Lab Assignment No.

10
To study frequency modulation by using reactance Modulator
Q1: How many methods exist for generation of FM signal? How do they differ from each other?
FM signals can be generated using either direct or indirect frequency modulation. Direct FM modulation can be achieved by directly feeding the message into the input of a VCO. b) For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to generate a phase modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystal controlled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to give an FM signal.
a)

Q2: What is the range of FM commercially used for communication?

The range of FM commercially used is from 88MHZ to 108 MHZ.

Q3: Explain the operation of reactance modulator?

The REACTANCE MODULATOR is used to frequency modulate low-power semiconductor transmitters. Figure 2-12 shows a typical frequency-modulated oscillator stage operated as a reactance modulator. Q1, along with its associated circuitry, is the oscillator. Q2 is the modulator and is connected to the circuit so that its collector-to-emitter capacitance (CCE) is in parallel with a portion of the rf oscillator coil, L1. As the modulator operates, the output capacitance of Q2 is varied. Thus, the frequency of the oscillator is shifted in accordance with the modulation the same as if C1 were varied.

When the modulating signal is applied to the base of Q2, the emitter-to-base bias varies at the modulation rate. This causes the collector voltage of Q2 to vary at the same modulating rate. When the collector voltage increases, output capacitance CCE decreases; when the collector voltage decreases, CCE increases. An increase in collector voltage has the effect of spreading the plates of CCE farther apart by increasing the width of the barrier. A decrease of collector voltage reduces the width of the pn junction and has the same effect as pushing the capacitor plates together to provide more capacitance. When the output capacitance decreases, the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator tank circuit increases (acts the same as if C1 were decreased). When the output capacitance increases, the instantaneous frequency of the oscillator tank circuit decreases. This decrease in frequency produces a lower frequency in the output because of the shunting effect of C CE. Thus, the frequency of the oscillator tank circuit increases and decreases at an audio frequency (af) modulating rate. The output of the oscillator, therefore, is a frequency modulated rf signal. Since the audio modulation causes the collector voltage to increase and decrease, an AM component is induced into the output. This produces both an fm and AM output. The amplitude variations are then removed by placing a limiter stage after the reactance modulator and only the frequency modulation remains. Frequency multipliers or mixers (discussed in chapter 1) are used to increase the oscillator frequency to the desired output frequency. For high-power applications, linear rf amplifiers are

used to increase the steady-amplitude signal to a higher power output. With the initial modulation occurring at low levels, fm represents a savings of power when compared to conventional AM. This is because fm noise-reducing properties provide a better signal-to-noise ratio than is possible with AM.

Q4: Write advantages of FM over AM.?

a) Lesser distortion. Frequency modulated wave is less susceptible to intereferences from buildings, traffic etc which provides improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man made interference. b) Waves at higher frequencies can carry more data than the waves at low frequency. c) Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations. d) Less radiated power. e) Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.

Q5: Search for other uses of FM apart from commercial communication.

FM is also used at intermediate frequencies by all analog VCR systems, including VHS, to record both the luminance (black and white) and the chrominance portions of the video signal. FM is the only feasible method of recording video to and retrieving video from Magnetic tape without extreme distortion, as video signals have a very large range of frequency components from a few hertz to several megahertz, too wide for equalizers to work with due to electronic noise below 60 dB. FM also keeps the tape at saturation level, and therefore acts as a form of noise reduction, and a simple limiter can mask variations in the playback output, and the FM capture effect removes print-through and pre-echo. A continuous pilot-tone, if added to the signal as was done on V2000 and many Hi-band formats can keep mechanical jitter under control and assist time base correction.

Lab Assignment No. 7

To study the operation of a Varactor Modulator for FM Generation
Q1: What is varactor diode? Explain its operation and characteristics? How it helps to work as a V/F Converter for FM generation.
Varactor diodes or varicap diodes are semiconductor devices that are widely used in the electronics industry and are used in many applications where a voltage controlled variable capacitance is required. Accordingly they are used in many RF circuits including voltage controlled oscillators, and filters. Although the terms varactor diode and varicap diode can be used interchangeably, the more common term these days is the varactor diode. Varactor diodes are always operated under reverse bias conditions, and in this way there is no conduction. They are effectively voltage controlled capacitors, and indeed they are sometimes called varicap diodes, although the term varactor is more widely used these days.

