad-hoc Lo Lhe fraudulenL acqulslLlon of a vlsa Lo
ouLrlghL pre-organlzed sLage-Lo-sLage smuggllng. 8egardless of Lhe manner of smuggllng LhaL ls
uLlllzed, Lhe above Lrends hlghllghL Lhe need for lmmedlaLe acLlon on Lhe parL of Lhe unCuC and

8
1he Afrlcan unlon (Au) has begun Lo address Lhe lssue of mlgraLlon ln lLs MlgraLlon ollcy lramework for Afrlca and Afrlcan Common
oslLlon on MlgraLlon and uevelopmenL
9
lnLernaLlonal CrganlzaLlon for MlgraLlon (lCM): World MlgraLlon 8eporL 2008"
counLrles ln Lhe reglon ln order Lo combaL mlgranL smuggllng. noL only are new meLhods necessary,
buL lncreased coordlnaLlon across and beLween reglons should be a prlorlLy. unCuC should
conLlnue ln lLs efforLs Lo asslsL counLrles ln lmplemenLlng Lhe MlgranL Smuggllng roLocol, as well as
conLlnue Lo promoLe a comprehenslve response Lo Lhe lssue of mlgranL smuggllng.

llqote 2. Mlqtoot smoqqlloq tootes ftom Aftlco to otope
10

4.4 1roffickinq in persons, profi/e of victim ond troffickers
AlLhough lnformaLlon relaLlng Lo Lhe analysls of Lrafflcklng paLLerns, flows or Lrends ln Lhe LasL
Afrlcan reglon ls scarce, avallable daLa suggesL LhaL Lhe counLrles ln Lhe reglon are beseL by domesLlc
as well as lnLra-reglonal Lrafflcklng.
11
Cn Lhe domesLlc level, Lrafflcklng ls occurrlng on a large scale,
as men, women and chlldren are LransporLed from rural Lo urban areas for forced labour and sexual

10
unlLed naLlons Cfflce on urugs and Crlme (unCuC): Crganlzed Crlme and lrregular
MlgraLlon from Afrlca Lo Lurope", 2006
11
unCuC Clobal 8eporL on 1rafflcklng ln ersons, leb., 2009
explolLaLlon. AL Lhe lnLernaLlonal level, Lrafflcklng also occurs on a large scale ln some counLrles,
such as uganda
12
, buL mosL LransnaLlonal Lrafflcklng occurs beLween counLrles ln Lhe reglon.

1he proflles of Lhe vlcLlms vary greaLly, however, Lhe reasons for Lhelr Lrafflcklng are slmllar:
unemploymenL, lncome levels, Lhe deaLh of parenLs and educaLlonal levels.
13
MosL vlcLlms of human
Lrafflcklng ln Lhe lCM assessmenL were lured by Lhe all Loo common promlses of a good [ob, a hlgher
salary, lmproved educaLlon opporLunlLles or oLher favourable prospecLs, buL ln Lhe end, Lhe
promlsed condlLlons were rarely meL. 1he demand for female vlcLlms ls boosLed ln Lhe reglon by Lhe
growlng Lourlsm and sex lndusLry
14
, and forced chlld labour ls prevalenL ln rural areas on planLaLlons,
and ln Lhe flshlng and mlnlng lndusLrles.
13

1he prevalllng clvll confllcLs ln counLrles ln or borderlng Lhe reglon offer ferLlle grounds for Lrafflcklng
ln persons. Women and chlldren ofLen end up ln Lhe hands of warlords, soldlers and rebels. 1hey are
abused as sex slaves, soldlers, forced labourers, carrlers of ammunlLlon and weapons, sples, and
messengers. Chlldren ln armed confllcLs are drawn lnLo exLreme vlolence and many are exposed Lo
and become lnvolved ln drug abuse. 1hls experlence makes chlldren and young adulLs more llkely Lo
become engaged ln vlolenL and crlmlnal acLs Lhemselves, even afLer Lhe concluslon of Lhe armed
confllcL.

Armed forces use bruLal and sophlsLlcaLed Lechnlques Lo separaLe and lsolaLe chlldren from Lhelr
communlLles, such as abducLlon, force and lnLlmldaLlon. Moreover, Lhere are lndlcaLlons LhaL Lhe
Lrafflcklng of chlldren ln and from confllcL zones ls becomlng a growlng LransnaLlonal Lrend, llnked Lo
sophlsLlcaLed lnLernaLlonal crlmlnal neLworks, leadlng Lo Lhe lncrease ln vlcLlmlzaLlon and
parLlclpaLlon of chlldren ln confllcL.

4.5 lnternotiono/ 1roffickinq
1rafflcklng ln women, chlldren and Lo some exLenL men, also occurs on an lnLernaLlonal level Lo
desLlnaLlons ln Lurope and Lhe Mlddle LasL for labour and sexual explolLaLlon. ln conLrasL Lo
domesLlc Lrafflcklng, perpeLraLors are Lyplcally parL of blgger organlzed neLworks of Afrlcan clLlzens
or lnLernaLlonal syndlcaLes. As ln Lhe case of domesLlc Lrafflcklng, vlcLlms of Lrafflcklng are decelved
abouL worklng condlLlons, salarles or even Lhe Lype of work Lhey have been promlsed.

uesplLe dlfflculLles ln obLalnlng daLa, Lhe uS ueparLmenL of SLaLe lndlcaLes LhaL Somalla serves as a
desLlnaLlon, orlgln and LranslL counLry for Lrafflcked men, women and chlldren.
16
LasL Afrlcan
counLrles, alLhough Lo a much lesser exLenL are also desLlnaLlon counLrles for women from SouLh
Asla, ln parLlcular for lndla.
17
ln addlLlon, lL ls lmporLanL Lo menLlon LhaL mosL lnLernaLlonal
mlgraLlon Lo Lurope ls occurrlng Lo counLrles where a ulaspora ls already presenL. MlgranLs are
asslsLed by oLher naLlonals llvlng ln Lhese communlLles, and someLlmes even use Lhe same
Lrafflckers.
18
1hese Lrends demonsLraLe LhaL Lhe LasL Afrlcan reglon ls an lmporLanL depoL ln Lhe

12
lnLervlew wlLh lCM dlrecLor uganda on 13 SepLember, 2009
13
Puman 1rafflcklng ln LasLern Afrlca, 8esearch assessmenL and basellne lnformaLlon ln 1anzanla, kenya, uganda and 8urundl, lCM
Ceneva 2008
14
lnLernaLlonal CrganlzaLlon for MlgraLlon (lCM) 8eporL 2009
13
Afrlcan neLwork for Lhe revenLlon and roLecLlon agalnsL Chlld Abuse and neglecL (AnACAn): 8eglonal rogress 8eporL 2007"
16
uS ueparLmenL of SLaLe: 1rafflcklng ln ersons, 2008 8eporL: Speclal Cases", Somalla 2008
17
C1Z: SLudy on 1rafflcklng ln Women ln LasL Afrlca", 2003
18
lCMMu 2007
human Lrafflcklng Lrade, servlng as a desLlnaLlon, as well as a place of orlgln and LranslL for
lndlvlduals belng Lrafflcked Lo Lhe Mlddle LasL and Asla, as well as Lurope. 1he Lable below glves an
overvlew of source and desLlnaLlon counLrles for lnLernaLlonal Lrafflcklng:

S
o
u
L
h

A
f
r
l
c
a

L
L
h
l
o
p
l
a

k
e
n
y
a

u
A
L

S
a
u
d
l

A
r
a
b
l
a

C
L
h
e
r

M
l
d
d
l
e

L
a
s
L

L
g
y
p
L

L
u
r
o
p
e

n
o
r
L
h

A
m
e
r
l
c
a

u
g
a
n
d
a

1
a
n
z
a
n
l
a

8urundl
x x
Comoros

u[lbouLl

LrlLrea

LLhlopla
x x x x x
kenya
x x x x x
Madagascar

MaurlLlus

8wanda
x x x
Seychelles

Somalla
x x x x
1anzanla
x x x x x x x
uganda
x x x x x x
llqote J. lmptessloo of lotetootloool ttofflckloq
19

4. lrrequ/or miqrotion potterns ond routes
1wo Lyplcal mlgraLlon rouLes can be ldenLlfled ln Lhe reglon, Lhe norLh rouLe by land and seas - vla
norLh Afrlca Lo Lhe Mlddle LasL and Lurope - and Lhe souLh rouLe malnly Lo Mozamblque and/or
SouLhern Afrlca. LasLern Afrlcan counLrles are prlmarlly counLrles of orlgln, buL for Lhe reglon and ln
domesLlc cases, Lhey also serve as desLlnaLlon or LranslL polnLs. kenya has been ldenLlfled as a
desLlnaLlon counLry for lllegal mlgranLs. SouLh Afrlca ls Lhe mosL LargeLed counLry ln Lhe sub-reglon
due Lo lLs relaLlvely hlgh level of economlc and soclal developmenL, and 1anzanla ls Lhe leadlng
counLry for refugees ln Lhe reglon due Lo lLs relaLlve level of pollLlcal sLablllLy, recelvlng offlclally
close Lo one mllllon mlgranLs ln 2003.

1he LasL Afrlca rouLes are malnly composed of lndlvlduals from Lhe Porn of Afrlca. 1he rouLes
deparL from LLhlopla, LrlLrea and Somalla, pass Lhrough Sudan/Chad and Llbya, and evenLually end
on Lhe shores of Lhe MedlLerranean Sea: ln LgypL, Llbya and even ln 1urkey. 1he flows from LasL
Afrlca consLlLuLe from a numerlcal polnL of vlew Lhe maln flow of mlgranLs crosslng Lhe
MedlLerranean Sea, and Lhls LasLern 8ouLe ls currenLly Lhe mosL frequenLly and successfully used.

A 2007 unCuC assessmenL mlsslon Lo ?emen provldes deLalled lnformaLlon on Lhe Culf of Aden
8ouLe, from Somalla Lo ?emen, whlch serves as a LranslL counLry Lo oLher sLaLes ln Lhe Mlddle LasL
and Lurope. noL only due mlgranLs on Lhls rouLe orlglnaLe from Somalla, buL an lncreaslng number
seL ouL on Lhelr [ourney from LLhlopla and LrlLrea. Cnce on Lhe [ourney, mlgranLs are exposed Lo
exLreme danger and many dle along Lhe way, noL only due Lo Lhe rlsks assoclaLed wlLh Lhe hlgh seas,

19
Cvervlew based on lnformaLlon from 1l 2008, 2009 and lCMu 8eporLs
buL also because of Lhe condlLlons on Lhe LranslL [ourney and Lhe bruLallLy of Lhe smugglers. uesplLe
Lhe hlgh rlsk assoclaLed wlLh Lhe crosslng Lhough, Lhe exodus of Somall mlgranLs does noL cease.
1ens of Lhousands of mlgranLs and refugees use Lhe Culf of Aden rouLe every year, and many sLlll
perlsh on Lhelr way Lo a beLLer llfe.
20

4.7 Occurrence ond foci/itotinq foctors
8esearch compleLed ln 2006 and menLloned ln Lhe uS 1l 2008 found approxlmaLely 800,000 people
are Lrafflcked across naLlonal borders, and mllllons more are Lrafflcked wlLhln Lhelr own counLrles.
CuL of Lhese flgures, approxlmaLely 80 percenL of LransnaLlonal vlcLlms are women and glrls, and up
Lo 30 percenL are mlnors.
21
AlLhough Lhe lack of exacL daLa regardlng mlgranL smuggllng and human
Lrafflcklng makes lL dlfflculL Lo measure how adversely Lhese Lwo phenomena affecL Lhe counLrles of
LasL Afrlca, several lndlcaLors show LhaL Lhls lssue needs lmmedlaLe aLLenLlon.

1he LasL Afrlcan mlgraLlon paLLerns are profoundly lnfluenced by confllcL and pollLlcal lnsLablllLy,
causlng lnLernal and lnLernaLlonal dlsplacemenL ln addlLlon Lo creaLlng a vlable aLmosphere for
Lrafflcklng. lL ls noL dlfflculL Lo foresee LhaL whlle refugee camps grow and mlgranL flows wlLhln Lhe
reglon as well as Lo Lurope and Lhe Mlddle LasL remaln hlgh, llllclL human Lrafflcklng wlll remaln a
problem and mosL llkely lncrease. ln addlLlon, efflclenL border managemenL ls lacklng. 8orders are
long and porous, permlLLlng people Lo Lravel relaLlvely easlly across Lhem, and Lhe border pollce lack
Lhe necessary Lralnlng and equlpmenL needed Lo effecLlvely monlLor whaL border crosslngs are ln
place. 1he problem of human Lrafflcklng and mlgranL smuggllng ls furLher exacerbaLed due Lo Lhe
presence of weak governmenLs and crlmlnal [usLlce sysLems. 1he lack of an adequaLe leglslaLlve and
regulaLory framework and awareness of Lhe parL of law enforcemenL and governmenL offlclals only
serves Lo lmpede Lhe effecLlve and coherenL prevenLlon of human Lrafflcklng.

