Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Rocket Propulsion for Future Space Launch

Arif Karabeyoglu
President and Chief Technology Officer, SPG Inc. Consulting Professor, Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University

May 09, 2008

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Rocket Configuration Fuel and oxidizer are physically separated One of the two is in solid phase

Most Hybrids:
Oxidizer: Liquid Fuel: Solid
2

Reverse Hybrids:
Oxidizer: Solid Fuel: Liquid

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Rocket System
Solid Fuel Polymers: Thermoplastics, (Polyethylene, Plexiglas), Rubbers (HTPB) Wood, Trash, Wax Liquid Oxidizer Cryogenic: LO2 Storable: H2O2, N2O, N2O4, IRFNA

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Advantages of Hybrids
Compared to Simplicity Solids - Chemically simpler - Tolerant to processing errors - Reduced chemical explosion hazard - Thrust termination and abort possibility - Better Isp performance - Throttling/restart capability - Reduced environmental impact Liquids - Mechanically simpler - Tolerant to fabrication errors - Reduced fire hazard - Less prone to hard starts

Safety

Performance Related

- Higher fuel density - Easy inclusion of solid performance additives (Al, Be) - Reduced number and mass of liquids

Other Cost

- Reduced development costs are expected - Reduced recurring costs are expected

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Rocket History
Early History (1932-1960) 1932-1933: GIRD-9 (Soviet)
LO2/Gellified gasoline 60 lbf thrust motor Firsts Hybrid rocket Soviet rocket using a liquid propellant First fast burning liquefying fuel Tikhonravov and Korolev are designers Maximum altitude: 1,500 m

1937: Coal/Gaseous N2O hybrid motor 2,500 lbf thrust (Germany) 1938-1939: LOX/Graphite by H. Oberth (Germany) 1938-1941: Coal/GOX by California Rocket Society (US). 1947: Douglas Fir/LOX by Pacific Rocket Society (US) 1951-1956: GE initiated the investigations in hybrids. H2O2/Polyethylene. (US)

GIRD-9

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Rocket History
Era of Enlightenment (1960-1980) 1960's: Extensive research at various companies. Chemical Systems Division of UTC Modeling (Altman, Marxman, Ordahl, Wooldridge, Muzzy etc) Motor testing (up to 40,000 lb thrust level) LPC: Lockheed Propulsion Company, SRI: Stanford Research Institute, ONERA (France) 1964-1984: Flight System Development Target drone programs by Chemical Systems Division of UTC Sandpiper, HAST, Firebolt LEX Sounding Rocket (ONERA, France) FLGMOTOR Sounding Rocket (Sweeden)

CSDs Li/LiH/PBAN-F2/O2 Hybrid Measured Isp=480 sec

Firebolt Target Drone

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Hybrid History Recent History (1981-Present)
1981-1985: Starstruck company developed and sea launched the Dolphin sounding rocket (35 klb thrust) 1985-1995: AMROC continuation of Starstruck Tested 10, 33, 75 klb thrust subscale motors. Developed and tested the H-1800, a 250 klb LO2/HTPB motor. 1990s: Hybrid Propulsion Development Program (HPDP) Successfully launched a small sounding rocket. Developed and tested 250 klb thrust LO2/HTPB motors. 2002: Lockheed developed and flight tested a 24 inch LO2/HTPB hybrid sounding rocket (HYSR). (60 klb thrust) 2003: Scaled Composites and SpaceDev have developed a N2O/HTPB hybrid for the sub-orbital vehicle SpaceShipOne. (20 klb thrust)

Dolphin

AMROC Motor Test

SpaceShipOne
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Small Launch Vehicle Data
Launcher Pegasus XL Minotaur Taurus Vega Dnepr Kosmos Start Strela Long March 2 PSLV Payload*, kg 190 317 660 1,395 300 775 167 700 1,600 900 Cost#, M$ 20.0 19.0 36.0 EU Launchers 20.0 Russian Launchers 10.0 12.0 9.0 20.0 Others 23.0 15.0 14,375 16,667 22/22 4/7
#FY02

Cost/Payload, $/kg 105,263 59,936 54,546 14,337 33,333 15,484 53,892 28,571

Reliability 34/39 7/7 6/7 0/0 9/10 422/448 6/6 1/1

US Launchers

*Sunsynchronous Orbit: 800 km, 98.7o

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Values

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

PegasusXL Launch Vehicle
ORBITAL Sciences Air Launched (L1011): Dropped at 39 kft Propulsion System:
Stage 1: 50SXL (Solid Alliant Techsystems) Stage 2: 50XL (Solid Alliant Techsystems) Stage 3: 38 (Solid Alliant Techsystems) Stage 4: HAPS (Hydrazine monoprop. Aerojet)

