11.

S940 Puerto Rico Practicum Course Linking Urban and National Development Goals in Puerto Rico 12 Units Tuesdays 2:30-4:30 PM Core Instructor: Prof. Diane E. Davis Affiliated Faculty: Balakrishan Rajagopal Phil Thompson Alan Berger Teaching Assistants: Deepak Lamba-Nieves Mara Victoria del Campo Course Goal This course asks students to define and plan a series of integrated land-use, economic growth and environmental sustainability strategies that will address existing development challenges for Puerto Rico and serve as a guiding framework for future development proposals. Any such outcomes will be expected to be generated within an action framework built on the following methodological premises: 1) students must be cognizant of historical precedents (in Puerto Rico and elsewhere) that have enabled and constrained past developmental options for small island economies; 2) they must be aware of the constraints and possibilities associated with contemporary and future political economy of the island, particularly as established by the migration, investment, and trade patterns of the Caribbean region and as generated by the globalizing world economy; 3) they must have an understanding of the institutional context of past, present, and future policy actions, particularly those set by the colonial experience and peculiar sovereignty regimes imposed on the island and how it affects state institutions, political party structures, and the law; and 4) they should build their planning goals around a deeper understanding of constraints and possibilities associated with physical space as well as its social and ecological foundations on the island. Background and Objectives In the decades following World War II, the Puerto Rican economy was considered a model for growth and development by many developing nations. In the span of a few decades, an industrialization model focused on attracting foreign capital and manufacturing firms, helped transform a poverty stricken land into a dynamic and 1

open economy that registered impressive annual growth rates during the 1950s and 1960s. But from the 1970s onwards, economic growth slowed down considerably while politicians and policymakers sought new models that would jumpstart the development process. Today, Puerto Rico presents a unique set of problems for development and planning practitioners: it boasts higher living standards and institutional capabilities than most Latin American countries, yet close to half of its inhabitants live in under the federal poverty threshold; more than half of Puerto Ricans live outside the island, predominantly in US cities, and its male labor force participation rate is amongst the lowest in the western hemisphere. In addition, from 2000-2010, the countrys average annual growth rate was close to zero, while the on-going expansion of suburban development, and the lack of a viable public transportation system, poses numerous ecological and socioeconomic sustainability problems for local communities. Puerto Ricos socioeconomic history and current political status present another set of important issues to consider when examining its development trajectory. From 1493 until 1898, the island suffered the effects of being under Spanish colonial rule. Since 1898, it has been controlled by the United States under several political arrangements that range from colonial military rule to a Commonwealth status. At present, island Puerto Ricans can access many of the rights extended to US citizens, except for the right to vote in mainland elections or voting representation in Congress. Federal regulations apply in important areas like: food and drug regulation, environmental laws and labor standards, amongst several others. Yet many local institutional frameworks, in areas such as business permits, real property transactions, municipal administration, and land-use zoning, amongst others, are markedly different from those in numerous states of the Union, and are heavily influenced by the Spanish civil law system. In addition, the 8,870 square kilometers that make up Puerto Rico are divided into 78 municipalities (each with its own elected mayor) that possess the authority to draft distinct land use and planning directives. Thus, a complex institutional and political scenario undergirds the development landscape. This practicum course will be focused on (1) exploring and understanding some of the tensions that exist between land-use practices, economic development initiatives, and environmental concerns in Puerto Rico, using a combined politicaleconomy, institutionalist, legal, and spatial lens; and on (2) articulating a series of strategies and solutions that promote balanced and equitable development from a multidisciplinary perspective. Central to the creation of solutions and a novel development agenda in Puerto Rico is considering the role that spatial dynamics and social processes play in the islands development puzzles. For the most part, development plans for the island have been primarily focused on creating jobs through industrial policy schemes that are centered on attracting foreign firms and capital through tax advantages. This narrow approach has left few opportunities to consider other key development arenas and the institutional constraints that have emerged from Puerto Ricos political situation. Thus, we would like for students to think of development in broader terms by taking into account how the ecological, 2