4.7 Potentio/ lnterventions
Cverall, Lrafflcklng ln persons and smuggllng ln mlgranLs are lncreaslngly galnlng aLLenLlon ln LasL
Afrlcan counLrles. Chlld Lrafflcklng ln parLlcular ls belng recognlzed as a problem LhaL needs Lo be
addressed. Pavlng approprlaLe leglslaLlon ln place, as well as havlng a naLlonal acLlon plan, albelL
useful, ls lneffecLlve lf Lhe pollLlcal wlll Lo acL ls noL presenL, and capable law enforcemenL and
[udlclal offlcers are lacklng. 1he pollLlcal wlll Lo confronL Lhese problems ls needed noL only Lo
address lssues of leglslaLlve reform, buL more lmporLanLly ln order Lo ralse publlc awareness
regardlng human Lrafflcklng, mlgraLlon lssues, and ln dolng so lncrease Lhe level of regular mlgraLlon
and Lhe reporLlng of llllclL Lrafflcklng. 1he presence of adequaLely Lralned and equlpped pollce forces
and [udlclary ln vlLal Lo ensurlng LhaL Lrafflcklng ls recognlzed, lnvesLlgaLed and properly prosecuLed.
ln almosL all Lhe counLrles of Lhe LasL Afrlcan reglon, Lhe low levels of lnvesLlgaLlon, prosecuLlon and
convlcLlon are deeply concernlng
22
.

1he prevenLlon of LransnaLlonal human Lrafflcklng requlres noL only cooperaLlon beLween varlous
sLaLe agencles (border pollce, pollce forces, prosecuLorlal and [udlclal acLors, lmmlgraLlon offlcers,
mlnlsLrles of lnLerlor), buL also good communlcaLlon and daLa exchange beLween counLrles wlLhln

20
1he Mlxed MlgraLlon 1askforce 8eporL Addresslng Mlxed MlgraLlon Along Lhe Culf of Aden: A SLraLegy aper", Mrach 2008 (auLhored b
lCM/unPC8)
21
u.S. 1l reporL 2008, page 7
22
See counLry reporLs ln uS 1l 2008
Lhe reglon and worldwlde ls needed. CoordlnaLlon ls a dlfflculL lssue ln almosL all governmenL areas,
and alLhough reglonal organlzaLlons Lake Lrafflcklng ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng serlously, [olnL
acLlon has noL yeL developed on a large scale.

Puman Lrafflcklng ls noL addressed on an approprlaLe scale by law enforcemenL offlclals. 8esources
and skllls are lacklng, and awareness concernlng human Lrafflcklng ls sLlll low. Lven more concernlng,
Lhough are reporLs of law enforcemenL offlclals harasslng vlcLlms of Lrafflcklng lnsLead of helplng
Lhem
23
.

Powever, Lhere are also poslLlve Lrends provldlng evldence LhaL lmprovemenLs are posslble.
AmongsL sub-Saharan Afrlcan counLrles, Madagascar has an excellenL record on combaLlng human
Lrafflcklng.
24
Addresslng Lhe problem of chlld sex Lourlsm ls Laken serlously. 1he governmenL has
slgnlflcanLly lncreased lLs law enforcemenL efforLs durlng Lhe lasL few years, lncludlng Lhe adopLlon
of a comprehenslve anLl-Lrafflcklng law and Lhe punlshmenL of local governmenL offlclals who
faclllLaLe Lrafflcklng ln 2007. As Lhere ls no cenLral reporLlng sysLem ln Madagascar, however, Lhe
governmenL could noL provlde prosecuLlon sLaLlsLlcs.

ln LLhlopla, progress has also been made over Lhe lasL year. lorum for SLreeL Chlldren (lSCL), a local
nCC, has collaboraLed wlLh lnLernaLlonal nCCs and local and reglonal law enforcemenL ln
esLabllshlng Chlld roLecLlon unlLs (Cu) ln pollce sLaLlons ln Addls Ababa and nlne oLher Lowns
worldwlde. Lach Cu educaLes law enforcemenL offlclals on Lhe rlghLs of chlldren and provldes
asslsLance Lo chlld vlcLlms of explolLaLlon. 1hls program has helped reunlLe over 1,000 Lrafflcked and
explolLed sLreeL chlldren wlLh Lhelr famllles, and Lhe sLaff aL Lhe Addls Ababa CenLral 8us 1ermlnal
now reporL posslble chlld Lrafflcklng cases Lo local Cus.
23

SLaLe responses Lo Lrafflcklng ln persons ln Madagascar and LLhlopla lndlcaLe LhaL Lhe problem of
human Lrafflcklng ln LasL Afrlca ls galnlng lncreased aLLenLlon and LhaL sLaLes are beglnnlng Lo
address Lhe lssue more comprehenslvely. 8ased on Lhe flndlngs presenLed above and Lhe
recommendaLlons from Lhe ln-depLh sLudy ln LLhlopla, kenya and Llbya from Lhe lCMu
26
, Lhe
followlng are proposals on how Lo lncrease efforLs ln LasL Afrlca Lo prevenL and dlmlnlsh human
Lrafflcklng and lLs effecLs:

Make use of exlsLlng local, reglonal and lnLernaLlonal supporL for legal and pracLlcal capaclLy
bulldlng dlrecLed Lowards pollcy developmenL, developmenL of laws and a coherenL and
lnsLlLuLlonallzed naLlonal framework Lo address Lrafflcklng ln persons and mlgranL smuggllng.
(SupporL ls offered for example Lhrough naLlonal and reglonal nCC's, Lhe u.S SLaLe ueparLmenL,
lCM, and Lhe unCuC Cll1 programme).

Make sure cooperaLlon and co-ordlnaLlon among naLlonal and lnLernaLlonal sLakeholders ln all
mlgraLlon relaLed areas (l.e. mlgraLlon offlces, border conLrol, awareness ralslng campalgns) are
furLher developed.

23
lCM reporL 2008, page 30
24
uS 1l 2008
23
uS 1l 2008, page 38
26
lCMu CounLry reporLs 2008

LfforLs Lo lmprove Lhe lack of daLa gaLherlng overlap of responslblllLles, lack of co-ordlnaLlon and
communlcaLlon beLween local and reglonal law enforcemenL and [udlclal offlcers. 1hls needs Lo
be addressed ln Lhe conLexL of a lack of flnanclal and human resources wlLh posslble asslsLance
comlng from desLlnaLlon sLaLes.

lnvesL ln efflclenL border managemenL as a core elemenL of mlgraLlon managemenL. CounLrles
need Lo acqulre sufflclenL human, flnanclal and Lechnlcal resources for efflclenL border
managemenL.

8alse awareness among Lhe populaLlon Lhrough awareness and educaLlon campalgns, news
reporLlng eLc. abouL Lhe opporLunlLles for legal mlgraLlon and Lhe dangers of Lrafflcklng ln
persons.

lmprove Lhe educaLlon and Lralnlng of crlmlnal [usLlce acLors, especlally law enforcemenL
offlclals Lo asslsL Lhem ln deLecLlng cases of Lrafflcklng of persons and mlgranL smuggllng,, as well
as senslLlzaLlon regardlng Lhe proper care and asslsLance Lo be provlded Lo vlcLlms of human
Lrafflcklng. Lnsure faclllLles are avallable Lo offer care and supporL Lo Lrafflcklng vlcLlms.

Cverall, all (lnLernaLlonal) supporL acLlvlLles need Lo be placed ln Lhe conLexL of oLher pro-poor
developmenL sLraLegles ln counLrles, such as Lhe lan for AcceleraLed SusLalnable uevelopmenL
Lo Lnd overLy (ASuL) ln LLhlopla, or Lhe new arLnershlp for Afrlca's uevelopmenL (nLAu)
aL Lhe reglonal level.

S. IIkLAkMS 1kAIIICkING

5.1 lntroduction
Cf Lhe esLlmaLed 640 mllllon small arms and llghL weapons (SALW) ln clrculaLlon worldwlde, 100
mllllon of Lhose are LhoughL Lo be ln Afrlca and Lhe ma[orlLy of Lhose ln Lhe hands of clvll socleLy.
27

1rafflcklng ln flrearms consLlLuLes one of Lhe mosL challenglng and presslng problems ln LasLern
Afrlca. llrearms are clrculaLlng from one confllcL Lo anoLher and evenLually end up ln Lhe hands of
warlords and crlmlnal gangs, prolonglng confllcLs, promoLlng crlme and armed vlolence and slowlng
down Lhe developmenL of soclal and economlc sLablllLy and democracy.

MosL counLrles ln Lhe reglon are heavlly affecLed by Lhe clrculaLlon and mlsuse of llllclL flrearms,
whlch are ofLen Lhe dlrecL cause of deaLh of many clvlllans. 1he flow of flrearms ls fuelled by
perslsLenL lnsLablllLy ln Lhe reglon and recurrlng ouLbreaks of confllcLs wlLhln Lhe Porn of Afrlca, Lhe
CreaL Lakes 8eglon and Lo nelghbourlng counLrles.

llrearms Lrafflcklng and organlzed crlme are lnexLrlcably llnked, yeL llLLle lnformaLlon ls avallable
abouL Lhe neLworks and organlzaLlons lnvolved ln Lhe LasL Afrlca reglon. llrearms' Lrafflcklng has
also a clear llnk Lo Lerrorlsm, armed confllcLs, and lL ls closely relaLed Lo urban vlolence and gang
crlmlnallLy. 1he avallablllLy of flrearms and flrearms Lrafflcklng are wldespread ln Lhe reglon, buL Lhe
prollferaLlon of flrearms ls generally belleved Lo have a cerLaln paLLern and could be effecLlvely
conLrolled lf Lhe channels of supply were ldenLlfled and Lackled.

8educlng Lhe amounL of SALW could clearly conLrlbuLe poslLlvely Lowards endlng Lhe vlclous clrcle of
vlolence. AlLhough mosL sLaLes ln Lhe reglon have weak governance sLrucLures and are sLruggllng Lo
provlde securlLy wlLhln Lhelr borders, Lhey have aLLenLlon for Lhe arms problem. ln pracLlce, Lhey
face mulLlple challenges ln addresslng Lhe lssues around SALW. orous borders creaLe a dlfflculL
slLuaLlon Lo Lrack Lrade ln Lhe commodlLy and are heaven on earLh for llllclL acLlvlLles. 1he poor
condlLlon of sLaLe securlLy forces causes Lhe lmposslblllLy Lo provlde securlLy counLry wlde and so
lnhablLanLs choose Lo arrange for Lhelr own safeLy and posses weapons. lurLhermore wldespread
corrupLlon ln some counLrles and lnsLlLuLlons cannoL rule ouL governmenLal lnvolvemenL or allowlng
of llllclL Lrade.

1he exacL amounL of avallable SALW ln LasL Afrlca ls unknown. lL ls expecLed Lhere are Lhousands of
flrearms ln llllclL possesslon, and LhaL llllclL Lrafflcklng of Lhese weapons ls Laklng place aL a large
scale. AlLhough clear facLs and flgures, as well as lnformaLlon abouL lnvolved acLors and Lrade rouLes
are noL wldely avallable, lL ls posslble Lo creaLe a plcLure of Lhe llllclL Lrafflcklng ln flrearms by looklng
aL Lhe laws and regulaLlons ln place and Lo whaL exLenL Lhese laws are belng effecLlvely
lmplemenLed.

5.2 5mo// orms ond /iqht weopons ond their sources
Small arms and llghL weapons (SALW) ls used Lo descrlbe mosL flrearms ln use by lndlvlduals and
small groups of lndlvlduals and Lhe ammunlLlon used for Lhe weapons. Common flrearms ln LasL

27
hLLp://www.smallarmssurvey.org/flles/porLal/lssueareas/lnvenLorles/lnvenLorles.hLml, 30 SepLember 2009
Afrlca are Lhe Ak 47 and C 3. SALW are used for a range of reasons, for as by clvlllans for
proLecLlons, Lo pasLoral uses, Lo Lhe more slnlsLer uses of crlmlnal gangs, mlllLlas and LerrorlsL
groups.

ln LasL Afrlca a ma[or source for weapons has been Lhe supply of weapons ln Lhe 1970s and 1980s ln
relaLlon Lo Lhe Cold War. AnoLher ma[or area of concern ls Lhe dlverslon of flrearms from offlclal
sources due Lo a comblnaLlon of facLors, lncludlng Lhe breakdown of sLaLe lnsLlLuLlons, looLed
governmenL sLockplles, and LhefL from sLaLe-run small arms lnvenLorles. 1he ma[orlLy of flrearms are
dlverLed from poorly secured governmenL sLockplles by corrupL offlclals or Lhleves and LransacLlons
are frequenLly faclllLaLed by llllclL brokers, who Lake advanLage of weak regulaLory sysLems, poor or
non-exlsLenL lmporL and exporL conLrols and llcenslng sysLems. ln addlLlon, local law enforcemenL
and oLher offlclals are lnvolved ln Lhe supplylng of ammunlLlons, wheLher legal, seml-legal or llllclL.