Operation:
When a reverse voltage is applied to a PN junction, the holes in the p-region are attracted to the anode terminal and electrons in the n-region are attracted to the cathode terminal creating a region where there is little current. This region, the depletion region, is essentially devoid of carriers and behaves as the dielectric of a capacitor. The depletion region increases as reverse voltage across it increases; and since capacitance varies inversely as dielectric thickness, the junction capacitance will decrease as the voltage across the PN junction increases. So by varying the reverse voltage across a PN junction the junction capacitance can be varied. As we know

Xc=1/2*f*c
We can see by increasing or decreasing C, f can be decreased or increased respectively. So it can be used as a V/F Converter for FM generation

Characteristics: a) Capacitance:
In electronics, capacitance is the ratio of charge impressed on a given conductor. This characteristic determines a diode's frequency of operation. Any capacitor or conductor's capacitance depends on varying factors such as the area of its conductive plates, the dielectric constant of the insulator between the plates and the distance between the two plates. The width of a varactor diode's depletion region increases and decreases via changing the level of the diode's reverse bias. In effect, changing this level alters the distance between the capacitor's plates. As the capacitance range of varactor diodes are controlled by adjusting the gradient and junction width, range changes are applied using reverse voltage. Commonly, varactor diodes operate at a four-to-one capacitance range.

b) Reverse Breakdown:
Varactor diodes are designed to provide voltage-controlled capacitance via operation under reverse bias. A diode's reverse breakdown is defined by the minimum reverse voltage required to make the diode conduct in reverse. As reverse bias increases, capacitance decreases; the maximum voltage that a varactor diode can withstand is determined by its maximum capacitance level. The reverse bias of most varactor diodes operates from around a few volts up to about 20 volts, with some rare exceptions operating up to 60 volts. As a varactor diode's voltage increases, specific energy supplies must be provided for the circuits driving the diode.

c) Varactor Q:
An important characteristic of any varactor diode is its Q. This is particularly important in a number of applications. For oscillators used in frequency synthesizers it affects the noise performance. High Q diodes enable a higher Q tuned circuit to be achieved, and in turn this reduces the phase noise produced by the circuit. For filters the Q is again very important. A high Q diode will enable the filter to give a sharper response, whereas a low Q diode will increase the losses.

Varactor diode equivalent circuit

The Q is dependent upon the series resistance that the varactor diode exhibits. This resistance arises from a number of causes: 1. the resistance of the semiconductor in the areas outside the depletion region, i.e. in the region where the charge is carried to the "capacitor plates". 2. some resistance arising from the lead and package elements of the component 3. some contribution from the die substrate The Q or quality factor for the diode can be determined from the equation below: Q = 1 / 2 pi Cv R

Where: Cv = the capacitance at the measured voltage R = the series resistance From this it can be seen that to maximise the Q it is necessary to minimise the series resistance. Varactor diode manufacturers typically use an epitaxial structure to minimise this resistance. When designing the circuit, the Q of the circuit can be maximised by minimising the capacitance.

Q2: Write down the advantages and disadvantages of FM?

Advantages of FM: a) b) c) d) Improved signal to noise ratio (about 25dB) w.r.t. to man made interference. Smaller geographical interference between neighboring stations. Less radiated power. Well defined service areas for given transmitter power.

Disadvantages of FM: a) Much more Bandwidth (as much as 20 times as much). b) More complicated receiver and transmitter.

Q3: What is meant by Capture Effect? How does it help an FM signal to habe better reception?
Capture Effect is a phenomenon associated with frequency modulation (FM). The capture effect relates the ability of the receiver demodulator to recover the message of the dominant carrier when two or more FM carriers of unequal power level are present. The capture effect can occur at the signal limiter, or in the demodulation stage, for circuits that do not require a signal limiter.Some types of radio receiver circuits have a stronger capture

effect than others. The measurement of how well a receiver can reject a second signal on the same frequency is called the capture ratio for a specific receiver. It is measured as the lowest ratio of the power of two signals that will result in the suppression of the smaller signal.

Q4: What is frequency deviation?