social and economic landscapes have been produced, and how they intersect and sometimes collide at varying scales local, metropolitan, regional, national and transnational. In doing so, students will take stock of important issues that are seldom considered in development plans, such as: the effects of concentrated poverty, rapid suburban expansion, irregular land tenure arrangements, poor social welfare and housing policy designs, immigration and emigration, and environmental justice claims, amidst others. Given Puerto Ricos unique political relationship with the United States and its limited sovereignty, the examination of the aforementioned issues will require a careful analysis of the politics of development and how global and regional dynamics, and policies enacted at the federal and local scales also intersect and collide. At least two study communities will be selected so that students have an opportunity to produce specific recommendations based on local-level data and analysis. Our approach to the course follows that of previous practicums, where knowledge gathered from below informs solutions at the metropolitan and national scales. Thus, the goal of the course is not to promote a planning framework from above, but to produce community or site case studies whose lessons can be taken to scale. Course Client, Project and Logistics Course Client and Project Students and faculty participants will be working with the Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico, our primary client who will provide access to the study sites, relevant data and information, contacts, and opportunities to discuss and deliberate the planning and policy proposals produced by the course participants. The course will also benefit from the support and assistance of the project partners involved in MITs Puerto Rico-Caribbean Initiative, including the Center for the New Economy, a Puerto Rico-based non-profit research and policy think-tank dedicated to promoting innovative and progressive economic development strategies. The Conservation Trust of Puerto Rico is a non-profit organization focused on protecting and enhancing the islands natural resources. Like many of its counterparts in the US, the Trust carries out its mission through land acquisitions, securing donations of parcels that possess a high ecological, cultural and historical value, and the implementation of conservation easements. They have also been actively involved in the development of public educational programs focused on environmental issues, protecting natural resources, and promoting sustainable livelihoods. The Trust was founded in 1970 through a joint effort between the US and Puerto Rican governments. In its beginnings, the organization secured its funding from US tariffs paid by petrochemical corporations operating in Puerto Rico and later through private business transactions with companies operating under the Section 3

936 of the US Tax Code. In recent years, funding has been made available through careful investments and some of the proceeds from the rum tax levied by the US federal government. The Trust now commands a fund that helps them generate its own sources of income to carry out their mission and objectives. Practicum participants will be working with the Trust on developing novel planning interventions along the Piedras River as part of an existing project focused on the restoration of a historic Piedras River aqueduct, and the possible creation of the San Juan Emerald Necklacea collection of open spaces that would result in a green corridor along San Juans most important river, and provide new sustainable development opportunities for the adjacent communities (the projects name makes a direct allusion to Frederick Law Olmsteads grand project along the Charles River in Boston). The Piedras River has a 67 Km2 watershed that is part of the larger San Juan Bay Estuary, an important ecosystem that includes mangrove forests, brackish water marshes, coral reefs, and mudflats. The river begins in the hills of Cupey and Caimito, the two largest barrios in the southern part of the Municipality of San Juan, runs north through the floodplain and ends in the San Juan Bay. It runs along numerous communities with different socioeconomic and physical characteristics that range from suburban enclaves to informal, squatter communities. Due to the expansion of suburban communities and other urbanization pressures along the rivers floodplain (which is almost completely urbanized), adjacent communities have experienced more frequent and severe flooding incidents in the past decades. The river has also suffered significant human alterations, especially during the 1950s, when the suburbanization of San Juan began in earnest. Given the millions spent in remediating damages caused by flooding, the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) drafted an alleviation plan that relied heavily on concrete channels to contain the rising waters. But these plans have failed to materialize due to Congressional budgetary constraints. From the Trusts point of view, channeling the river is not the most ecological or socially ideal solution since it will involve the displacement of families, the possible breakup of many communities located along the floodplain, and generate other sorts of environmental problems. To begin addressing these issues, they have embarked on the restoration of the old Piedras River aqueduct, which will become an educational and research facility where the public can learn more about water cultures and sustainable development practices. Nevertheless, their larger plans are focused on devising a sustainable, ecological corridor that addresses the larger environmental and remediation concerns while paying attention to the social and economic needs of the communities along the rivers floodplain. The primary objectives of the MIT team will be to assist the Trust in devising a series of innovative, local-level planning proposals that can help advance their long4