Clven ongolng lnsLablllLy ln Somalla, Lhe counLry ls a gaLeway for llllclL arms Lo enLer Lhe LasLern
Afrlcan reglon. 1he un MonlLorlng Croup on Somalla
28
has noLed LhaL slgnlflcanL arms shlpmenLs
have been made Lo Lhe counLry Lhrough Lhe Culf of Aden. Weak border conLrols faclllLaLe Lhe flow
of weapons from Somalla Lo Lhe reglon more generally. ln parLlcular ln confllcL-rldden counLrles,
flrearms flnd Lhelr way Lhrough clandesLlne mlllLary operaLlons, whlch are coverL Lransfers by
corrupL governmenL offlclals Lo separaLlsL or rebel forces operaLlng ln anoLher counLry. kenya and
1anzanla, for example, are boLh affecLed by Lhe lnflux of flrearms from nelghbourlng counLrles,
whlch are faced wlLh armed confllcL.
29
Seychelles, alLhough known as a sLable and peaceful counLry,
ls LhoughL Lo be an lmporLanL enLry polnL for small arms ln Lhe reglon.

Lase of
Access Lo
SALW
Level of
vlolenL
Crlme
8urundl 3 3
Comoros 4 1
u[lbouLl 4 2
LrlLrea 4 2
LLhlopla 4 2
kenya 3 4
Madagascar 4 2
MaurlLlus 3 2
8wanda 3 1
Seychelles 3 3
Somalla 3 3
1anzanla 3 3
uganda 3 3
llqote 4. lbtoblm Access to weopoos loJex 2008 fot osteto Aftlco

Arms and ammunlLlon Lrafflcklng ln Afrlca ls a complex and mulLl-faceLed problem ofLen llnked Lo
lnLer-communlLy vlolence and organlzed crlmlnal acLlvlLles, such as looLlng naLural resources,
poachlng and drug Lrafflcklng. A flrearms LransacLlon may lnvolve an array of clandesLlne crlmlnal

28
ursuanL Lo SecurlLy Councll 8esoluLlon 1811.
29
8eglonal CenLre on Small Arms (8LCSA): lacL SheeL 2008
Measured on a scale
from 1 Lo 3: where 1 ls
Lhe leasL accesslble,
and where 1 ls leasL
vlolenL.

neLwork brokers, banks, corrupL governmenL and law enforcemenL offlclals, prlvaLe mlllLary
companles, dublous LransporLaLlon companles, and several Lrans-shlpmenL polnLs.

5.l Leqo/ ond po/icy fromework
1he reglon of LasLern Afrlca has a falrly good reglonal arms regulaLory framework ln place. 1hls ls
evldenced by Lhe followlng programmes and proLocols: 1he rogramme of AcLlon Lo revenL,
CombaL and LradlcaLe Lhe llllclL 1rade ln Small Arms and LlghL Weapons ln All lLs AspecLs (oA), Lhe
nalrobl ueclaraLlon, Lhe nalrobl roLocol for Lhe revenLlon, ConLrol and 8educLlon of Small Arms
and LlghL Weapons ln Lhe CreaL Lakes 8eglon and Lhe Porn of Afrlca, and Lhe 8eglonal CenLre on
Small Arms and LlghL Weapons ln Lhe CreaL Lakes 8eglon and Lhe Porn of Afrlca (8LCSA).
lurLhermore, slgnaLure Lo and lmplemenLaLlon of Lhe reglonal legal and pollcy framework ls falrly
good, as demonsLraLed ln Lhe Lable below:

8
u
r
u
n
d
l

C
o
m
o
r
o
s

u
[
l
b
o
u
L
l

L
r
l
L
r
e
a

L
L
h
l
o
p
l
a

k
e
n
y
a

M
a
d
a
g
a
s
c
a
r

M
a
u
r
l
L
l
u
s

8
w
a
n
d
a

S
e
y
c
h
e
l
l
e
s

S
o
m
a
l
l
a

1
a
n
z
a
n
l
a

u
g
a
n
d
a

nalrobl roLocol for
Lhe prevenLlon, conLrol
and reducLlon of SALW
ln Lhe CreaL Lakes and
Porn of Afrlca reglons
x x x x x x x x x x
LCCAS ermanenL
ConsulLaLlve
CommlLLee on SecurlLy
MaLLers ln Afrlca
x x
SAuC roLocol on Lhe
conLrol of flrearms,
ammunlLlon and oLher
relaLed maLerlal
x
Au-8amako
ueclaraLlon on llllclL
small arms
x x x x x
un rogramme of
AcLlon Lo revenL,
CombaL and LradlcaLe
Lhe llllclL 1rade ln Small
Arms and LlghL
Weapons (oA)
x x x x x
CLLawa ConvenLlon
(Mlne 8an 1reaLy)
x x x x x
un Arms 1rade
8eglsLer

un llrearms roLocol x
llqote 5. keqloool 5Alw leqol ooJ lollcy ltomewotk
J0

30
8eglonal CenLre on Small Arms (8LSCA): lacL SheeL 2008
uesplLe Lhls regulaLory framework, Lwo ma[or lssues ln regards Lo Lhe esLabllshed framework are ln
need of menLlon. llrsL, mosL of Lhe currenL regulaLlons do noL address Lhe lssue of brokerlng
flrearms. 1hls lssue has noL been addressed properly worldwlde, buL as brokerlng ls a cruclal sLep ln
Lhe sLrucLural spreadlng of SALW from one place Lo anoLher, lL urgenLly needs Lo be addressed.
Mlddlemen ln Lhe SALW Lrade are dlfflculL Lo 'Lake ouL of buslness', whlch would serve Lo severely
hamper and dlsrupL Lhe Lrade. Secondly, Lhe oLher serlous omlsslon ln Lhe currenL law ls LhaL Lhese
regulaLlons are noL rooLed ln humanlLarlan law, Lhus creaLlng a slLuaLlon ln whlch law enforcemenL
offlclals can hunL down and lnvesLlgaLe offenders wlLhouL upholdlng baslc humanlLarlan proLecLlon.
Whlle reduclng Lhe number of llllclL weapons ln possesslon, Lhelr use and Lhelr Lrafflcklng ls
paramounL, lL should noL lead Lo a slLuaLlon ln whlch Lhe clvlllan populaLlon ls lnLlmldaLed away from
parLlclpaLlng ln addresslng Lhe llllclL arms Lrade because of undue fear of law enforcemenL offlclals.

1he reglonal efforLs Lo conLrol llllclL arms Lrafflcklng ln LasL Afrlca have been launched ln Lhe rlghL
dlrecLlon. 1he facL LhaL reglonal soluLlons are belng soughL ls worLhwhlle, as worldwlde efforLs Lo
reduce or even dlmlnlsh arms Lrafflcklng wlll prove far more dlfflculL Lo achleve. More lmporLanL, a
reglonal approach ls necessary Lo Lackle ln order Lo make sure SALW do noL conLlnue Lo be dlspersed
from counLry Lo counLry. uesLrucLlon of weapons, Lracklng and Lraclng, border conLrol and sLockplle
managemenL are prerogaLlves Lo end SALW prollferaLlon and llllclL Lrafflcklng ln flrearms. 1he
enacLmenL of necessary laws and Lhe esLabllshmenL of 8LSCA are lmporLanL flrsL sLeps Lo brlnglng
llllclL arms Lrafflcklng under conLrol, buL lL ls Loo early Lo say wheLher Lhey wlll work or be sufflclenL,
because ln mosL cases Lhe underslgnlng counLrles are sLlll ln Lhe process of ad[usLlng Lhelr laws Lo
Lhe nalrobl proLocol and Lhe process of lmplemenLlng enacLed laws ls excesslvely slow. AL Lhe same
Llme lL wlll be dlfflculL for Lhe counLrles ln Lhe reglon Lo succeed ln lmplemenLlng Lhe laws wlLhouL
supporL, Lechnlcal and flnanclal, from Lhe ouLslde. WlLhouL such supporL, Lhe SALW Lrade wlll
conLlnue Lo flourlsh and adversely affecL Lhe LasL Afrlca reglon.

1he mere facL LhaL weapons are easlly avallable and easlly Lransferred ls harmlng Lhe people and
developmenL ln LasL Afrlca. lf noLhlng ls done Lo dlmlnlsh Lhe amounL of avallable weapons and
Lrafflcklng of SALW, developmenL wlll remaln dlfflculL Lo achleve. ulsarmamenL, lncreaslng sLaLe
based law and order and endlng lmpunlLy are a necessary parL of ralslng economlc, soclal and
pollLlcal developmenL ln Lhe reglon.

LasL Afrlcan counLrles are Laklng Lhe llllclL Lrade ln SALW serlously, as evldenced by Lhe developmenL
of new leglslaLlon and Lhe producLlon of naLlonal acLlon plans. Powever, alLhough relaLlvely sLrong
laws and pollcles are avallable LhroughouL Lhe reglon, Lhere are lnsufflclenL means Lo lmplemenL
Lhem. ln addlLlon, Lhe governmenLs and Lhelr securlLy forces are conLradlcLory ln Lhelr acLlons,
wllllng Lo address Lhe prollferaLlon of SALW aL Llmes, yeL sLlll conLrlbuLlng Lo Lhe conLlnued Lrade ln
such weapons and ammunlLlons. underdevelopmenL, lnequallLy, confllcL over resources, Lenslons
beLween communlLles and sLaLes wlLhln Lhe reglon all creaLe an envlronmenL ln whlch lL ls dlfflculL
for clvlllans Lo undersLand and acknowledge Lhe lmporLance of endlng SALW possesslon and Lrade.
ln order Lo secure success ln Lhe long Lerm, sLrucLural aLLenLlon for lmplemenLaLlon of SALW
programmes and Lhe connecLlon of Lhese programmes Lo llvellhood and poverLy reducLlon
programmes ls necessary.

lrom Lhe avallable daLa, lL ls dlfflculL Lo analyze Lhe currenL slLuaLlon regardlng Lhe llllclL possesslon
and Lrafflcklng ln SALW ln LasL Afrlca and how lL ls Lo develop. Powever, conslderlng Lhe avallable
facLs and flgures, lL ls hlghly unllkely LhaL weapon possesslon and llllclL Lrafflcklng ln SALW wlll
decrease anyLlme soon. lnsLead, mosL lndlcaLors lead Lo Lhe concluslon LhaL Lhe slLuaLlon ls mosL
llkely Lo deLerloraLe ln Lhe shorL or long Lerm lf no furLher acLlon ls Laken.

Lach counLry can lncrease lLs efforLs Lo combaL Lhe llllclL possesslon and Lrafflcklng of SALW, buL lf
Lhe SALW Lrade ls Lo be prevenLed effecLlvely, lL ls necessary Lo lncrease efforLs on Lhe reglonal level.
ln order Lo necesslLaLe lmproved reglonal cooperaLlon for SALW reducLlon, Lhe followlng prlorlLy
acLlvlLles should be underLaken:

lncreased lmplemenLaLlon of exlsLlng (and Lo be developed) laws, proLocols, and regulaLlons,

lncreased uLlllzaLlon of reglonal sLrucLures,

SLrengLhened managemenL of weapon sLockplles,

8esLrlcLlon on law enforcemenL behavlour LhaL faclllLaLes SALW Lrafflcklng and Lhe use of
flrearms, such as Lhe lssulng of ammunlLlon,

Lnhanced capaclLy of pollce unlLs so Lhey are able Lo dellver securlLy ln every reglon and uphold
laws on flrearms,

CuaranLee LhaL exlsLlng programmes and lnsLlLuLlons (8LCSA and lCCL8) achleve sLaLed resulLs
and ob[ecLlves, and are accounLable Lo clLlzens and donors,

1ermlnaLlon or re-organlzaLlon of underperformlng organlzaLlons and programmes,

8alsed awareness among clLlzens regardlng llllclL flrearms possesslon and Lrafflcklng,

LsLabllshed connecLlon beLween dlsarmamenL programmes and oLher developmenL lnlLlaLlves,
and

Lnhanced capaclLy of agencles responslble for border conLrol.


6. DkUG 1kAIIICkING

.1 lntroduction
urug Lrafflcklng ln Afrlca, parLlcularly WesL Afrlca has galned speclal aLLenLlon ln recenL years. MosL
counLrles ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon are used as LranslL polnLs Lo oLher desLlnaLlons. Cannabls ls
Lhe mosL culLlvaLed, smuggled and consumed drug ln Lhe reglon, followed - among Lhe
lnLernaLlonally conLrolled subsLances - by heroln and Lo a much lesser exLenL cocalne. AlLhough
selzure flgures are low, Lhey lndlcaLe more Lhan llkely LhaL few resources are belng allocaLed Lo drug
conLrol and weak border conLrols raLher Lhan low levels of llllclL drugs belng Lrafflcked Lhrough Lhe
reglon. An lnLra-reglonal drug Lrafflcklng paLLern has also emerged recenLly, lnvolvlng kenya,
1anzanla, Madagascar, MaurlLlus, Seychelles and Lhe Comoros.

llqote 6. Mojot Jtoq ttofflckloq tootes lo tbe osteto Aftlcoo teqloo

.2 1ypes of druqs, occurrence ond trode
WesLern Lurope
AfghanlsLan
aklsLan
lndla / Chlna
uSA
LaLln Amerlca
LasLern Afrlca
SouLh Afrlca
key

Peroln
Cannabls
MeLhaqualone
Cocalne
1halland / Myanmar
MosL lnformaLlon on drug Lrafflcklng, consumpLlon paLLerns and counLry acLlvlLles Lo counLer Lhe
Lrade ln drugs ls collecLed worldwlde Lhrough Lhe annual reporLs quesLlonnalre (A8C) by unCuC.
31

ln 2007 and 2008, only a handful of counLrles submlLLed compleLed Lhese quesLlonnalres. As a
resulL, 2006 ls Lhe laLesL year for whlch LoLal selzure daLa ls reasonably represenLaLlve of Lhe overall
slLuaLlon ln LasL Afrlca (A8Cs were submlLLed by LrlLrea, LLhlopla, Madagascar, MaurlLlus and some
selzure daLa was avallable for kenya (World CusLoms CrganlzaLlon), 1anzanla and uganda
(PCnLAl)).