Reasons for high recurring cost: Expensive propulsion system Air platform/low launch frequency

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

PegasusXL Launch Vehicle
Dilemma of Launch Business
High launch costs limit the demand Low launch frequency increase the cost

This cycle is hard to break with current propulsion technologies (improvements have been gradual since 1970s) Disruptive technologies are needed: Hybrids

Number of launches decreased in time Presently average is one launch a year

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Hybrid Propulsion Non-Technical Challenges
Non-Technical Challenges Lack of technological maturity Hard to compete against established solid and liquid technologies Established propulsion industry is fine with the status quo Smaller group of rocket professionals relative to solid and liquid rockets Approach Keep educating young engineers on the virtues of hybrid propulsion
Growing number of young professionals interested in hybrid propulsion

Understand that hybrids will NOT eliminate the solid and liquid technologies
Hybrids are complementary to other chemical rockets Initially concentrate on the niche and easy applications that clearly benefit from the hybrid approach

Suborbital Applications: Sub-orbital space tourism (SpaceShipTwo)

Performance is secondary to safety and cost

Small launch vehicle propulsion

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Propulsion Technical Challenges Technical Challenges Low regression rates for classical hybrid fuels
Results in complicated fuel grain design

Low frequency instabilities

Instabilities are common to all chemical rockets They need to be eliminated Expensive and long process

Lack of benign, high performance, cost effective oxidizers (common to all chemical rockets) Approach Solutions to these technical issues should be such that they do NOT compromise the simplicity, safety and cost advantages of hybrids.
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Regression Rate Versus Fuel Port Designs
Fuel Grain

Fuel Grain w rc
w Port 2w Port rc

Port Case

Cruciform

4+1 Port
Case

Single Circular Double-D

6+1 Port Wagon Wheel

Decreasing Regression Rate Increasing System Size

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Disadvantage of Multiport Designs
CSD (1967) 13 ports Lockheed Martin (2006) 43 ports

AMROC (1994) 15 ports

Issues with multi-port design Excessive unburned mass fraction (i.e. typically in the 5% to 10% range) Complex design/fabrication, requirement for a web support structure Compromised grain structural integrity, especially towards the end of the burn Uneven burning of individual ports. Requirement for a substantial pre-combustion chamber or individual injectors for each port

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Approaches for High Regression Rate
Technique Fundamental Principle Increase heat transfer by introducing surface reactions Increased radiative heat transfer Shortcoming

Add oxidizing agents self decomposing materials Add metal particles (micron -sized)

Reduced safety Pressure dependency Limited improvement Pressure dependency High cost Tricky processing Increased complexity Scaling?

Add metal particles (nano -sized) Use Swirl Injection

Increased radiative heat transfer Increased local mass flux

All based on increasing heat transfer to fuel surface

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Entrainment Mass Transfer Mechanism
A new transfer mechanism:
Certain fuels form a liquid layer If the conditions are right, mechanical entrainment of liquid droplets occur

Liquid Layer Hybrid Combustion Theory (Stanford - 1997) Most important scaling:
The entrainment mass transfer increases with decreasing viscosity of the liquid layer

Regression Rate = Entrainment + Vaporization

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Regression Rate Law for Paraffin-Based Fuel, SP-1a

0 & r = 0.488 Gox.62

Three fold improvement over HTPB is confirmed

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Paraffin-Based Fuels Technology Progress
Motor testing experience (SPG/Stanford/NASA Ames)
Small Scale(i.e. 50-100 lbf): >500 tests Scale-up (i.e. 900-7000 lbf): >80 tests Oxidizers: Liquid Oxygen, Gaseous Oxygen, Nitrous Oxide

SPG work on paraffin-based fuel technology

Formulation (Keep cost < 1 $/lb) Processing (24 inch OD fuel grains 800 kg) Structural testing and modeling Internal ballistic design of single circular port hybrids Scale up motor testing (in 2009 25,000 lbf class motors) Large single circular port hybrids are feasible
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Low Frequency Instabilities
P, psi HPDP 250k lbf Motor 2 Test 2 Time, sec Many mechanisms Feed system coupling Intrinsic hybrid combustion Chuffing at low fluxes Oxidizer vaporization delay (common to LO2 systems)
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Hybrids are prone to low frequency instabilities (2-100 Hz) Limit cycle nature