term vision of creating an ecological and socioeconomic development corridor along the Piedras River. Students and faculty members will select at least two communities or sites, in conjunction with the client, which will serve as the primary case studies. Following the stated goals and focus of the practicum, the students will need to consider how land-use practices, economic development and environmental concerns can be addressed in the case study communities, while examining larger political economy issues, and thinking about the possibilities of taking some of the proposals to scale. Given that the river runs through many barrios of San Juan, there is an opportunity to select the study sites from a wide array of communities with varying social, economic and physical characteristics, and where a clear leadership structure exists. In sum, the course will provide students with an opportunity to draw lessons and formulate practical solutions at the community level while also addressing some major developmental concerns for the island. Course Logistics Although student teams will be assigned different study sites, they will be sharing insights and information on a continual basis and interacting with the local client project partners and community residents through site visits and videoconference sessions. Field visits to Puerto Rico will provide a chance for students to gather data and get a sense of the challenges facing both the study sites and the island as a whole. We plan to make two site visits: a weeklong trip from November 10-17 and a three-week visit during the IAP (January 16- February 3, 2012). MIT students will be partnering with peers from the University of Puerto Rico (UPR) Graduate Planning School who will be participating in a practicum-like course under the supervision of Regional Planning Professor Criseida Navarro. Students will develop a best-practices manual, among other deliverables for the client. Course Calendar Week One (Sept. 13): History and Local Context Introductions: the course, the client, Puerto Rico and the larger MIT Puerto Rico Economic Project. Week Two (Sept. 20): The Political Economy of Island Development In-class presentation by the practicum client and introduction to the UPR partners Week Three (Sept. 27): Planning in Puerto Rico Week Four (October 4): Land Use in PR Discussion on planning and community development in Puerto Rico: Led by Lucilla Fuller-Marvel, professional planner, consultant to numerous communities and government agencies, and founder of the Taller de Planificacin Social. 5

Week Five (October 18): The Intersection of Land Use, Sustainability, And Conservation Check-in regarding assignments and tasks Week Six (October 25): Presenting Applied Analytical Approaches I Check-in regarding assignments and tasks Student teams 1 and 2 will present briefly on sustainability and water management literatures applied to the local context. Week Seven (November 1): Presenting Applied Analytical Approaches II Check-in regarding assignments and tasks Student teams 3 and 4 will present briefly on the politics of place and informality literatures applied to the local context. Week Eight (November 8): Check-in with clients and partners PUERTO RICO SITE VISIT: November 10-16 Week 10 (November 22): to 13 (December 13): Revisiting research questions, outlining methodologies. Week 11 (November 29): Research methodologies. Defining a plan of action with UPR partners.

Week 12 (December 6): Student teams present plans of action

Week 13 (December 13): Student teams present plans of action January 16-February 4 (IAP, 2012): SECOND PUERTO RICO SITE VISIT

---------Reading List Week 1History and Local Context History Rodrguez, Carlos A. 2006. The economic trajectory of Puerto Rico since WWII. Centro Journal, Vol. 18, No. 2. Pp. 224-233. 6

Dietz, J. L. 1986. Economic History of Puerto Rico: Institutional Change and Capitalist Development. Princeton Univeristy Press. Chapter 4 (pp. 182-238) Ayala, C. J, and R. Bernabe. 2007. Puerto Rico in the American century: a history since 1898. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapter 13 -14 (pp. 267-290; 291315) Bergad, Laird. History of Puerto Rico, 1870-1930. Latin American Research Review, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1978), pp. 63-94 Maldonado Denis, Manuel and Seymour Pollock. The Political Situation in Puerto Rico. The Massachusetts Review, Vol. 15, No. , Caliban (Winter-Spring, 1974), pp. 221-233 Lapp, Michael. The Rise and Fall of Puerto Rico as a Social Laboratory, 1945-1965. Social Science History, Vol. 19, No.2 (Summer, 1995), pp. 169-199 Bergad, Laird. History of Puerto Rico, 1870-1930. Latin American Research Review, Vol. 13, No. 3 (1978), pp. 63-94 Local Context Local community maps and Census data.