AlLhough daLa are noL wldely avallable ln Lhe pasL couple of years regardlng drug Lrafflcklng, Lhe
avallable sLaLlsLlcs lndlcaLe LhaL LradlLlonal drugs such as khaL and cannabls conLlnue Lo be Lrafflcked
ln large volumes LhroughouL Lhe reglon. Lven Lhough lL ls noL wldely used LhroughouL Lhe reglon
and Lhe planL lLself ls noL banned, lLs maln acLlve lngredlenLs, caLhlnone and caLhlne, are conLrolled
under Lhe 1971 ConvenLlon on sychoLroplc SubsLances and Lhus lllegal ln a number of counLrles
ouLslde Lhe reglon such as AusLralla, Canada, uenmark, oland, Sweden, Lhe unlLed SLaLes and
oLher WesLern counLrles. As a resulL, several counLrles ln Lhe reglon are concerned abouL Lhe
healLh, as well as Lhe soclo-economlc effecLs of khaL consumpLlon and of aspecLs relaLlng Lo lLs Lrade
and Lrafflcklng. Cannabls ls sLlll Lhe mosL wldely consumed and Lrafflcked llllclL drug ln Lhe reglon.
1he amounL of selzures of cannabls herb ln 2006 ln Lhe reglon amounLed Lo 228 Lons, rlslng by 40
ln comparlson Lo 2003. LasL Afrlca collecLlvely accounLed for 4.3 of global selzures of cannabls
herb ln 2006, 3.4 of cannabls oll, 2.3 of cannabls planL and 2.3 of cannabls resln. 1anzanla
alone selzed 223 Lones of cannabls herb, whlle kenya reporLed selzures of 44 Lons of cannabls herb
ln 2007. ln addlLlon, Lhe level of cannabls oll selzures ln Madagascar ln 2006 was Lhe fourLh hlghesL
ln worldwlde (afLer Canada, Lhe 8usslan lederaLlon and !amalca).

A raLher new developmenL LhaL ls of growlng concern ln Lhe reglon ls Lhe flow of oplaLes, causlng
LasLern Afrlcan counLrles Lo be ldenLlfled as boLh desLlnaLlon and LranslL counLrles. MosL selzures of
heroln are made aL lnLernaLlonal alrporLs, wlLh Lhe alrporLs servlclng Addls Ababa and nalrobl belng
Lhe Lwo mosL lmporLanL due Lo Lhelr exLenslve connecLlons ouLslde Lhe reglon, buL Lhere ls also an
lncreaslng use of posLal and courler servlces for heroln, as well as hashlsh and Lo a lesser exLenL
cocalne. A revlew of drug selzures from 1998 Lo daLe lndlcaLes an lncrease ln Lhe Lrafflcklng of
heroln Lo LasLern Afrlcan counLrles from aklsLan, 1halland and lndla. 1anzanlans and Mozamblcans
are becomlng lnvolved ln Lhe Lrafflcklng of heroln from aklsLan and lran, hlghllghLlng Lhe exLenL Lo
whlch Lhe easLern coasL of Afrlca ls lncreaslngly a LranslL polnL. CLher lndlcaLlons for Lhe lncreaslng
lmporLance of LasLern Afrlca ln Lhe heroln Lrade sLem from selzures ln aklsLan, an lmporLanL LranslL
counLry for oplaLes orlglnaLlng ln AfghanlsLan. ueLalls of 1,344 heroln selzures occurrlng ln Lhe
perlod 2003-2007 were reporLed from aklsLan. Among Lhese, Lhe number of cases ln whlch Lhe
desLlnaLlon was ldenLlfled as a counLry ln LasLern Afrlca lncreased from 9 ln 2003 Lo 13 ln 2006 and
27 ln 2007.
32
ln addlLlon, lL ls worLh noLlng LhaL law enforcemenL experLs from lran and aklsLan
have reporLed Lhe lncreaslng acLlvlLles of LasLern Afrlcan drug carLels ln Lhelr own counLrles.
33

Whlle Lhe sub-reglon does noL have a parLlcular problem wlLh Lhe Lrafflcklng of cocalne, lL should be

31
used ln Lhe World urug 8eporLs
32
unCuC malnLalns a daLabase wlLh deLalls of slgnlflcanL lndlvldual drug selzures (reporLed by auLhorlLles vla a reporLlng mechanlsm
dlsLlncL from LhaL of Lhe A8Cs).
33
ulscusslons aL Lhe arls acL MeeLlng, nalrobl november 2008.
noLed LhaL lL ls hlghly probable Lhe reglon ls sLlll used as a LranslL polnL for cocalne desLlned for Lhe
Luropean markeLs. lor example, a ma[or selzure of 1.2 Lons of cocalne Look place ln Lhe orL of
Mombasa ln 2006, and a number of smaller cocalne shlpmenLs were also reporLed, whlch orlglnaLed
ln SouLh Amerlca and were headed Lo kenya vla WesL Afrlca before belng subsequenLly shlpped Lo
Lhe uk. ln addlLlon, Lhe reglon has lncreaslngly been used as a LranslL polnL and desLlnaLlon for
precursors. 1he lnCu precursors reporL for 2007 ldenLlfled a number of counLrles LargeLed ln Lhe
dlverslon and aLLempLed dlverslon of ephedrlne and pseudoephedrlne, lncludlng 8urundl, LLhlopla,
kenya, Somalla and 1anzanla. 1he emergence of Mandrax ln Lhe reglon has gone hand ln hand wlLh
Lhe dlverslon of llclL drugs and essenLlal chemlcal precursors lnLo Lhe llllclL markeL, and lL should be
noLed LhaL ln 2007, Lhe lndlan auLhorlLles sLopped a 3 Lon shlpmenL of anLhranlllc acld desLlned for
kenya. Such a selzure should cause alarm because anLhranlllc acld ls used ln Lhe producLlon of
Mandrax, and kenya has no leglLlmaLe requlremenL for Lhe subsLance.

llqote 7. ltloclpol betolo lotetJlctloo
J4

.l Potentio/ lnterventions
LlmlLed selzure sLaLlsLlcs provlde evldence LhaL LasLern Afrlca's role as a LranslL polnL for heroln
desLlned for Lhe markeLs of WesL and CenLral Lurope has lncreased dramaLlcally. Peroln use ls on
Lhe rlse ln LasL Afrlca, wlLh a currenL esLlmaLe of 1.2 mllllon heroln users ln Afrlca, maklng Lhe reglon
noL only a LranslL polnL, buL also a desLlnaLlon of Lhe drug, wlLh an esLlmaLed 24-23 Lons used every
year. ln addlLlon, oLher drugs such as cocalne are Lrafflcked Lhrough Lhe reglon, and ln some cases
(khaL, cannabls) are manufacLured and used ln Lhe reglon.

LasL Afrlca's role as a LranslL polnL and desLlnaLlon for llllclL drugs looks Lo lncrease lf lmmedlaLe
acLlon ls noL Laken. 1he reglon as a whole ls characLerlzed by weak border conLrols (land, sea and
alr), as well as llmlLed cross order and reglonal cooperaLlon, whlch can be easlly explolLed by
Lrafflckers. As long as Lhere are no effecLlve conLrol mechanlsms ln Lhe counLrles of Lhe reglon, Lhe

34
Source: A8Cs, CovernmenLs, PCnLAl
Lrafflcklng and lmporLaLlon of lllegal drugs wlll conLlnue Lo rlse, furLher hlnderlng Lhe developmenL
process ln Lhe reglon.

1he followlng are key areas LhaL would need Lo be sLrengLhened, ln order Lo have ln place a more
effecLlve response Lo Lhe problems of drug Lrafflcklng ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon:

lncreased border conLrol ln Lhe reglon,

CoordlnaLed acLlons beLween governmenL agencles and lnsLlLuLlons,

Lnhanced capablllLles of speclal drug unlLs LhroughouL Lhe reglon Lhrough Lralnlng and
adequaLe equlpmenL (such as drug deLecLlon dogs and x-ray machlnes aL alrporLs), and

lncreased awareness among clLlzens abouL Lhe dangers of drugs.


7. LNVIkCNMLN1AL CkIML

7.1 lntroduction
LasLern Afrlcan counLrles are endowed wlLh hlgh levels of blodlverslLy and alLhough belng plenLlful
ln flora and fauna, Lhe sLand of many proLecLed specles seems Lo dlmlnlsh rapldly. LnvlronmenLal
crlme ln Afrlca and ln parLlcular ln LasLern Afrlca ls pro[ecLed Lo be on Lhe rlse, challenglng Lhe
securlLy of clLlzens and communlLles, ln parLlcular ln Lhe border areas. ln LasLern Afrlca, Lhere ls
growlng concern abouL Lhe lllegal Lrade ln flora and fauna, wlldllfe and polluLlon/dumplng of Loxlc
wasLe. LnvlronmenLal crlme has become lncreaslngly organlzed and LransnaLlonal ln naLure and can
be seen, [usL as drug and flrearms Lrafflcklng, as one of Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL areas of Lrans-border
crlmlnal acLlvlLy, LhreaLenlng Lo dlsrupL socleLles ln Lhe reglon and hlnder susLalnable developmenL.

7.2 Leqo/ lromework
ln recenL decades Lhe worldwlde lncrease ln lnLernaLlonal envlronmenLal crlme has led Lo Lhe
formulaLlon of varlous mulLllaLeral convenLlons Lo conLrol polluLanLs LhaL are healLh or
envlronmenLal hazards, ln order Lo prevenL Lhe wanLon explolLaLlon of scarce naLural resources and
Lo proLecL endangered planL and anlmal specles. ln LasL Afrlca, Lhe arLnershlp for Lhe uevelopmenL
of LnvlronmenLal Laws and lnsLlLuLlons ln Afrlca (AuLLlA), a unL pro[ecL ln exlsLence slnce 1994,
seeks Lo supporL Lhe developmenL of envlronmenLal law as well as Lhe correspondlng naLlonal and
reglonal lnsLlLuLlons Lo ensure effecLlve enforcemenL. ln Lhe reglon kenya, 1anzanla, and uganda
have beneflLed from Lhe pro[ecL. As a resulL, varlous laws have been developed and enacLed, and
currenLly acLlvlLles are belng underLaken on a sub-reglonal level Lo harmonlze laws beLween
counLrles.

AlLhough varlous legal frameworks and proLocols have been adopLed by a number of counLrles, one
of Lhe ma[or lmpedlmenLs ln flghLlng envlronmenLal crlme ln Lhe reglon ls Lhe varleLy of dlfferenL
legal frameworks and pollcles, resulLlng ln a slLuaLlon where cerLaln acLlvlLles are crlmlnal ln one
counLry and legal ln Lhe nelghbourlng one. ConsequenLly, organlzed crlmlnal groups can operaLe ln
Lhe counLry possesslng Lhe weakesL legal framework, and Lherefore avold prosecuLlon.

7.l 1ypes of environmento/ crime
ln LasL Afrlca envlronmenLal crlme ranges from poachlng and lllegal logglng and Lrade ln blodlverslLy
producLs (flora and fauna) Lo lmproper LransporLaLlon and dumplng of wasLe. AlLhough wldespread
for decades, Lrade ln lllegal Llmer and lllegal logglng have only been seen as a ma[or concern ln
recenL years. 1hese acLlvlLles LhreaLen ecosysLems and Lhe fuLure susLalnablllLy of foresLs, fosLer
corrupLlon and resulL ln revenue losses for Lhe sLaLe and buslnesses. Moreover, lL undercuLs Lhe
prlces of legally harvesLed foresL producLs on Lhe lnLernaLlonal markeL and ls connecLed Lo organlzed
crlme, human rlghLs abuses and vlolenL confllcL. oor leglslaLlon concernlng Lhe envlronmenL and
rampanL corrupLlon on Lhe hlghesL level ln producer counLrles lmpede Lhe prevenLlon and deLecLlon
of Lhls crlme.