Frequency deviation (f) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum instantaneous difference between an FM modulated frequency and the nominal carrier frequency. The term is sometimes mistakenly used as synonymous with frequency drift, which is an unintended offset of an oscillator from its nominal frequency. The frequency deviation of a radio is of particular importance in relation to bandwidth, because less deviation means that more channels can fit into the same amount of frequency spectrum. The FM broadcasting range (88-108 MHz) uses a channel spacing of 200 kHz, with a maximum frequency deviation of 75 kHz, leaving a 25 kHz buffer above and below the center frequency to reduce interaction with other channels

Q5: What is VCO (Voltage controlled Oscillator) and its purpose on the FM Trainer in the lab?
A voltage controlled oscillator or as more commonly known, a vco, is an oscillator where the principal variable or tuning element is a varactor diode. The voltage controlled oscillator is tuned across its band by a "clean" dc voltage applied to the varactor diode to vary the net capacitance applied to the tuned circuit. For example, in communication systems, oscillators are often used to provide a stable frequency reference signal for translating information signals to a desired frequency band. A common oscillator implementation is known as a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) circuit, where an input tuning voltage is applied to an oscillator circuit and the tuning voltage adjusted to set the frequency at which the circuit oscillates. Voltage controlled oscillators are basic building blocks of many electronic systems especially phase-locked loops and may be found in computer disk drives, wireless electronic equipment such as cellular telephones, and other systems in which oscillation frequency is controlled by an applied tuning voltage.

Q6: Is FM better to over come small interferences as compared to AM? How?

Yes FM is better to overcome small interferences as compared to AM. AM uses spacing of 10 Khz, while FM uses spacing of 200Khz. So in FM interferences can be overcome.

Q7: Define Pre emphasis and De emphasis in FM?

Random noise has a 'triangular' spectral distribution in an FM system, with the effect that noise occurs predominantly at the highest frequencies within the baseband. This can be offset, to a limited extent, by boosting the high frequencies before transmission and reducing them by a corresponding amount in the receiver. Reducing the high frequencies in the receiver also reduces the high-frequency noise. These processes of boosting and then reducing certain frequencies are known as pre-emphasis and de-emphasis, respectively. The amount of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis used is defined by the time constant of a simple RC filter circuit. In most of the world a 50 s time constant is used. In North America, 75 s is used. This applies to both mono and stereo transmissions and to baseband audio (not the subcarriers). The amount of pre-emphasis that can be applied is limited by the fact that many forms of contemporary music contain more high-frequency energy than the musical styles which prevailed at the birth of FM broadcasting. They cannot be pre-emphasized as much because it would cause excessive deviation of the FM carrier. (Systems more modern than FM broadcasting tend to use either programme-dependent variable pre-emphasise.g. dbx in the BTSC TV sound systemor none at all.)

Lab Assignment No. 09

To study signal sampling and reconstruction techniques alongwith Nyquist criterion and Aliasing

Observations and calculations:

Q1: Explain following terms clearly Sampling Nyquist criteria Aliasing Reconstruction Sampling:
Sampling is the process of recording the values of a signal at given points in time. For A/D converters, these points in time are equidistant. The number of samples taken during one second is called the sample rate.

The signals we use in the real world, such as our voices, are called "analog" signals. To process these signals in computers, we need to

convert the signals to "digital" form. While an analog signal is continuous in both time and amplitude, a digital signal is discrete in both time and amplitude. To convert a signal from continuous time to discrete time, a process called sampling is used. The value of the signal is measured at certain intervals in time. Each measurement is referred to as a sample. (The analog signal is also quantized in amplitude).

Nyquist criteria:
The Nyquist Stability Criteria is a test for system stability. However, the Nyquist Criteria can also give us additional information about a system. The Nyquist Criteria, however, can tell us things about the frequency characteristics of the system. For instance, some systems with constant gain might be stable for low-frequency inputs, but become unstable for high-frequency inputs. Also, the Nyquist Criteria can tell us things about the phase of the input signals, the time-shift of the system, and other important information. Let us first introduce the most important equation when dealing with the Nyquist criterion: N=ZP Where:

N is the number of encirclements of the (-1, 0) point. Z is the number of zeros of the

characteristic equation. P is the number of poles of the open-loop characteristic equation.