Week 2 (Sept. 20)-- Macro Lens: The Political Economy of Island Development Dietz, J.L. 2003. Puerto Rico: Negotiating Development and Change. Lynne Rienner Publishers. Chapter 2 (pp. 29-78). Catal Olivera, Francisco. La economa de Puerto Rico: del enclave colonial al imperativo de la Independencia. Pp.49-98. Padin, Jose. Puerto Rico in the Post War: Liberalized Development Banking and the Fall of the Fifth Tiger. World Development. Vol 31, No. 2, pp. 281-301, 2003 Coastal Tourism and Dutch Disease in a Small Island Economy. Jean Jacques Nowak, Mondher Sahli. Tourism Economics. Brighton. Mar 2007. Vol. 13, Iss. 1; pg. 49 Dunn, Leslie. The impact of Political Dependence on Small Island Jurisdictions. World Development 2011 (article in Press) Clark, Cal. The Taiwan Exception: Implications for Contending Political Economy Paradigms. International studies Quarterly (1987) 31, 327-356 7

Baldacchino, G. Innovative Development Strategies from Non-Sovereign Island Jurisdictions? A Global Review of Economic Policy and Governance Practices. World Development Vo. 34. No. 5, pp. 852-867, 2006 Isard, Walter. Eugene Schooler, Thomas Vietorisz (1959) Industrial Complex Analysis and Regional Development:A Case Study of Refinery-PetrochemicalSynthetic Fiber Complexes and Puerto Rico Week 3 (Sept.27) Planning in PR Marvel, L. F. 2008. Listen to what They Say: Planning and Community Development in Puerto Rico. San Juan: La Editorial, Universidad de Puerto Rico. Chapter 1 (pp. 29-59). Chapter 3 (pp. 81-109), Chapter 4 (pp. 109-140). Fontnez Torres, E. La Propiedad en Puerto Rico: Apuntes para el anlisis de su contingencia y desarrollo en el Siglo XX. Foro Constitucional Iberoamericano, No. 13. Ao 2006-2008. Concepcin, Carmen. El Ocaso del Proceso de Evaluacin de Impacto Ambiental en Puerto Rico: Un Examen de la Prctica a Partir de 1990. Rev.Colegio de Abogados, Puerto Rico. Vol. 68, Nmero 4 (2007) Plan de Rehabilitacin de Ro Piedras. Oficina de Planificacin y Ordenacin Territorial. Municipio Autnomo de San Juan. 2006. Concepcin, Carmen Milagros. Accin Social, Ambiente Y Democracia en Puerto Rico. Ponencia, Primera Jornada Ambiental, 2006. Supplementary Readings Cdigo de Urbanismo Del Municipio de San Juan. 2003. Recomendaciones para detener el desparrame urbano en el Area Metropolitana de San Juan. Informe. Estudios Tcnicos, Inc., y el Centro de Estudios para el Desarrollo Sustentable de la Escuela de Asuntos Ambientales, Universidad Metropolitana. 2001. Declaracin de Impacto Ambiental Estratgica: Segunda Revisin Parcial a los Planos del Plan de Ordenacin Territorial del Municipio de San Juan. 2008. Howell, Brandon. The Planning System of Puerto Rico. The Town Planning Review, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Oct., 1952), pp. 211-222 Infraestructura Verde y nuestros parques. Compaa de Parques Nacionales de Puerto Rico. 2005.