A second wldespread envlronmenLal crlme ls wlldllfe poachlng and Lhe relaLed lllegal Lrade ln lvory.
roLecLed anlmals are lllegally Lraded ln conLalners by land, sea and alr, wlLh Mombasa represenLlng
a ma[or hub ln LasLern Afrlca for Lhe smuggllng of producLs by sea. 1rade ln lvory has mulLlplled ln
recenL years as Lhe prlce of Lhls commodlLy has lncreased beLween Lwo- and fourfold ln markeLs
LhroughouL Lhe globe
33
, and Lhe Lrafflcklng of rhlnoceros horn has also lncreased ln Lhe reglon ln
recenL years. Powever, even more worrylng ls Lhe lncreased lnvolvemenL of organlzed crlme ln Lhe
Lrade, accordlng Lo a recenL reporL by 1rafflc, Lhe agency charged wlLh monlLorlng Lhe lvory Lrade.
1he polluLlon of land, waLer and alr, lncludlng Lhe dumplng of Loxlc wasLe are also ma[or
envlronmenLal crlmes on Lhe rlse ln Lhe LasLern Afrlcan reglon. Lxplred or hazardous maLerlals (solld
and llquld), are ofLen lefL unLreaLed and are dlscharged ln rlvers, Lhe ocean or oLher areas ln Lhe
clLles. 1hls poses a ma[or healLh hazard Lo persons llvlng ln largely affecLed areas. A sLudy carrled ouL
by Lhe lnsLlLuLe of SecurlLy SLudles hlghllghLed Lhe lllegal dumplng of moLor vehlcle scrap and release
of polluLanLs lnLo lakes by commerclal lndusLrles and Lobacco flrms amongsL oLhers. lor example, lL
ls esLlmaLed LhaL Lake vlcLorla recelves 23,330 Lons of blologlcal oxygen demand (8Cu) subsLances,
1333,380 Lons of nlLrogen (ln form of ferLlllsers) and 32,030 Lons of phosphorous per year.

7.4 4ctors, connections ond occurrences
LnvlronmenLal crlme ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon ls commlLLed on Lwo levels: on a local level by
members of pasLoral communlLles for Lhe purpose of ensurlng Lhelr llvellhood, and on an
lnLernaLlonal level for commerclal purposes, wlLh Lhe laLLer case lnvolvlng crlmlnal neLworks
composed of naLlonals and forelgners. CorrupLlon aL almosL every level faclllLaLes envlronmenLal
crlme ln Lhe reglon. Local and naLlonal offlclals permlL lllegal loggers access Lo foresLs and proLecLed
specles, and ln many cases provlde false cusLoms declaraLlons, allowlng lllegal Llmber and oLher
commodlLles such as lvory and rhlnoceros horns Lo exlL Lhe reglon undeLecLed. As Lhe Lable below
demonsLraLes, Lhe degree of local compllclLy makes lL very hard Lo geL a convlcLlon for
envlronmenLal crlmes, where communlLles are proLecLlng Lhelr own people agalnsL law enforcers.

llqote 8. ovltoomeotol ctlmes ltosecoteJ vs. coovlcteJ
J6

33
Cl1LS: lourLeenLh meeLlng of Lhe Conference of Lhe arLles", 1he Pague (neLherlands) 3 - 13 !une 2007
36
kWS May 2009
CounLrles ln Lhe reglon are affecLed on dlfferenL levels by envlronmenLal crlme. lor example, noL all
counLrles ln Lhe reglon are lnvolved ln Lhe lvory Lrade, and ln Lhose counLrles LhaL are, law
enforcemenL capaclLles and Lhe legal frameworks vary conslderably. Whlle Lhe lvory Lrade appears
Lo be on Lhe rlse ln 8wanda and u[lbouLl, LLhlopla and uganda have been addresslng Lhe problem
more effecLlvely ln recenL years. Also, Lhe hlgh number of selzures ln kenya and 1anzanla, where
nearly Lhree quarLers of Lhe Lrafflcked lvory orlglnaLes, shows LhaL Lhe acLlvlLles of llllclL smugglers
has been hampered. ln addlLlon Lo Lhe lvory Lrade, kenya and 1anzanla also experlence hlgh levels
of lllegal logglng due Lo Lhe presence of large naLlonal parks, and ln Lhe pasL year, Madagascar has
wlLnessed an lncrease ln envlronmenLal crlme due Lo pollLlcal unresL, whlch has allowed armed
gangs Lo ravage Lhe foresLs for Llmber and proLecLed wlldllfe.

AlLhough Lhe amounL of envlronmenLal crlmes mlghL noL seem exLremely hlgh on a worldwlde scale,
Lhe lmpacL of Lhese crlmes on Lhe LasL Afrlcan reglon ls enormous. 1hroughouL Lhe reglon, resource
based confllcLs erupL easlly and can Lurn exLremely vlolenL. uesLrucLlon of foresLs LhreaLens Lhe
waLer supply ln some areas. 1he lack of pasLure and waLer drlves away pasLorallsL lnLo areas were
oLhers graze Lhelr herds or use Lhe land for farmlng. eople mlgraLe Lo oLher areas or Lo Lhe already
overcrowded clLles. And even worse, Lurnlng Lhe Llde on envlronmenLal damage ls a long Lerm
process. 8everslng Lhe damage can Lake decades, Lhus maklng Lhe prevenLlon of furLher
envlronmenLal crlmes [usL as lmporLanL as lnvesLlgaLlng and prosecuLlng currenL crlmes.

1o address envlronmenLal crlme, coordlnaLlon beLween varlous naLlonal and lnLernaLlonal
governmenLal organlzaLlons ls mandaLory. SLeps have been Laken Lo enhance cooperaLlon beLween
lnsLlLuLlons. lor example, Cl1LS ls aLLempLlng Lo faclllLaLe Lhls Lype of coordlnaLlon on prevenLlng
Lhe poachlng and Lradlng ln rhlnoceros ln LasL and SouLhern Afrlca, and Lhe border paLrol lnlLlaLlve
on Lhe parL of Lhe u.S. Lmbassy ln kenya has been acLlve ln Lralnlng border pollce and rangers from
Lhe kWS. Powever, currenL lnlLlaLlves are scaLLered across Lhe reglon and are lncldenLal ln naLure.
More needs Lo be done. A proper [udlclal framework LhaL addresses envlronmenLal crlmes
unlformly LhroughouL Lhe reglon should be esLabllshed and nurLured ln Lhe counLrles of LasL Afrlca,
and lL ls also lmporLanL Lo enhance Lhe lnvesLlgaLlve capaclLy and professlonallsm of Lhe governmenL
agencles responslble for addresslng envlronmenLal crlme. ln addlLlon, sLeps musL be Laken Lo
enhance Lhe awareness of clLlzens on Lhe long Lerm consequences LhaL could arlse lf Lhelr llvlng
envlronmenL conLlnues Lo be desLroyed.

8ased on currenL Lrend and Lhe recommendaLlon made by lSS and Lhe counLrles ln Lhe reglon
37
Lhe
followlng lnLervenLlons would bolsLer reglonal capaclLy Lo counLer envlronmenLal crlme:

LsLabllshmenL of new approaches LhaL faclllLaLe verLlcal and horlzonLal co-ordlnaLlon beLween
Lhe varlous governmenL secLors ln flghLlng envlronmenLal crlme,

A revlew of envlronmenLal pollcles Lo ensure LhaL socloeconomlc needs are accommodaLed and
LhaL envlronmenLal proLecLlon ls noL blased Lowards resources used Lhe communlLles,

37
lSS CounLry reporL on 1anzanla
Lnhanced capablllLles and lncreased professlonallsm of Lhe border conLrol,

lncreased awareness campalgns LhaL encourage communlLles Lo proLecL Lhe envlronmenL ln and
around Lhelr nelghbourhood,

lncreased response and acLlons Lo lllegal flshlng and Lhe dumplng of wasLe by forelgn
buslnesses, and

1he creaLlon of a beLLer sysLem of collecLlng and exchanglng daLa and lnformaLlon.
8. CCUN1LkILI1ING

8.1 lntroduction
ln Loday's world, pracLlcally every producL can be counLerfelLed, ranglng from cloLhlng, food and
medlclne, Lo cars, elecLronlcs, uvu's, spare parLs and pesLlcldes. CounLerfelLlng and plracy are Lerms
used Lo descrlbe a range of llllclL acLlvlLles llnked Lo lnLellecLual properLy rlghLs (l8) lnfrlngemenL. ln
general counLerfelL goods are dellberaLely faked by lLs producers. CounLerfelLlng ls of concern
because lL ls growlng ln scope and magnlLude. lL poses a problem Lo economlc markeLs as lL hampers
lnnovaLlon, brand value and sales. lor governmenLs Lhe llllclL Lrade ln llllclL goods ofLen means
decreased revenues, Lhe growlng avallablllLy of funds for crlmlnal groups and an lncrease ln
corrupLlon. 8uL mosL of all, counLerfelL goods are a LhreaL Lo healLh and safeLy of lndlvldual
consumers. LasLern Afrlca ls emerglng as a slgnlflcanL markeL for cheap counLerfelL goods. AlLhough
Lhls mlghL noL seem one of Lhe mosL presslng problems for Lhe reglon, Lhe facL LhaL counLerfelL
medlclnes, pesLlcldes, food and drlnks enLer Lhe reglon ls a LhreaL Lo Lhe healLh and well belng of Lhe
sub-reglon's clLlzens.

8.2 Occurrence ond current /eqo/ fromework
AlLhough daLa on Lhe Lrade ln counLerfelLed goods ls llmlLed, avallable lnformaLlon and esLlmaLes by
Lhe CLCu
38
, show LhaL LasL Afrlca ls largely a desLlnaLlon for counLerfelL goods. Medlclnes,
pesLlcldes, ferLlllzers, food and beverages are especlally a LhreaL Lo Lhe reglon as Lhey pose a healLh
rlsk Lo lnhablLanLs. 1he producLlon and Lrade of counLerfelL goods are llllclL acLlvlLles closely
connecLed Lo crlmlnal neLworks and organlzed crlme. As Lhe proflLs are hlgh and Lhe rlsks are
relaLlvely low due Lo lnadequaLe leglslaLlon and mlnlmal penalLles, organlzed crlme groups are
becomlng more lnvolved ln counLerfelLlng.

CurrenLly, one of Lhe mosL acuLe challenges needlng Lo be addressed ln Lhe reglon ls counLerfelL
medlclnes. 1he WPC deflnes a counLerfelL medlclne as a medlclne, whlch ls dellberaLely and
fraudulenLly mlslabeled wlLh respecL Lo ldenLlLy and/or source. CounLerfelLlng can apply Lo boLh
branded and generlc producLs and counLerfelL producLs may lnclude producLs wlLh Lhe correcL
lngredlenLs or wlLh Lhe wrong lngredlenLs, wlLhouL acLlve lngredlenLs, wlLh lnsufflclenL acLlve
lngredlenLs or wlLh fake packaglng." 1hls presenLs a problem, especlally when one conslders LhaL
approxlmaLely 30 percenL of medlclnes sold ln developlng counLrles are counLerfelL.
39
Whlle Lhls ls
noL yeL as prevalenL a problem ln LasLern Afrlca as lL ls ln Asla (see llgure 8 below), anecdoLal
reporLs occurrences of counLerfelL medlclne are lncreaslng ln Lhe reglon, and Lhe low level of llLeracy
and educaLlon make Lhe reglon parLlcularly vulnerable Lo Lhls form of counLerfelLlng.

38
CLCu 2007
39
World PealLh CrganlzaLlon (WPC): 1he new esLlmaLes, facL sheeL on counLerfelL medlclne", 13 november, 2006

llqote 9. Clobol Attests moJe lo 2008 fot coootetfeltloq MeJlclool ltoJocts
40

ueveloplng counLrles are parLlcular vulnerable as law enforcers and regulaLory offlces lack Lhe
capaclLy or wlll Lo curb Lhe spread of fake medlclnes Lhrough effecLlve conLrol of pharmaceuLlcal
producLs. 1he lack of awareness among people abouL Lhe dangers of counLerfelL drugs and Lhe easy
avallablllLy of medlclnes exacerbaLe Lhe problem. ln mosL LasL Afrlcan counLrles lL ls posslble Lo
purchase pharmaceuLlcal producLs wlLhouL presenLlng a valld prescrlpLlon. Many medlcal producLs,
some smuggled or lmporLed wlLhouL auLhorlzaLlon, are sold ln sLreeL-markeLs. CounLerfelL medlclne,
can have deLrlmenLal effecLs on Lhose who consume Lhem, ofLen resulLlng ln ma[or physlcal harm or
even deaLh. 1he absence of knowledge abouL Lhe hlgh occurrence of counLerfelL medlclnes worsens
Lhe slLuaLlon, as people wlll noL quesLlon Lhe low prlce or easy avallablllLy. And ln oLher cases people
pay a hlgh prlce buylng genulne looklng medlclnes and recelvlng [usL chalk and waLer" for Lhelr
money.