In other words, if P is zero then N must equal zero. Otherwise, N must equal P. Essentially, we are saying that Z must always equal zero, because Z is the number of zeros of the characteristic equation (and therefore the number of poles of the closed-loop transfer function) that are in the right-half of the s plane. Keep in mind that we don't necessarily know the locations of all the zeros of the characteristic equation. So if we find, using the nyquist criterion, that the number of poles is not equal to N, then we know that there must be a zero in the right-half plane, and that therefore the system is unstable.

Aliasing:
If we sample at too low of a rate (below the Nyquist rate), then problems will arise that will make perfect reconstruction impossible - this problem is known as aliasing. Aliasing occurs when there is an overlap in the shifted, perioidic copies of our original signal's FT, i.e. spectrum.

Reconstruction:
Reconstruction is the process of creating an analog voltage (or current) from samples. A digitalto-analog converter takes a series of binary numbers and recreates the voltage (or current) levels that corresponds to that binary number. Then this signal is filtered by a lowpass filter. This process is analogous to interpolating between points on a graph, but it can be shown that under certain conditions the original analog signal can be reconstructed exactly from its samples. Unfortunately, the conditions for exact reconstruction cannot be achieved in practice, and so in practice the reconstruction is an approximation to the original analog signal.

Q2: an

What is

electronic switch how it can be used in sampling ?

A PAM signal is generated by using a pulse train, called the sampling signal (or clock signal) to operate an electronic switch or "chopper". This produces samples of the analog message signal, as shown in Figure The switch is closed for the duration of each pulse allowing the message signal at that sampling time to become part of the output. The switch is open for the remainder of each sampling period making the output zero. This type of sampling is called natural sampling.

Q3: How does the duty cycle of the sampling or switching signal affects the reconstruction?
As the sampling frequency is increased, the reconstructed output is less distorted and almost original signal is reconstructed. For a sampling frequency of 4KHz, only 4 samples of the 1KHz signal are taken, whereas that for a sampling frequency of 8KHz, 8 samples of 1 KHz signal is taken. Hence, as the number of samples taken of the signal increases, the distortion of the reconstructed signal decreases. As per the Nyquist Criterion at least two samples are required for the reconstruction of the signal. If the Nyquist Criterion is not satisfied, or if the signal is not band limited, then spectral overlap, called "aliasing" occurs, causing higher frequencies to show up at lower frequencies in the recovered signal, and specially in voice transmission intelligibility is seriously degraded Thus, universally for the voice band (300Hz to 3000Hz), the sampling frequency used is 8KHz, which satisfies the Nyquist Criterion. Moreover, we can conclude that as the duty cycle increases, the sampling time, i.e., the time period over which the signal information is obtained, is more. reconstructed Signal Amplitude approaches that of the original signal. Q4: When we increase the sampling frequency the signal reconstructed is better why? Upto which limit the increase in frequency turns out to be feasible? As we increase the sampling frequency the signal reconstructed is better because the distortion of the reconstructed signal decreases. For a sampling frequency of 4KHz, only 4 samples of the 1KHz signal are taken, whereas that for a sampling frequency of 8KHz, 8 samples of 1 KHz signal is taken. Hence, as the number of samples taken of the signal increases, the distortion of the reconstructed signal decreases. Hence the

Q5: Give different types of A/D converter? How does an A/D Converter work?
ADC is an electronic device that converts an input analog voltage (or current) to a digital number proportional to the magnitude of the voltage or current. A/D converters are electrical circuits that have the following characteristics.

The input to the A/D converter is a voltage.

A/D converters may be designed for voltages from 0 to 10v, from -5 to +5v, etc., but they almost always take a voltage input. (Some rare exceptions occur with current inputs!) In any event, the input is an analog voltage signal for most cases. The output of the A/D converter is a binary signal, and that binary signal encodes the analog input voltage. So, the output is some sort of digital number.