Mapas de Calificacin de Suelo. Oficina de la Gobernadora Junta de Planificacin, Santurce, Puerto Rico. Gaztambide-Arandes, M. S. Raising Community Voices: Organized Civil Society and the Environmental Movement in Puerto Rico. Master of Arts Thesis. Tufts. 2008. Week 4Land Use in PR Nazario, R. 2003. Pan, casa, libertad: de la reforma agraria a la especulacin inmobiliaria. In Luis Muoz Marn: Perfiles de su Gobernacin, ed. F. Pic, 145-164. San Juan: Fundacin Luis Muoz Marn. Seplveda, A. 2003. Viejos caaverales, casas nuevas: Muoz versus el sndrome Long. In Luis Muoz Marn: Perfiles de su Gobernacin, ed. F. Pic. San Juan: Fundacin Luis Muoz Marn. Garca Coln, I. 2006. Playing and eating democracy: The case of Puerto Ricos land distribution program, 1940s- 1960s. Centro Journal 18 (2): 167-189. Garca-Coln, Ismael. Buscando ambiente: Hegemony and Subaltern Tactics of Survival in Puerto Ricos Land Distribution Program. Latin American Perspectives, Vol. 33, No. 1, Struggle and Change in Puerto Rico: Expecting Democracy (Jan. 2006), pp. 42-65. Martinuzzi, S., W. Gould, and O. Ramos Gonzlez. Land Development, Land use, and Urban Sprawl in Puerto Rico Integrating Remote Sensing and Population Census Data. Landscape and Urban Planning 79 (2007) 288-297 Descartes, S.L. Land Reform in Puerto Rico. The Journal of Land and Public Utility Economics, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Nov. 1943), pp. 397-417 Pic, Rafael. Puerto Rico: Its Problems and Its Program. The Town Planning Review, Vol. 24, No.2 (Jul, 1953), pp. 84-100. Lpez, T., T. Mitchell Aide, and J. Thomlinson. Urban Expansion and the Loss of Prime Agricultural Lands in Puerto Rico. Ambio, Vol. 30, No. 1 (Feb., 2001), pp. 4954. Map of Land Use Week 5 The intersection of Land Use, Sustainability, and Conservation Thomlinson, J., M. Serrano, T. Lopez, T. Mitchell Aide, and J. Zimmermann. Land Use Dynamics in a Post-Agricultural Puerto Rican Landscape (1936-1988). Biotropics, Vol. 28, No. 4, Part A. Special Issue: Long Term Responses of Caribbean Ecosystems to Disturbances (dec. 1996), pp. 525-536

Grau, R., T. Mitchell, J. Zimmermann, J. Thomlinson, E. Helmer, X. Zou. The Ecological Consequences of Socioeconomic and Land-Use Changes in Post-agriculture Puerto Rico. BioScience, Vol. 53, No. 12 (Dec. 2003), pp. 1159-1168. Helmer, E. H. Forest Conservation and Land Development in Puerto Rico. Landscape Ecology. Vol. 19 (2004), pp. 29-40 Sustainability of Land Use in Puerto Rico. Report For Presentation at The Angora Convention Center, Caguas, Puerto Rico. March 30, 2009. Center for Sustainable Development Studies, School of Environmental Affairs. Universidad Metropolitana. Zitello, A., D. Whitall, A. Dieppa, J. Christensen, M. Monaco, and S. Rohmann. Characterizing Jobos Bay, Puerto Rico: A Watershed Modeling Analysis and Monitoring Plan. Conservation Effects Assessment Project In partnership with U.S. Department of Agriculture. May 2008.

Week 6 Introducing Analytical Approaches Team 1 Presentation: The Local Context through the Lens of Sustainability and Urban Agriculture (Choose 4 or 5 readings from the Sustainability list on page 10). Team 2 Presentation: The Local Context through the Lens of Sustainable Water Management, The Economics of Conservation (Choose 4 or 5 readings from the Sustainable Water Management list on page 12).

Week 7 Analytical Approaches II. Team 3 Presentation: The Local Context through the Lens of the Politics of Place and Community-Level Planning (Choose 4 or 5 readings from the Community Planning list on page 13).