As ln oLher llllclL Lrafflcklng cases, Lhe capaclLy Lo address counLerfelLlng and counLerfelL medlclnes ls
low ln many LasL Afrlcan counLrles, Lhe challenges belng slmllar Lo Lhose encounLered ln classlcal law
enforcemenL (lack of coordlnaLlon, corrupLlon, lnLer-agency rlvalrles, no cenLrallsed lnformaLlon,
fundlng). Lack of resources and urgency ln confronLlng Lhls lssue hampers Lhe deLecLlon and
lnvesLlgaLlon of counLerfelLlng. uue Lo Lhe hlgh avallablllLy of counLerfelL medlclnes on Lhe markeL,
Lhls ls parLlcularly Lroubllng glven Lhe lmmense and dlrecL negaLlve lmpacL LhaL counLerfelL
medlclnes have on a counLry's populaLlons. 1he blggesL LhreaLs conLalned ln counLerfelLed medlclnes
are Lhe absence of acLlve pharmaceuLlcal lngredlenLs and Lhe posslblllLy LhaL Lhe lndlvldual
consumlng Lhe drug wlll develop a reslsLance Lo Lhe auLhenLlc verslon of Lhe medlclne. lor example,
ln Lhe case of anLl-malarla medlcaLlon, no reslsLances have yeL developed agalnsL ArLeslmln and lL ls
Lherefore wldely used as a cheap and effecLlve drug. Powever, lL ls aL Lhe same Llme heavlly
counLerfelLed, wlLh a poLenLlally dlsasLrous lmpacL.
41

8.l Potentio/ lnterventions
AlLhough some counLrles ln LasL Afrlca devoLe much efforL ln addresslng counLerfelLlng, weak
regulaLory and leglslaLlve frameworks perslsL and Lhere ls a lack of awareness regardlng Lhe lssue on

40
harmeceuLlcal SecurlLy lnsLlLuLe 2008
41
lnformaLlon recelved from Mr. 8oge of Sanofl-AvenLls, unCuC Senegal, May 2009
Lhe parL of clvlllans. 1hus, Lhe prollferaLlon of counLerfelLed goods, especlally medlcaLlon, presenLs a
growlng challenge for Lhe reglon. Awareness on Lhe parL of clLlzens and governmenL offlclals should
be lncreased, and Lhe capaclLy of regulaLory offlces, border conLrol agencles and law enforcemenL Lo
address Lhe challenges presenLed by counLerfelLlng should be sLrengLhened. AnoLher cruclal sLep ln
sLemmlng Lhe flow of counLerfelL producLs ls lncreased cooperaLlon beLween sLaLe agencles.
8ecenLly sLeps have been Laken by Lhe WPC Lo esLabllsh a sysLem LhaL supporLs Lhe bulldlng of legal
and regulaLory frameworks, as well as lncreases awareness on Lhe lssue amongsL Lhe publlc.
Powever, furLher efforLs are needed lf LasL Afrlca ls Lo lessen Lhe poLenLlal devasLaLlng lmpacL
counLerfelLed producLs could have on Lhe reglon and lLs people.

CovernmenLs ln Lhe reglon have Lhe followlng range of responses avallable Lo Lackle challenges
posed by counLerfelLlng:

SLrengLhen leglslaLlon and ensure LhaL counLerfelLlng ls a crlme possesslng severe penalLles,

LsLabllsh a clear and enforceable overslghL framework and make sure all prlvaLe parLners comply
wlLh Lhe rules for Lrade and dlsLrlbuLlon,

lmprove co-ordlnaLlon amongsL Lhe domesLlc agencles and enhance cooperaLlon wlLh lndusLry
and Lhe buslness secLor,

Lnsure effecLlve local and LransnaLlonal enforcemenL of laws and regulaLlons Lhrough Lralnlng
and Lhe supplylng of resources,

uevelop a communlcaLlon and advocacy sLraLegy Lo ensure LhaL healLh professlonals, Lhe
general publlc and Lhe medla are aware of Lhe dangers assoclaLed wlLh counLerfelL medlclnes,
and

Conslder enacLlng lower Larlffs on lmporLed medlclnes ln order Lo lmprove Lhe avallablllLy of
proper drugs aL reasonable prlces.
9. MCNL LAUNDLkING

9.1 lntroduction
Money launderlng ls a LransnaLlonal llllclL acLlvlLy. lL ls closely connecLed Lo organlzed crlme,
Lerrorlsm and varlous Lrafflcklng crlmes (l.e. drugs and flrearms), and lL can desLablllze economles
and flnanclal markeLs, as well as corrupL governmenLs and Lhelr lnsLlLuLlons. lL ls sub[ecL Lo
lnLernaLlonal LreaLles and regulaLlons, buL addresslng Lhe lssue of money launderlng ls compllcaLed
as lL requlres cooperaLlon beLween varlous parLles such as law enforcemenL, flnanclal, regulaLory
and lnLelllgence bodles ln counLrles around Lhe world. 1hese agencles requlre exLenslve resources ln
order Lo conducL Lhelr lnvesLlgaLlons over a long perlod of Llme, a consequence LhaL arlses due Lo
Lhe complexlLy of mosL cases. 1hls ls hard Lo achleve ln mosL developed counLrles and ls especlally
dlfflculL ln LasL Afrlca.

9.2 Leqo/ fromework ond occurrences

8
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o
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a

k
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y
a

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a
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a
u
r
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u
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8
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1
a
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u
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a
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Crlmlnallzed drug money
launderlng
n ? ? n ? ? ? ? n ? ? ?
Crlmlnallzed beyond drugs n ? ? n ? n ? ? n ? ? n
8ecord large LransacLlons n n ? ? ? ? n n n n ? n
MalnLaln records over Llme ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? n ? ? n
8eporL susplclous LransacLlons
(nM)
n M M n M M M M M M
LgmonL flnanclal lnLelllgence
unlLs
n n n n n n n ? n n n n
SysLem for ldenLlfylng asseLs ? ? ? n n n ? ? n ? ? n
ArrangemenLs for asseL sharlng n ? n n n n n ? n n n n
CooperaLes wlLh lnLernaLlonal
law enforcers
? ? ? ? n ? - ? ? ? ? ?
lnLernaLlonal LransporLaLlon of
currency
? ? n ? n ? n n n n ? n
MuLual legal asslsLance n ? ? n n ? ? ? n ? ? n
non-bank flnanclal lnsLlLuLlons n ? ? n n n ? ? n ? ? n
ulsclosure proLecLlon safe
harbor"
n ? ? n n n ? ? n ? ? ?
Crlmlnallzed flnanclng of
1errorlsm
n ? ? n ? n n ? n ? ? ?
SLaLes parLy Lo 1988 un
convenLlon
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
lnLl. Lerrorlsm flnanclng
convenLlon
n ? ? n n ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
1he leLLer ? means yes, n means no, M slgnlfles mandaLory reporLlng and permlsslble reporLlng

llqote 10. Actloos ftom cooottles coocetoloq mooey loooJetloq
42

42
lnLernaLlonal narcoLlcs 8eporL 2009
As Lhe above Lable (llgure 10) demonsLraLes, several lnLernaLlonal lnsLrumenLs and sLandards on
money launderlng are avallable for LasL Afrlcan counLrles Lo use as guldellnes when drafLlng and
lmplemenLlng naLlonal leglslaLlon, and many counLrles ln Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon have puL Lhem Lo
use. lor example, Lhe 1988 un ConvenLlon agalnsL Lhe llllclL 1rafflcklng ln narcoLlc urugs and
sychoLroplc SubsLances ls Lhe legal lnsLrumenL LhaL crlmlnallzes money launderlng. ln addlLlon, Lhe
un1CC, unCAC and Lhe lnLernaLlonal ConvenLlon for Lhe Suppresslon of Lhe of Lhe llnanclng of
1errorlsm all address money launderlng ln a cerLaln way and requlre member sLaLes Lo Lake
measures Lo ensure Lhelr flnanclal sysLems are noL mlsused, and Lhe llnanclal AcLlon 1ask lorce on
Money Launderlng (lA1l) has lssued recommendaLlons for lmprovlng naLlonal legal sysLems. ln LasL
Afrlca, Lhe LasLern and SouLh Afrlcan AnLl Money Launderlng Croup (LSAAMLC) was esLabllshed ln
1999, and Lhe counLrles ln Lhe reglon have been offered Lechnlcal asslsLance and Lralnlng from Lhe
un Clobal rogramme agalnsL Money Launderlng, as well as from Lhe u.S. Lhrough Lhelr
lnLernaLlonal Law LnforcemenL Academy (lLLA).

uesplLe Lhese lnLernaLlonal and reglonal lnlLlaLlves and proLocols Lhough, several lncldenLs over Lhe
course of Lhe pasL years have shown LhaL money launderlng acLlvlLles ln Lhe reglon are on Lhe rlse.
varlous meLhods and sLrucLures are (ab)used for money launderlng: Lrade ln securlLles, Lax evaslon,
properLy purchase, cash and bogus sales LransacLlons, as well as Lhe embezzlemenL of publlc funds
and a lack of prudence ln Lhe lnvesLmenL of publlc funds.
43
ln 1anzanla, for example, Lhe equlvalenL
of $16 bllllon was embezzled from Lhe 8ank of 1anzanla's LxLernal aymenL Arrears accounL ln
2003.
44
ln recenL years kenya has been Lhrough several ma[or corrupLlon lnvesLlgaLlons, all of Lhem
relaLlng Lo Lhe former governmenL, LhaL lndlcaLe Lhe LhefL of mllllons of kenyan Shllllngs, and
auLhorlLles ln Lhe uk have ldenLlfled several people possesslng fake dlplomaLlc passporLs from Lhe
ugandan ueparLmenL of llnance launderlng funds ln Lhe uk. 1hese lncldenLs show LhaL corrupLlon
and lnfluenLlal pollLlcal flgures and people ln hlgh poslLlons wlLhln e.g. Lhe [udlclary, law
enforcemenL, Lhe mlllLary abuslng Lhelr poslLlon seem Lo play a vlLal role ln faclllLaLlng money
launderlng ln LasLern Afrlcan counLrles.
43
AL Lhe same Llme, Lhe amounL of convlcLlons ls non-
exlsLenL or low.
Such lncldenLs show LhaL LasLern Afrlca ls boLh vulnerable and aLLracLlve Lo crlmlnals for money
launderlng due Lo poorly regulaLed banklng sysLems alongslde a large lnformal cash economy and a
weak leglslaLlve framework Lo combaL organlsed crlme, money launderlng and corrupLlon.
46
A sLudy
conducLed by lnLernaLlonal forenslc audlLors' flrm rlce WaLerhouse Coopers ln 2002 found LhaL, ln
Lerms of suscepLlblllLy Lo money launderlng, 30 of LSAAMLC counLrles are regarded as hlgh rlsk,
33.7 fall lnLo Lhe medlum rlsk caLegory, and only 14.3 are regarded as low rlsk [urlsdlcLlons.
47

ConsequenLly lL ls relaLlvely easy for crlmlnals, money launderers and posslbly also for LerrorlsL
groups Lo move money and oLher valuable asseLs across borders wlLhouL drawlng Lhe aLLenLlon of
Lhe auLhorlLles.
48
1he lmpacL of money launderlng can be devasLaLlng and should noL be
underesLlmaLed. lf money launderlng ls allowed Lo conLlnue unopposed, large secLors of a counLry's
economy could end up under Lhe conLrol of organlsed crlme and powerful crlmlnal organlsaLlons

43
Madzlma, !ackson: ollLlcs, CorrupLlon and Money Launderlng ln 1anzanla - An unholy 1rlnlLy", 18 March, 2007, www.lssafrlca.org
44
lbld
43
Madzlma, !ackson: ollLlcs, CorrupLlon and Money Launderlng ln 1anzanla - An unholy 1rlnlLy", 18 March 2007, www.lssafrlca.org
46
unCuC ro[ecL aper , 3000-18/2007-199
47
Lsaamlg
48
Moshl, Pumphrey: llghLlng money launderlng - 1he challenge ln Afrlca", lSS aper 132, CcLober 2007
LhaL conLrol a counLry's economy would be ln a poslLlon Lo undermlne LhaL counLry's democraLlc
sysLems.
49

ln Lhe flghL agalnsL money launderlng, mosL counLrles ln LasL Afrlca flnd Lhemselves unable Lo
uphold Lhe lA1l sLandards, drafL Lhe necessary laws and use Lhe exlsLlng laws effecLlvely. 1hls ls due
Lo a lack of publlc pressure, and a lack of resources and Lralnlng on Lhe parL of Lhose charged wlLh
monlLorlng, regulaLlng, lnvesLlgaLlng and prosecuLlng vlolaLlons. Also, ln some counLrles sysLemlc
corrupLlon also serves as an lmpedlmenL Lo Lhe developmenL and lmplemenLaLlon of vlable anLl-
money launderlng reglmes.

CurrenLly Lhere does exlsL Lhe necessary framework and supporL Lo puL ln place Lhe laws and
regulaLlons, as well as Lo conducL Lhe Lralnlngs lf money launderlng ls Lo be effecLlvely addressed.
Powever, Lhe pollLlcal wlll needed Lo underLake such lnlLlaLlves ls lacklng. ln addlLlon, Lhere ls a lack
of cooperaLlon beLween flnanclal agencles and law enforcemenL, and Lhere exlsLs only moderaLe
knowledge on Lhe lssue ln Lhe reglon. lf Lhe governmenLs ln LasL Afrlca are Lo begln deallng wlLh
money launderlng and lLs effecLs effecLlvely, Lhe above lssues need Lo be addressed. SupporL ls
wldely avallable, buL lL musL be uLlllzed properly.