Types of A/D converter I. Successive Approximation Converter

A successive approximation converter provides a fast conversion of a momentary value of the input signal. It works by first comparing the input with a voltage which is half the input range. If the input is over this level it compares it with three-quarters of the range, and so on. Twelve such steps gives 12-bit resolution. While these comparisons are taking place the signal is frozen in a sample and hold circuit. After A-D conversion the resulting bytes are placed into either a pipeline or buffer store. A pipeline store enables the A-D converter to do another conversion while the previous data is transferred to the computer. Buffered A-D converters place the data into a queue held in buffer memory. The computer can read the converted value immediately, or can allow values to accumulate in the buffer and read them when it is convenient. This frees the computer from having to deal with the samples in real time, allowing them to be processed in convenient batches without losing any data.

II.

Dual Slope Integrating Converter

This converter reduces noise but is slower than the successive approximation type. It lets the input signal charge a capacitor for a fixed period and then measures the time for the capacitor to fully discharge at a fixed rate. This time is a measure of the integrated input voltage, which reduces the effects of noise.

III.

Charge Balancing Converter

The input signal again charges a capacitor for a fixed time, but in this converter the capacitor is simultaneously discharged in units of charge packets: if the capacitor is charged to more than the packet size it will release a packet, if not a packet cannot be released. This creates a pulse train. The input voltage is determined by counting the pulses coming out of the capacitor. Noise is reduced by integrating the input signal over the capacitor charging time.

IV.

Flash Converter

A flash converter is the fastest type of converter we use. Like the successive approximation converter it works by comparing the input signal to a reference voltage, but a flash converter has as many comparators as there are steps in the comparison. An 8-bit converter, therefore, has 2 to the power 8, or 256, comparators.

V.

Sigma-Delta Converter

This converter digitises the signal with very low resolution (1-bit) and a very high sampling rate (MHz). By oversampling, and using digital filters, the resolution can be increased to as many as 20 or more bits. Sigma-delta converters are especially useful for high resolution conversion of low-frequency signals as well as low-distortion conversion of signals containing audio frequencies. They have good linearity and high accuracy.

Q6: What is folding frequency? How can aliasing be avoided?

The Nyquist frequency is half the sampling frequency of a discrete signal processing system. It is sometimes known as the folding frequency of a sampling system The Nyquist frequency should not be confused with the Nyquist rate, which is the lower bound of the sampling frequency that satisfies the Nyquist sampling criterion for a given signal or family of signals. This lower bound is twice the bandwidth or maximum component frequency of the signal. Nyquist rate, as commonly used with respect to sampling, is a property of a continuous-time signal, not of a system, whereas Nyquist frequency is a property of a discrete-time system, not of a signal. The domain of the signals does not have to be time, though that is common, leading to Nyquist frequency in hertz; for example, an image sampling system has a Nyquist frequency expressed in units such as cycles per meter. The sampling theorem shows that aliasing can be avoided if the Nyquist frequency is greater than the bandwidth, or maximum component frequency, of the signal being sampled

Q7: What is the disadvantage of sampling rate higher than the Nyquist Rate?
When a signal is sampled at rate higher than the Nyquist rate (Fs>2B).This yields a signal with repetitions with a finite band gap between successive cycles. We can recover this signal using a low pass filter with a gradual cut off characteristic, but even in this case, the filter gain is required to be zero beyond the first cycle which is impossible. It shows that when sampling rate is higher than the Nyquist rate then it is impossible to recover a band limited signal exactly from its samples.

Lab Assignment No. 11

To study the quadrator demodulator
1) Explain the operation of quadrature demodulator with the help of block diagram and circuit.?
In an FM signal, the modulation is the deviation of a carrier from its nominal frequency. The conventional method to demodulate this signal is to convert frequency deviation to phase and detect the change of phase. In the quadrature demodulator, the modulated carrier is passed through an LC tank circuit that shifts the signal by 90 at the center frequency. This phase shift is either greater or less than 90 depending on the direction of deviation. A phase detector compares the phase-shifted signal to the original to give the demodulated baseband signal. You use quadrature demodulators not only for frequency modulation, but also with digital modulation schemes such as FSK (frequency shift keying) and GFSK (Gaussian frequency shift keying). FM Quadrature Demodulator Block Diagram: The conventional method of FM demodulation for integrated circuits is Bilotti's quadrature demodulator that uses a phase shift network and a phase detector. Figure 1 shows the block diagram of this quadrature demodulator. The phase detector compares the phase of the IF signal (v1) to v2, the signal generated by passing v1 through a phase shift network. This phase shift network includes an LC tank (L, Rp, and Cp) and a series reactance (Cs). The network gives a frequency-sensitive 90 phase shift at the center frequency. The phase detector discussed here is the bipolar double-balanced multiplier popularized by Bilotti. The output of the multiplier (Io) is filtered, which results in a DC level that changes as the input frequency changes.