Team 4 Presentation: The Local Context through the Lens of Informality (Choose 4 or 5 readings from the Poverty, Growth, and Informality list on page 14).

Reading Materials I - Sustainability

10

S.T.A. Pickett, M.L. Cadenasso, J.M. Grove, C.H. Nilon, R.V. Poyat, W.C. Zipperer, and R. Costanza. Urban Ecological Systems Linking Terrestrial Ecological, Physical, and Socioeconomic Components of Metropolitan Areas. pp.99-123. In: in Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature. Eds: John Marzluff, Eric Shulenberger, Wilfried Endlicher, Marina Alberti, Gordon Bradley, Clare Ryan, Ute Simon, Craig ZumBrunnen. 2008 Beauregard, R. A. 2003. Democracy, Storytelling, and the Sustainable City. Chapter 3 in Story and Sustainability (B. Eckstein and J. Throgmorton, Eds.), MIT Press, Cambridge, pp. 65-77. Shaffer, R., S. Deller, D. Marcouiller. 2006. Rethinking Community Economic Development. Economic Development Quarterly, 20, pp. 59-74. Zegras, C., I. Poduje, W. Foutz, E. Ben-Joseph, O. Figueroa. 2004. Indicators for Sustainable Urban Development. Chapter 6 in From Understanding to Action: Sustainable Urban Development in Medium-Sized Cities in Africa and Latin America (M. Keiner, C. Zegras, W. Schmid, D. Salmern, Eds.), Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 157189. Larsen, L. et al. 2004. Bonding and Bridging: Understanding the Relationship between Social Capital and Civic Action. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 24, Mog, J.M. 2004. Struggling with Sustainability A Comparative Framework for Evaluating Sustainable Development Programs. World Development, 32, 12, pp. 2139-2160. Sandercook, L. 2003. Dreaming the Sustainable City: Organizing Hope, Negotiating Fear, Mediating Memory. Chapter 6 in Story and Sustainability (B. Eckstein and J. Throgmorton, Eds.), MIT Press, Cambridge, pp. 144-164. Evans, P. 2002. Looking for Agents of Urban Livability in a Globalized Political Economy. In Livable Cities? Urban Struggles for Livelihood and Sustainability (Peter Evans, ed.), Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, pp. 1-30. Hollander, Jason B. "Measuring Community: Using Sustainability Indicators in Devens, MA." Planners' Casebook (January 2002)

Sustainability Research Methods

11

Chertow, Marian R., and Daniel C. Esty, eds. Thinking Ecologically: The Next Generation of Environmental Policy. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1997, pp. 1-37 Coogan, P., and T. Greene. "How to Investigate Environmental Health Problems in Your Community." Boston, MA: JSI Center for Environmental Health Studies. Working Paper, 1997. Heaton, G., Jr., and R. D. Banks. "Toward a New Generation of Environmental Technology." In Investing in Innovation. Edited by Lewis Branscomb and James Keller. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1998 Waits, Mary Jo. "The Added Value of the Industry Cluster Approach to Economic Analysis, Strategy Development, and Service Delivery." Economic Development Quarterly 14, no. 1 (February 2002): 35-50. Urban Agriculture Shuman, Michael. Import Replacement. In The Sustainable Urban Development Reader. Ed: Stephen Wheeler and Timothy Beatley. 2004. Routledge. Pp. 171-179. Zeeuw, H., R. Van Veenzhuizen, and M. Dubbeling. The Role of Urban Agriculture in Building Resilient Cities in Developing Countries. Journal of Agricultural Science, June 2011. De Bon, H., L. Parrot, and P. Moustier. Sustainable Urban Agriculture in Developing Countries: A Review. Sustainable Agriculture, 2009. Landscape Planning Enlow, Clair. "PlanningRethinking Streets as ParksSeattle's Open Space Strategy Shifts its Emphasis Away from Traditional Parks to an Evolving 'Urban Ecosystem' that Focuses on City Streets." Landscape Architecture 92 (2002): 52-58. Godschalk, David. Land Use Planning Challenges: Coping with Conflicts in Visions of Sustainable Development and Livable Communities. Journal of the American Planning Association 70, no. 1 (Winter 2004): 5-13.