A flrsL sLep Lowards combaLlng Lhe challenges of money launderlng would be for CovernmenLs ln Lhe
LasLern Afrlca reglon Lo use Lhe lA1l, CML and lLLA sLrucLures and faclllLles Lo underLake Lhe
followlng:

urafL and lmplemenL laws,

1raln speclallzed Leams on money launderlng, and

8egln lnlLlaLlng lnvesLlgaLlons ln Lhe near fuLure.

49
lbld.
10. IkAC

10.1 lntroduction
Whlle plracy worldwlde ls dlmlnlshlng, ln LasLern Afrlca lL ls on Lhe rlse, predomlnanLly due Lo Somall
plraLes aLLacklng shlps ln Lhe Culf of Aden. lraLes from Somalla began selzlng shlps ln laLe 2003.
Slnce Lhen lncldenLs of marlLlme plracy ln Lhe LasL Afrlcan reglon have soared along Lhe coasL of
Somalla durlng Lhe pasL year, as Lhe charL below demonsLraLes.

Crlglnally carrled ouL ln order Lo sLop Loxlc dumplng and Lhe plunderlng of coasLal flshlng sLocks by
forelgners
30
, plracy operaLlons Loday are more and more organlzed and have Lurned lnLo a mulLl-
mllllon dollar lndusLry, generaLlng beLween 18-30 mllllon uS uollars alone ln 2008. 1he frequency,
scope and sophlsLlcaLlon of recenL plracy operaLlons lndlcaLe lL can be seen as a serlous organlzed
crlme problem. ln 2008 over 80 acLual and aLLempLed plraLe aLLacks have been recorded, amongsL
Lhem Lhe hl[acklng of Lhe lrench luxury yachL Le onanL", Lhe ukralnlan cargo Mv lalna
(LransporLlng abouL 33 172 mlllLary Lanks and an assorLmenL of oLher weapons) and a Saudl-owned
shlp carrylng crude oll worLh up Lo $100 mllllon. ln addlLlon, plraLes have been LargeLlng shlps
carrylng humanlLarlan ald, delaylng Lhe dellvery of humanlLarlan supplles and slgnlflcanLly lmpacLlng
human securlLy LhroughouL Lhe reglon, slnce many people ln Somalla depend on Lhese lLems for
survlval.
31

10.2 uefinition ond /eqo/ position
uue Lo Lhe currenL slLuaLlon ln Somalla, Lhe legal framework and procedures on how Lo address
plracy and Lhe prosecuLlon of plracy have recelved aLLenLlon from Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy. ln
2008, Lhe SecurlLy Councll unanlmously adopLed 8esoluLlon 1846 whlch condemns all acLs of plracy
and armed robbery agalnsL vessels off Lhe coasL of Somalla and auLhorlzes a serles of declslve
measures Lo combaL Lhese crlmes. under Lhe ausplces of Lhls resoluLlon, naval vessels may enLer
Somalla LerrlLorlal waLers and engage Lhe plraLes. 1he SecurlLy Councll furLher adopLed 8esoluLlon
1831, whlch auLhorlzes sLaLes Lo use land-based operaLlons ln Somalla as parL of Lhe flghL agalnsL
marlLlme plracy.

As a varleLy of counLrles are lnvolved ln capLurlng and senLenclng plraLes, [urlsdlcLlon and
humanlLarlan lssues have been dlscussed, and experLs have come Lo agree on Lhe followlng
poslLlons:
32

1. lnLernaLlonal law sufflclenL auLhorlLy for publlc vessels Lo use force for Lhe suppresslon of plracy
ln Lhe hlgh seas. Whlchever vessels wlLh publlc auLhorlLy are used (wheLher naval or coasLguard,
or naval comblned wlLh pollce), Lhey are underLaklng a pollce funcLlon agalnsL Lhe crlmlnal
acLlvlLy of plracy. 1he degree of force used musL noL exceed LhaL reasonably requlred ln Lhe
clrcumsLances.

30
SoclallsL Worker: 1oxlc scandal ln Somalla gave blrLh Lo new plracy, 29 november 2008
31
1he lnsLlLuLe for SecurlLy SLudles (lSS): lracy ln Somalla: lndlcaLlons of a 8reakdown of Clobal, 8eglonal and naLlonal SecurlLy
SysLems", 9 CcLober 2008, C8S news: lraLes hl[ack oll Lanker ln brazen aLLack", 17. november 2008, 1he Cuardlan: ?achL selzed by
plraLes anchors off Somalla", 7 Aprll 2008
32
ChaLham Pouse, 2009, page 8
2. lor Lhose sLaLes whlch are parLles Lo Lhe Luropean ConvenLlon on Puman 8lghLs, Lhere ls no
legal problem wlLh Lhelr publlc vessels holdlng plraLes on board for Lhe purpose of Laklng Lhem
Lo a proper [urlsdlcLlon for arresL and prosecuLlon. 1here may, however, be a problem ln relaLlon
Lo Lhe holdlng of plraLes on Lhelr own vessels, and noL allowlng Lhem Lo go, for Lhe purpose of
dlsrupLlon of plracy, raLher Lhan of deLenLlon for prosecuLlon.

3. 1here are no easy soluLlons Lo Lhe problem of prosecuLlon or exLradlLlon of plraLes. CapaclLy-
bulldlng ln Lhe reglon ls Lhe way forward. 1he huge dlfflculLles musL noL be underesLlmaLed,
Lhese are noL llmlLed Lo Lhe absence of relevanL local leglslaLlon. 1he leadershlp of Lhe counLry
concerned may be compllclL wlLh Lhe plraLes. rlsons and prlson sysLems - and [udlclal sysLems
more generally - need Lo be developed. CapLurlng counLrles musL be able Lo recelve credlble
human rlghLs assurances from Lhe sLaLes Lo whlch Lhey hand over Lhe plraLes for prosecuLlon.

10.l Pirocy: Occurrence ond proctice
Whlle plracy worldwlde ls dlmlnlshlng, lL ls on Lhe rlse ln LasL Afrlca, malnly due Lo Somall plraLes
aLLacklng shlps ln Lhe Culf of Aden. CuL of Lhe 293 aLLacks/aLLempLs reporLed ln 2008, a large
number (123) Look place ln LasL Afrlca.

llqote 11. Clobol lostooces of pltocy vs. lostooces lo tbe osteto Aftlco teqloo

lor Lhe flrsL Lhree monLhs of 2009, a LoLal of 102 aLLacks and aLLempLs by plraLes have been
reporLed. 61 of Lhese have been ln Lhe Culf of Aden/8ed Sea and Somalla. 1ogeLher wlLh 2 aLLacks ln
1anzanla and 1 ln kenya, Lhe aLLacks ln LasL Afrlca represenL 62 of all aLLacks ln Lhe flrsL monLhs of
2009. ln LoLal 9 vessels were hl[acked, 178 crew have been held hosLage and 2 crew members were
kllled wlLh 19 more ln[ured, kldnapped or LhreaLened.
33
1he reward Lo rlsk raLlo for Lhe plraLes ls so
hlgh LhaL only robusL measures from Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy are consldered as a posslblllLy Lo
sLop Lhe plraLes. 1he slLuaLlon ls also noL bolsLered by Lhe currenL clrcumsLances ln Somalla, whlch
does noL permlL Lhe governmenL Lo address plracy aL Lhe momenL or ln Lhe near fuLure.

33
lM8 2009
lracy ln LasL Afrlca shows slgns of belng a form of organlzed crlme. 1he exacL level of organlzaLlon
relaLed Lo plracy ls sLlll unldenLlfled, and experLs remaln dlvlded wheLher lL ls organlzed by mld-level
organlzers, buslness men, aL hlgher pollLlcal levels or even by lndlvlduals ouLslde Somalla. Cf concern
ls LhaL coasLal communlLles ln some parLs of Somalla are now flnanclally dependenL on Lhe pracLlce
and LhaL Lhe resources obLalned have bolsLered Lhe power of crlmlnal neLworks and groups. Also, ln
unLland lL ls alleged LhaL some (hlgh level) members of Lhe admlnlsLraLlon are closely connecLed Lo
plracy acLlvlLles. Lven Lhough Lhe unLland admlnlsLraLlon has sLepped up acLlon Lo address plracy,
malnly Lhrough Lhelr coasLal guards, lL ls llkely acLlons wlll be selecLlve and llmlLed as admlnlsLraLors
are corrupL.

1here also appears Lo be an lnLersecLlon beLween plracy and oLher crlmlnal acLlvlLles such as arms
Lrafflcklng and human Lrafflcklng. ln boLh cases small vessels are used Lo move arms and people
across Lhe Culf of Aden, from LrlLrea or ?emen Lo Somalla and back. ln aL leasL Lhe case of one
group, Lhe same boaLs used for plracy are used for mlgranL smuggllng from Somalla Lo ?emen,
brlnglng arms and ammunlLlon on Lhelr reLurn [ourney.
34
Accordlng Lo Lhe monlLorlng group for
Somalla, Lhe expanslon of plracy ls ln parL drlven by Lhe non-enforcemenL of Lhe arms embargo, and
as such Lhe marlLlme mlllLlas have beneflLed from Lhelr ready access Lo arms and ammunlLlon.
Comblned wlLh Lhe huge ransom paymenLs Lhe plraLes recelve, Lhe mlllLlas have enough funds Lo
upgrade Lhelr weapon arsenals, and ln dolng so become more efflclenL and effecLlve ln conLlnulng Lo
desLablllze Lhe reglon.

lncreased vlgllance, paLrolllng and precauLlonary measures Laken on board of shlps are responslble
for Lhe dlmlnlshlng of plracy aLLacks. As ln lndonesla, Lhe Malacca SLralLs and Malaysla, Lhese
measures seem Lo work ln Lhe LasL Afrlcan waLers as well. As a resulL of Lhe lncrease ln war shlps
paLrolllng Lhe Culf of Aden, and Lhe precauLlonary measures Lhe crew are Laklng, Lhe successful
aLLempLs Lo hl[ack a vessel ln Lhls area have decreased enormously.

Powever, even Lhough Lhe rlsk of a plracy aLLack may have been reduced, naval and/or pollce acLlon
cannoL ln Lhe end resolve Lhe Somall plracy acLlvlLles.
33
lL ls wldely agreed upon LhaL plracy ln Lhe
Culf wlll only dlmlnlsh lf Lhe problems on land are addressed. lracy ln Lhe reglon ls a sympLom of
Lhe lawlessness, raglng war and lnsecurlLy on Lhe Somall malnland. overLy, lack of employmenL,
envlronmenLal hardshlp, low lncomes, Lhe reducLlon of llvellhoods or resources (due Lo droughL and
lllegal flshlng), and a volaLlle securlLy and pollLlcal slLuaLlon all conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe rlse and conLlnuance
of plracy ln Lhe reglon. 1hese lssues need Lo be resolved ln order Lo ensure an end Lo plracy ln Lhe
reglon. Worldwlde, plracy ln Lhe Culf has serlous repercusslons for human securlLy, developmenL,
Lrade and Lhe envlronmenL. lL obsLrucLs ald dellverles for confllcL rldden sLaLes, lncreases shlpplng
and manufacLurlng cosLs due Lo rerouLlng of shlps and can desLroy large parLs of Lhe sea
envlronmenL. 1hls slLuaLlon wlll remaln serlous unLll Lhere ls an effecLlve and coordlnaLed response
agalnsL plracy, lncludlng Lhe developmenL of effecLlve responses wlLhln Somalla lLself.

34
kepott of tbe Mooltotloq Ctoop oo 5omollo potsooot to 5ecotlty cooocll kesolotloo 1811, 10 uecember 2008, p. 32.
33
ChaLham Pouse, 2009
8ased on suggesLlons by, among oLhers, Lhe un SecurlLy Councll, Lhe MonlLorlng Croup Somalla and
experLs lnvolved ln a round Lable dlscusslon aL ChaLham Pouse, Lhe followlng sLeps are
recommended as a prlorlLy response:

MalnLaln a coordlnaLed response on sea ln order Lo deLer plracy and proLecL vessels and crews,
as well as Lhe ongolng lnLerdlcLlon of flrearms Lrafflcklng across Lhe Culf of Aden,

locus on prevenLlve acLlon by sLrengLhenlng law enforcemenL on Lhe ground ln Somalla and
lncreaslng coordlnaLed acLlon Lo supporL developmenL on a wlde range of lssues ln Somalla,

rovlde capaclLy bulldlng and supporL for Lhe operaLlons of Lhe Somall CoasL Cuard forces,
noLably Somallland and unLland, as well as Lhe navles and coasL guards of oLher sLaLes ln Lhe
reglon such as kenya, ?emen and u[lbouLl,

lmprove Lhe adopLlon and lmplemenLaLlon of naLlonal leglslaLlon almed aL addresslng plracy ln
Lhe reglon (as ls currenLly supporLed by Lhe lnLernaLlonal MarlLlme CrganlzaLlon and unCuC),

lmprove prlson and prlson sysLems and ensure lnLernaLlonal human rlghLs prlnclples are upheld
durlng Lhe process of prosecuLlon and deLenLlon ln Lhe reglon,

underLake LargeLed acLlon agalnsL key plraLe leaders and Lhelr posslble sponsors ln Lhe unLland
AdmlnlsLraLlon, and

underLake lmmedlaLe and coordlnaLed acLlon agalnsL lllegal flshlng and Lhe lllegal dumplng of
Loxlc wasLe ln Somall LerrlLorlal waLers by forelgn companles.