8.4 inch LO2/Paraffin

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Low Frequency Instabilities - Remedies
Solutions used in the field Lockheed Martin Michoud and HPDP used hybrid heaters to vaporize LO2 AMROC injected TEA (triethylaluminum) to vaporize LO2 Both solutions introduce complexity minimizing the simplicity advantage of hybrids Heaters- extra plumbing TEA extra liquid, hazardous material

We believe that a LO2 motor can be made stable

Without the use of heaters or TEA injection By advanced injector and combustion chamber design

Demonstrated in 7,000 lbf thrust class LO2/Paraffin motor

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Oxidizers Overall Picture

Red: Toxic or sensitive Blue: Low performance

Relatively benign, low cost and readily available oxidizers: LOX, N2O

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Nitrous Oxide - Introduction
Physical A saturated liquid at room temperature. Self pressurizing liquid (744 psi @ 20 C) Two phase flow in the feed system (complicated injector design) Highly effective green house gas (Global Warming Potential: 310 x CO2) Chemical Oxidizer Monopropellant. Positive heat of formation. Decomposes into N2 and O2 by releasing significant amount of heat

1 N 2O ! N 2 + O2 + 19.61 kcal / mole 2

Highly effective solvent for hydrocarbons Biological Mildly toxic. Anesthetic and analgesic agent still used in medicine, Laughing gas Nitrous Oxide Uses Oxidizer: Rocket propulsion, motor racing Aerosol propellant: Culinary use (in whip cream dispensers) Anesthetic Agent: Medicine, dentistry Etchant :Semiconductor industry Solvent
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Nitrous Oxide SpaceShipTwo
Sub-orbital Space Tourism Virgin Galactic has contracted Scaled Composites to build SpaceShipTwo SpaceShipTwo design uses a N2O based hybrid rocket Testing of the propulsion system started in summer 2007 Explosion at Scaled Composites facility in Mojave Airport on July 26, 2007 as they were conducting a cold flow test with N2O

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Nitrous Oxide Explosion Hazard
SPG Experience Small N2O/paraffin motor First N2O explosion in February 2006 Many small explosions in the feed system minor damage to hardware Medical Accidents Many medical explosions reported in operating theater
Found 10 cases (3 fatal)

Industrial Accidents N2O used as solvent for hydrocarbons Welding full N2O tanks Heating source tanks with open flames

Car Exploded in Garage

Intestinal/colonic explosions during diathermy

High content of H2 and CH4 in the intestines and colon The concentration of N2O increases significantly in the body cavities following its application as an anesthetic

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

N2O Decomposition Physics
Resonant structure N2O decomposition follows the elementary unimolecular reaction

N 2O " N 2 1 ! + O 3 P

() ( )

Ref.:Stearn and Eyring (1935)

This reaction is considered abnormal since it requires a change in multiplicity from a singlet state to a triplet state. This change in multiplicity is forbidden by the quantum mechanics The transmission can only take place through tunneling resulting in a reduced transmission rate The reaction rate for N2O is more than 12 times lower than the reaction rate predicted for a normal unimolecular reaction (such as the decomposition of H2O2) This quantum mechanical effect is the root cause for the relative safety of N2O

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

N2O Decomposition Kinetics
The decomposition of N2O is believed to follow the elementary reactions:

N 2O + M ! 1 N 2 + O + M !"

N 2O + O ! 2 NO + NO !"
N 2O + O ! 3 N 2 + O2 !"
Steady-state assumption for [O] results in the following kinetic equation for the decomposition of N2O
k

d [ N 2O ] = m k1[ N 2O][ M ] dt

Note that m=2 and it comes from stoichiometry

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

N2O Decomposition Hazard
Largest hazard is in the oxidizer tank during vapor phase combustion An ignition source (hot injector plate) could start a combustion wave which would result in significant pressure increase

Oxidizer Tank
Risk Mitigation Respect the propellant (set and follow strict procedures) Supercharge with inert gas (He) Incorporate a burst disk N2O is a widely used and fairly safe material NFPA Rating
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Deflagration in tank Tank Length: 4.0 m Initial pressure: 750 psi Max pressure: 9,100 psi Time scale is seconds

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Concluding Remarks
Hybrid concept has been around since the start of the modern rocketry Hybrids lack the intense development cycle that the liquid and solid systems had since 1940s (primarily in the 1940-1970) The liquid and solid rocket technologies are fairly mature and the progress is slow or nonexistent. Hybrids could provide the disruptive propulsion technology needed to energize the space launch industry by
Providing a safe and affordable option Breaking the present oligopoly in the rocket propulsion industry by allowing relatively small companies to enter the business