II - Sustainable water management Reed, Robert A. Sustainable Sewerage: Guidelines for Community Schemes. London, UK: Intermediate Technology in Association with the Water, Engineering and Development Centre, 1995. 12

Feachem, Richard G., Michael McGarry, and Duncan Mara. Water, Wastes and Health in Hot Climates. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1977 Fass, S. M. "Water and Poverty: Implications for Water Planning." Water Resources Research 29, no. 7 (1993): 1975-1981. Solo, Tova Maria. "Small-Scale Entrepreneurs in the Urban Water and Sanitation Market." Environment and Urbanization 11, no. 1 (1999): 117-131. Brookshire, David S., and Dale Whittington. "Water Resources Issues in the Developing Countries." Water Resources Research 29, no. 7 (1993): 1883-1888. Nance, Earthea B., and Leonard Ortolano. "Community Participation in Urban Sanitation: Experiences in Northeastern Brazil." Journal of Planning Education and Research 26, no. 3 (2007): 284-300 Watson, Gabrielle, and N. Vijay Jagannathan. Participation in Water and Sanitation Environment Department Papers: Participation Series, Paper No. ENV-002. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1995. Paul, Samuel. Community Participation in Development Projects: The World Bank Experience World Bank Discussion Paper No. 6. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 1987. Water and Environmental Health at London and Loughborough (WELL). Guidance Manual on Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes. London, UK: Department for International Development, 1998. World Health Organization. Combating Waterborne Disease at the Household Level. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization, 2007, ISBN: 978921595223. Murcott, S. Implementation, Critical Factors and Challenges to Scale-Up of Household Drinking Water Treatment and Safe Storage Systems. Background Paper on Household Water Treatment and Safe Storage (HWTS), 2006 Clasen, Thomas, and Sandy Cairncross. "Editorial: Household Water Management: Refining the Dominant Paradigm." Tropical Medicine and International Health 9, no. 2 (2004): 187-191. Watershed Management: The Economics of Conservation Hermans, C. and J. Erickson. Multicriteria Decision Analysis: Overview and Implications for Environmental Decision Making. Pp.213-229. In Ecological

13

Economics of Sustainable Watershed Management. 2007. Eds. Erickson, J. F. Messner, and I. Green. III - Community-level planning Neuman, Michael. Does Planning Need the Plan? Journal of the American Planning Association 64, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 208-220. Baer, William C. General Plan Evaluation Criteria: An Approach To Making Better Plans. Journal of the American Planning Association 63, no. 3 (Summer 1997): 329344. Talen, Emily, and Cliff Ellis. "Beyond Relativism: Reclaiming the Search for Good City Form." Journal of Planning Education and Research 22, no. 1 (2002): 36-49. Punter, John. Developing Urban Design as Public Policy: Best Practice Principles for Design Review and Development Management. Journal of Urban Design 12, no. 2 (2007): 167-202. Bunyan Bryant and John Callewaert. Why is Understanding Urban Ecosystems Important to people Concerned About Environmental Justice? pp. 597-611. In Urban Ecology: An International Perspective on the Interaction Between Humans and Nature. Eds: John Marzluff, Eric Shulenberger, Wilfried Endlicher, Marina Alberti, Gordon Bradley, Clare Ryan, Ute Simon, Craig ZumBrunnen. 2008 Marvel, L. F. 2008. Listen to what They Say: Planning and Community Development in Puerto Rico. San Juan: La Editorial, Universidad de Puerto Rico. Sotomayor, Orlando. 2009. Puerto Rican Migration Flows and the Theory of Migrant Self-Selection. World Development 37 (3) (March): 726-738. doi:doi: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.08.001. Gaztambide, Soledad. 2008. Raising Community Voices: Organized Civil Society and the Environmental Movement in Puerto Rico. Tufts University, August.