Quadrature demodulator block diagram

2) What is difference between phase modulation and frequency modulation? How can you generate a PM wave through FM and a FM wave through PM?
Frequency Modulation: Imposing a signal by altering the frequency. It takes a very high frequency to modulate either audio or video signals - e.g. megahertz, Phase modulation: By altering the phase with a desired signal. It works when the bandwidth of the desired signal is very small e.g. digital communications Frequency Modulated (FM) and Phase Modulated (PM) waves are very similar and have many features in common. Frequency modulation can be regarded as phase modulation where the carrier phase modulation is the time integral of the FM modulating signal. The difference between FM & PM in a digital oscillator is that FM is added to the frequency before the phase integration, while PM is added to the phase after the phase integration. Phase integration is when the old phase for the oscillator is added to the current frequency (in radians per sample) to get the new phase for the oscillator.

3)What is a Hard limiter circuit and why it is used in FM?

"A hard limiter is a compressor. It reduces gain above a given threshold of loudness, limiting all peaks above the threshold to the threshold level. So the high volume parts would get limited, and the low volume parts can be louder. This way you can avoid clipping, and still get the maximum possible loudness for the song, a technique which is, in some variations, widely used in radio and TV broadcast. "

4)What is a filter also explain the function of the LPF as the last stage of FM receiver?
A filter is a circuit that allows the specific frequeny through it and blocks all the others.Filter have great importance in the world of communication. Low pass filter at the last stage of FM receiver pass only the modulating signal and block the other component. A low pass filter is a filter that passes low frequency signal but attenuates signals with frequencies higher than the cutoff frequency. The ctual amount of attenuationfor each frequency varies from filter to filter. It is sometime called a high-cut filter or treble cut filte when used in audio applications.

5) What is a phase comparator and how it helps to demodulate FM wave in the trainer circuit?
As a phase shifter circuit always give the phase difference of 90 degree of the carrier wave , which has the frequency constant. When no voice signal is present then there is no voltage generated by phase comparator because comparison is zero . But when our voice signal is added it increases or decreases the frequency of the carrier wave. As the frequency increase or decrease the value of the phase also increase or decrease by 90 degree and this difference is judge by the phase comparator circuit .So, it generate different

level dc voltage pulse whose level increase or decrease by the difference judge by phase comparator .

6) Transmission and Reception Area for FM is small, Comment with reasons?

The transmission and reception area for FM is small because the waves of FM cannot strike back from ionosphere and troposphere it is absorb in it .that is why the range of fm is small.

6) What is meant by Space waves and Ground reflected waves, which mode of transmission media is used by them?
Groung reflected waves: Radio wave that travels along the earths surface (surface wave) Vertically polarized Changes in terrain have strong effect Attenuation directly related to surface impedances o More conductive the more attenuated o Better over water Attenuation related to frequency o Loses increase with increase in frequency o Not very effective at frequencies above 2Mhz o Very reliable communication link o Reception is not affected by daily or seasonal weather changes Used to communicate with submarines ELF (30 to 300 Hz) propagation is utilized Spacewaves: Two types o Direct o Ground reflected Direct: Limited to line-of sight transmission distances Antenna height and curvature of earth are limiting factors Radio horizon is about 80% greater than line of sight because of diffraction effects

Reflected:

Part of the signal from the transmitter is bounced off the ground and reflected back to the receiving antenna Can cause problems if the phase between the direct wave and the reflected wave are not in phase Detuning the antenna so that the reflected wave is too weak to receive

7) What is meant by Line of Sight for FM?