Hybrids will not eliminate the liquid and solid systems. It is critical to find the niche markets for hybrids The emerging sub-orbital space tourism market is ideal since
It could end up being a lucrative private market Performance is secondary to safety and cost (an easy start for the hybrid technology) The suborbital rocket ca be the basis for a much needed cost effective, reliable orbital system

Solutions to the technical challenges should NOT eliminate the safety and simplicity advantages of hybrids. We believe that viable solutions exist for these technical problems, assuming that the following conditions prevail
Creative and competent technical team Adequate funding for technology development
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Spares

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Rocket Propulsion Fundamentals Propulsive Force = Mass Ejected per Unit Time x Effective Exhaust Velocity Mass
Rocket Propulsion

Energy

Electric

Nuclear

Chemical

Cold Gas

Liquid

Solid

Hybrid

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Hybrid Combustion Scheme
Velocity Profile Temperature Profile Concentration Profiles

Ue
Flame Zone

Te Tb Ts

Yo = 1
Oxidizer + Products Fuel + Products

Fuel Grain z x

Ta

Diffusion limited combustion

Burning Rate Law: independent of pressure (flux dependent)

Flame zone away from surface and blocking effect

Low regression rate
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Small Launch Vehicle Data

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Liquid Layer Hybrid Combustion Theory Scaling for entrainment mass transfer

& ment &

$ # Pd h " ! % l

Operational Parameters: (Pressure, Oxidizer Flux) Material Properties: (Viscosity, Surface Tension)

Modification on the classical Hybrid Combustion Theory Reduced heating requirement for the entrained mass Reduced Blocking Effect due to two phase flow Increased heat transfer due to the increased surface roughness
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Entrainment for CnH2n+2 Series
Methane Pentane
(Tested) (Tested)

Paraffin Waxes 25 352 45 632

PE Waxes 65 912 80 1262

HDPE Polymer
(Tested)

C:

5 72

14,000 200,000

Mw: 16 (g/mol)

Cryogenic Gas Liquid

Non-cryogenic Solid Polymer

Entrainment

Entraiment Boundary

Mw
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Liquefying Hybrid Fuels Solid cryogenic and paraffin-based hybrids: Tested by
Air Force (Pentane and several other hydrocarbons) ORBITEC (Methane, SOX, CO etc..) Stanford/SPG (Paraffin waxes)

Very high regression rates (Factors of 3-5) These hybrid fuels burn by forming a liquid layer on their burning surfaces Possibility of entrainment mass transfer from the liquid layer

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Homologous Series of n-Alkanes (CnH2n+2)
Normal Alkanes: Fully saturated, straight-chain hydrocarbons Examples:
Methane (CH4): C Ethane (C2H6): C-C . . Pentane (C5H12): C-C-C-C-C . . Wax (C32H66): C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C-C

A number of practical fuels (pure form or mixtures): Methane, Kerosene (n~10), Paraffin Waxes (n=16-45), PE waxes (n=45-90), HDPE Polymer (n in thousands)
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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Theory Prediction and Motor Test Data for CnH2n+2
Regression rate increase over the classical value is as high as 6.1

Paraffin waxes burn 5-5.5 times faster than the HDPE polymer

Theory prediction is fairly accurate

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Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Melt Layer Temperatures for CnH2n+2 Series

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Lindemanns Unimolecular Theory
Physical steps of the first reaction are

N 2O + M ! a N 2O * + M !"
#a N 2O * + M !!" N 2O + M

N 2O * ! b N 2 + O !"
Steady-state assumption for the excited complex [N2O*] results in the following kinetic equation

k k [ N O ][ M ] d [ N 2O ] =m a b 2 dt kb + k ! a [ M ] At high pressures the reaction becomes first order !

"

At low pressures the reaction is second order d [ N 2O ] o ! = m k a [ N 2O][ M ] = m k1 [ N 2O][ M ] dt " For N2O k1 (T ) = 1.31011 e !30,000 T s !1

k k d [ N 2O ] ! = m a b [ N 2O] = m k1 [ N 2O] dt k "a

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Karabeyoglu

Aero/Astro 50th Year Anniversary

Reaction Order Data
Data follows the unimolecular theory in general For pressures larger than 40 atm (~600 psi) the reaction is shown to be first order Note that for the first order reaction the collision partner [M] does NOT play a role greatly simplifying the analysis

Ref.:Lewis and Hinshellwood (1938)

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