11. CCNCLUSICN AND WA ICkWAkD

WlLhouL peace and securlLy, susLalnable growLh and developmenL wlll remaln eluslve. llllclL
acLlvlLles LhaL loom aL Lhe cover of Lhe sLreeL ln every socleLy are always golng Lo be hard Lo address.

1hls prellmlnary dlscusslon paper only provldes an lndlcaLlon of Lhe exLenL and serlousness of
organlzed crlme and llllclL Lrafflcklng ln LasLern Afrlca. Whlle Lhe quanLlflable daLa and exacL
amounLs mlghL be hard Lo predlcL, whenever researchers Lake a closer look aL lssue aL Lhe lssue of
crlmlnal acLlvlLles and behavlor ln Lhe reglon, Lhe evldence polnLs clearly Lowards a serlous and
growlng LhreaL. 1he very few sLudles LhaL have been conducLed over a longer perlod and on Lhe
ground show Lrafflcklng and relaLed crlmes are occurrlng ln a subsLanLlal way, and Lhe opporLunlsm
and organlzaLlon of Lhe groups lnvolved consLanLly lncreaslng.

1wo Lhlngs clearly underlle Lhls organlzed crlmlnal acLlvlLy, wheLher lL ls Lrafflcklng ln humans or
flrearms, plracy ln Lhe Culf of Aden, or lmporLlng and Lradlng counLerfelLed goods ln Lhe reglon. llrsL
ls Lhe weak sLaLe of Lhe pollce and [usLlce sysLems ln all counLrles. 1he low pollce-lnhablLanL raLlo,
Lhe sLaLe of Lhe pollce force, Lhe avallable Lralnlng, Lhe back log ln Lhe [udlclary and Lhe sLaLe of Lhe
prlsons are all a conLrlbuLlng facLor Lo ongolng crlme and vlolence, whlch, when coupled wlLh Lhe
lack of sLandardlzed and comprehenslve leglslaLlon for Lhe reglon, ensure LhaL lL ls posslble Lo geL
away wlLh mosL lllegal acLlvlLy somewhere ln Lhe reglon. And mosL crlmlnal areas examlned ln Lhls
paper are noL lsolaLed, buL are deeply lnLerconnecLed. lor example, poachlng of wlldllfe and Lradlng
ln anlmal parLs are connecLed Lo money launderlng, corrupLlon, organlzed crlme neLworks, Lax
evaslon and LransnaLlonal Lrafflcklng. As one lssue becomes more prevalenL, so Lhe enLlre cycle
lncreases ln dynamlsm and damage.

1he second lssue whlch underplns Lhe growlng crlme and vlolence, and makes Lhe need for a
LargeLed lnLervenLlon by Lhe lnLernaLlonal communlLy absoluLely crlLlcal ls Lhe connecLlon beLween
crlme and corrupLlon. 1he weak sLaLes, lack of resources low level of economlc opporLunlLy and lack
of pollLlcal wlll Lo address crlme makes Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon a breedlng ground for corrupLlon.
WheLher llllclL Lrafflcklng and organlzed crlme are already on Lhe rlse or noL, sooner or laLer Lhey wlll
be a serlous LhreaL Lo Lhe people and socleLles ln LasLern Afrlca. !usL as lncreased economlc
developmenL ls needed, lncreaslng Lhe level of proper law enforcemenL and [usLlce musL be an
urgenL prlorlLy for Lhe counLrles ln Lhe reglon. CovernmenLs of all Lhe LasLern Afrlca counLrles have
a role Lo play and need Lo focus on Lhls area. A CovernmenL ls Lhe only acLor whlch can, on a
leglLlmaLe basls, address sLaLe securlLy, organlze Lhe proLecLlon of clvlllans and uphold laws. 1aklng
acLlon Lo ensure overall peace and securlLy ls flrsL and foremosL Lhe responslblllLy of CovernmenLs.

lurLhermore, lL ls lmporLanL for counLrles worldwlde Lo address LransaLlonal crlme and Lrafflcklng ln
a hollsLlc global approach. Leavlng some reglons unaddressed ls an lnvlLaLlon for crlmlnal groups
and lndlvlduals Lo move Lhelr acLlvlLles Lhere. Lven lf LasL Afrlca ls noL yeL an acuLe problem, lL ls
vulnerable enough LhaL lL ls only a maLLer of Llme before acLlvlLles roll over from anoLher parL of Lhe
world. lor example, Lhe drug Lrafflcklng problem ln WesL Afrlca has recenLly recelved much
lnLernaLlonal aLLenLlon, whlch resulLed ln Lhe sLrengLhenlng of reglonal capaclLy. 1rade rouLes
Lhrough WesL Afrlca have dled down, buL Lhere has been no slgnlflcanL reducLlon ln Lhe global flows
of lllegal drugs.
36
1he rouLes have slmply relocaLed Lo anoLher reglon whose defenses and capaclLles
are weaker.

ln flghLlng organlzed crlme and Lrafflcklng, lL ls cruclal for counLrles Lo work LogeLher, boLh ln Lhe
reglon and ln Lhe wlder world. 1he naLure of Lhese problems are qulnLessenLlally cross border
lssues, and as such requlre LhaL Lhe counLrles of Lhe LasLern Afrlca reglon work LogeLher Lo address
Lhem. A key goal would be Lo flnd effecLlve ways Lo pursue developmenL and securlLy LogeLher, as lL
has lncreaslngly been demonsLraLed LhaL securlLy and Lhe rule of law are cenLral Lo effecLlve
developmenL. ln Lhls conLexL, Lechnlcal cooperaLlon, lnLer-agency work, advocacy and parLnershlp
bulldlng are essenLlal. 1he unCuC 8eglonal rogramme "romoLlng Lhe 8ule of Law and Puman
SecurlLy ln LasLern Afrlca, 2009-2012" alms aL supporLlng Lhe efforLs of Member SLaLes ln Lhe reglon
Lo respond Lo evolvlng human securlLy LhreaLs and promoLe good governance.

1he unCuC programme proposes Lo supporL counLrles who express Lhe wlsh Lo address llllclL
Lrafflcklng and organlzed crlme, and are wllllng Lo malnLaln a long-Lerm focus on Lhe lssue,
supporLed by Lhe necessary resources (human, flnanclal, maLerlal and pollLlcal wlll) Lo fulflll Lhe Lasks
requlred Lo address Lhese challenges. 1he unCuC programme Lo counLer Lrafflcklng and organlzed
crlme focuses on Lhe followlng four areas:

1. 5troteqic lnformotion ond 4no/ysis: A prerequlslLe for developlng an lnLegraLed response Lo
deallng wlLh Lhe challenges of organlzed crlme ls access Lo comprehenslve daLa and lnformaLlon
on Lhe naLure and exLenL of operaLlons - boLh domesLlcally and reglonally. unCuC wlll asslsL
counLrles Lo bulld, malnLaln and use of an lnLelllgence poslLlon on llllclL Lrafflcklng and organlzed
crlme, per counLry and for Lhe reglon as a whole. uaLa collecLlon and daLa admlLLance wlll need
Lo be done on a reglon-wlde basls, on general and speclallzed Loplcs, dlsaggregaLed for
populaLlon groups and gender. 1he reglon ls encouraged Lo use one framework for daLa
collecLlon so LhaL lnformaLlon sharlng and analysls ls faclllLaLed.

unCuC wlll also bulld naLlonal capaclLy Lo accuraLely assess and analyse Lhe scope and scale of
organlzed crlme Lhrough Lhe carrylng ouL of LhreaL assessmenLs, and from Lhls supporL Lhem Lo
develop effecLlve counLer measure sLraLegles for adopLlon boLh naLlonally and collecLlvely across
Lhe reglon. As a resulL, Lhe reglons concerned naLlonal governmenLs wlll be beLLer placed Lo
develop effecLlve lnLelllgence based response sLraLegles.

2. Leqis/otive ond Po/icy 4dvice: LeglslaLlon and pollcles are lnsLrumenLal ln combaLlng Lrafflcklng
ln humans, llllclL Lrafflcklng ln drugs, flrearms, fauna and flora, Lhe looLlng of naLural resources as
well as counLerfelL goods/currency, money-launderlng and Lhe llllclL cross-border movemenLs of
cash, as well as supporLlng Member SLaLes ln achlevlng a funcLlonal unlversal legal reglme
agalnsL Lerrorlsm ln accordance wlLh Lhe prlnclples of Lhe rule of law.

unCuC wlll provlde asslsLance Lo counLrles of Lhe reglon Lo allgn Lhelr domesLlc leglslaLlon wlLh
Lhe lnLernaLlonal convenLlons addresslng llllclL drug Lrafflcklng, LransnaLlonal organlzed crlme

36
World urug 8eporL 2009
and Lerrorlsm. Speclflc leglslaLlve asslsLance ls needed ln Lhe areas of Lhe proLecLlon of vlcLlms
and wlLnesses, combaLlng human, drug and flrearms Lrafflcklng, counLerfelL
goods/currency/medlclnes, money launderlng and Lerrorlsm. lurLher asslsLance wlll also be
glven Lo asslsL counLrles ln drafLlng naLlonal laws on exLradlLlon and muLual legal asslsLance ln
crlmlnal maLLers, so as Lo sLrengLhen sub-reglonal, reglonal and lnLernaLlonal cooperaLlon, ln
parLlcular ln Lhe area of counLer-Lerrorlsm and organlzed crlme.

3. copocity 8ui/dinq of Notiono/ lnstitutions: unCuC wlll supporL naLlonal lnsLlLuLlons Lo bulld
capaclLy ln all secLors of [udlclary, pollce, lnvesLlgaLlon, prosecuLlon and lmprlsonmenL. unCuC
wlll develop, Lraln and supporL Lhe use of speclallzed unlLs (plloL Leams) Lo creaLe good pracLlces
ln a comblned pollce, [usLlce and lmprlsonmenL approach. ln order Lo relnforce Lhe work of Lhe
speclallzed unlL and have lmpacL aL Lhe communlLy level, unCuC wlll slmulLaneously work wlLh
Lhe naLlonal auLhorlLles Lo develop awareness ralslng, developmenL and llvellhood programmes
LhaL wlll supporL Lhe communlLles ln whlch Lhe speclallzed unlLs are acLlve. 1he areas and Loplcs
wlll vary per counLry accordlng Lo need, and ln Lhls way lessons learned, besL pracLlces, and
cenLers of excellence ln counLrles wlll develop, and can be shared across Lhe reglon aL a laLer
sLage lurLhermore, unCuC wlll encouraged lncreased aLLenLlon Lo be pald Lo corrupLlon and
lnLegrlLy of acLors ln all secLors.

4. cross-border ond keqiono/ cooperotion Mechonisms: unCuC wlll asslsL governmenLs Lo
develop an lnLegraLed approach Lo law enforcemenL LhaL works Lo ensure effecLlve coordlnaLlon
and cooperaLlon beLween agencles and makes Lhe besL use of sLaLe lnvesLmenL ln agency
resources. AsslsLance ls requlred Lo broker and brlng abouL Lhls change domesLlcally, and Lo
exLend Lhe same cooperaLlon Lo lnformaLlon exchange and operaLlonal supporL beLween
agencles and beLween counLrles across Lhe reglon and wlder.

unCuC wlll asslsL ln bulldlng Lhe capaclLy of [udlclal pracLlLloners and cenLral auLhorlLles Lo
requesL and granL lnLernaLlonal cooperaLlon ln crlmlnal maLLers, lncludlng exLradlLlon, muLual
legal asslsLance and conflscaLlon, whlch ls an essenLlal requlremenL ln addresslng drug Lrafflcklng
and oLher LransnaLlonal crlmes aL Lhe reglonal level. 1he Cfflce wlll also enhance capaclLy for
pollce Lo pollce cooperaLlon and llu Lo llu exchange of lnformaLlon. unCuC wlll seek Lo asslsL
ln esLabllshlng a neLwork of wlLness proLecLlon auLhorlLles ln LasL Afrlca ln order Lo faclllLaLe Lhe
exchange of experlences and Lo cooperaLe for Lhe Lemporary and long Lerm proLecLlon and
relocaLlon of vlcLlms and wlLnesses.

unCuC wlll fosLer cross-border collaboraLlon and lmproved border securlLy Lhrough Lhe
esLabllshmenL of dedlcaLed alrporL and seaporL speclallsL response unlLs, Lhe appllcaLlon of rlsk
assessmenL and LargeLlng procedures, Lhe sharlng and neLworklng of lnLelllgence among
sLraLeglc porLs and alrporLs, whlch wlll lmprove lnLelllgence collecLlon and daLa sharlng among
Lhe reglons Lo faclllLaLe Lhe work of law enforcemenL agencles ln Lhe reglon.

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Organised Crime and Trafficking in Eastern Africa

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