The propagation characteristic of high-frequency radio is called "line-of-sight".At low frequencies (below approximately 2 MHz or so) these signals travel as ground waves, which follow the Earth's curvature due to diffraction with the layers of atmosphere. However, at higher frequencies and in lower levels of the atmosphere, neither of these effects applies. Thus any obstruction between the transmitting antenna and the receiving antenna will block the signal, just like the light that the eye may sense. Therefore, since the ability to visually see a transmitting antenna (disregarding the limitations of the eye's resolution) roughly corresponds to the ability to receive a radio signal from it. Broadcast FM radio, at comparatively low frequencies of around 100 MHz, easily propagates through buildings and forests.

8) A demodulator is a F/V converter? Search for any other F/V circuits from web and write their operation?
Demodulator is a circuit in which the frequency signal or modulated signals fed into it and it generates a corresponding output voice signal which is sum of different DC signals of different amplitude .which is our voice signal . So in this way we say it is frequency to voltage converter circ uit.

Here is a very simple circuit diagram of a frequency to voltage (F to V) converter. Such a circuit finds numerous applications in projects like digital frequency meters, tachometers etc. The circuit is mainly based on a LM555 timer IC. The IC is wired in mono shot mode to convert the input frequency into a fixed pulse width, variable frequency PWM signal. Resistors R4 and capacitor C2 provides the necessary timing for the circuit. The transistor T1 forms a discharge path parallel to C2 which is necessary for re triggering the IC. Capacitor C1 acts as an input DC decoupler.

Lab Assignment No.1

Lab Assignment Title:

Introduction to different terminologies used in communication system.

Communication System:
A system or facility capable of providing information transfer between persons and equipment. The system usually consists of a collection of individual communication networks, transmission systems, relay stations, tributary stations, and terminal equipment capable of interconnection and interoperation so as to form an integrated whole. These individual components must serve a common purpose, be technically compatible, employ common procedures, respond to some form of control, and generally operate in unison. Important terminologies:

Frequency domain: Time domain: Modulation Need of modulation: ASK, PSK, FSK: Carrier wave Demodulation: Antenna:

Description : Time domain: Time domain is a term used to describe the analysis of mathematical functions, or physical signals, with respect to time. In the time domain, the signal or function's value is known for all real numbers, for the case of continuous time, or at various separate instants in the case of discrete time. Frequency domain: Frequency domain is a term used to describe the domain for analysis of mathematical functions or signals with respect to frequency, rather than time. Modulation is the addition of information (or the signal) to an electronic or optical signal carrier. Modulation can be applied to direct current (mainly by turning it on and off), to alternating current, and to optical signals. Amplitude Modulation (AM): Amplitude modulation (AM) is a technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting information via a radio carrier wave. AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted signal in relation to the information being sent Frequency Modulation (FM) Frequency modulation (FM) conveys information over a carrier by varying its instantaneous frequency. This is in contrast with amplitude modulation, in which the amplitude of the carrier is varied while its frequency remains constant. Need of modulation: Modulation is need basically to increase the bandwidth of the signal, to multiplex the signal ,to reduce the interference made when we transmit the signals with nearly same frequency in the audio frequency range (20-20k)hz., to favors the complexity of the transmission system . Pulse modulation system: A set of techniques where by a sequence of information-carrying quantities occurring at discrete instances of time is encoded into a corresponding regular sequence of electromagnetic carrier pulses. Varying the amplitude, polarity, presence or absence, duration, or occurrence in time of the pulses gives rise to the four basic forms of pulse modulation: i) pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM), ii) pulse-code modulation (PCM), iii) pulse-width modulation (PWM) iv) pulse-position modulation (PPM). ASK: Amplitude shift keying (ASK) in the context of digital communications is a modulation process, which imparts to a sinusoid two or more discrete amplitude levels. Frequency-shift keying (FSK) is a frequency modulation scheme in which digital information is transmitted through discrete frequency changes of a carrier wave. Phase shift keying (PSK) a form of phase modulation in which the

modulating function shifts the instantaneous phase of the modulated wave between predetermined discrete values. Carrier wave: A carrier wave, or carrier is a waveform (usually sinusoidal) that is modulated (modified) with an input signal for the purpose of conveying information, This carrier wave is usually of much higher frequency than the input signal. Demodulation: Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave. Antenna: Antenna also known as an aerial, a transducer designed to transmit or receive electromagnetic (e.g. TV or radio) waves.