IV -- Poverty, Growth, and Informality Amis, Philip. "Municipal Government, Urban Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction-Identifying the Transmission Mechanisms Between Growth and Poverty." Chapter 6 in Urban Livelihoods: A People-Centred Approach to Reducing Poverty. Edited by Carole Rakodi and Tony Lloyd. London, UK: Earthscan Publications, 2002, pp. 97-111.

14

Tietz, Michael B. "Neighborhood Economics: Local Communities and Regional Markets." Economic Development Quarterly 3, no. 2 (May 1989): 111-122 Castells, M. and A. Portes. 1989. World Underneath: The Origins, Dynamics and Effects of the Informal Economy in Portes, A. et al., eds., The Informal Economy: Studies in Advanced and Less Developed Countries, Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, pp. 11-37. Maloney, W. F. 2004. Informality Revisited, World Development, Vol. 32, No. 7, pp.1159-1178. Perry, G. et al. 2007. Informality: Exit and Exclusion. Washington, D.C.: World Bank, pp. 21-42. "Associations of Market Traders: Their Roles and Potential For Further Development." Agricultural Management, Marketing and Finance Service. Rome, 2005. Peattie, Lisa. "What is to be Done With the Informal Sector? A Case Study of Shoe Manufacturing in Colombia." In Towards a Political Economy of Urbanization. Edited by Helen Safa. New Delhi, India: Oxford University Press, 1982, pp. 208-232. Chen, M. et al. 2005. Progress of the Worlds Women 2005: Women, Work, and Poverty. New York: UNIFEM, pp. 37-73. Galli, R. and D. Kucera. 2003. Informal Employment in Latin America: Movements Over Business Cycles and the Effects on Worker Rights, Institute of International Labour Studies Discussion Paper, No. 145. Geneva: ILO. Roever, S. 2006. Street Trade in Latin America: Demographic Trends, Legal Issues, and Vending Organizations in Six Cities. Regional Review for WIEGO Urban Policies Programme.

The Informal Workforce Bromley, R. 1978. Organization, Regulation and Exploitation in the So-Called 'Urban Informal Sector': The Street Traders of Cali, World Development, Vol. 6, No. 9/10, Sept-Oct, p. 1161-71. BirkBeck, C. 1979. Garbage, Industry, and the Vultures of Cali, Colombia in Bromley and C. Gerry, eds. Casual Work and Poverty in Third World Cities. New York: John Wiley and Sons, pp. 161-183 Lund, F. and J. Nicholson, eds. 2004. Chains of Production, Ladders of Protection. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. 15

Samson. M. ed. 2009. Refusing to Be Cast Aside: Waste Pickers Organizing around the world. WIEGO Online Publication.

Participation Lund, F. and C. Skinner. 2004. Integrating the Informal Economy in Urban Planning and Governance: A Case Study of the Process of Policy Development in International Development Planning Review, Vol. 26, No. 4, 2004.

Micro, Small Enterprises Lepenies, Philipp. Exit, Voice, and Vouchers: Using Vouchers to Train Microentrepreneurs: Observations from the Paraguayan Voucher Scheme. World Development 32, no. 4 (2004): 713-724. Mead, Donald, and Carl Liedholm. "The Dynamics of Micro and Small Enterprises in Developing Countries." World Development 26 (1998): 61-74. Fajnzylber, Pablo. "Informality, Productivity, and the Firm." InInformality: Exit and Exclusion. By Guillermo Perry, William Maloney, Omar Arias, Pablo Fajnzylber, Andrew Mason, and Jaime Saavedra-Chanduvi. Washington, DC: The World Bank, 2007.

Prahalad C.K. (2010) the Fortune at the Bottom of the Pyramid Wharton School Publishing Wooldridge a (2010) The World Turned Upside Down The Economist, April 17. International Finance Corporation and World Resources Institute (2007) The Next 4 Billion: Market Size and Business Strategy at the Bottom of the Pyramid Collins, D., J. Morduch, and S. Rutherford Portfolios of the Poor: How the Worlds Poor live on $2 a Day

16