Mughal Empire

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Mughals" redirects here. For other uses, see Mughal (disambiguation).

The Mughal Empire

Shhn-e Moul

15261858

Flag

Mughal Frontiers 15261707

The Mughal Empire (Persian: , Shhn-e Moul; Urdu: self-designation: , Grkn),

[2][3]

or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional

English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent.[4] The Mughal emperors were descendants of the Timurids. It began in 1526, at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinentextending fromBengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south.[5] Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).[1] The "classic period" of the empire started in 1556 with the accession of Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar, better known as Akbar the Great. Under the rule of Akbar the Great, India enjoyed much cultural and economic progress as well as religious harmony. The Mughals also forged a strategic alliance with several Hindu Rajput kingdoms. However, some Rajput kings, such as Maha Rana Pratap, continued to pose significant threat to Mughal dominance of northwestern India. Additionally, regional states in southern and northeastern India, such as the Ahom Kingdom of Assam, successfully resisted Mughal subjugation. The reign of Shah Jahan, the fifth emperor, was the golden age of Mughal architecture. He erected many splendid monuments, the most famous of which is the legendary Taj Mahal at Agra as well as Pearl Mosque, the Red Fort, Jama Masjid (Mosque) and Lahore Fort. The reign of Aurangzeb saw the enforcement of strict Muslim fundamentalism which caused rebellions among the Sikhs and Hindus. By early 1700s, the Sikh Misl and the Hindu Maratha Empire had emerged as formidable foes of the Mughals. Following the death of Aurangzeb in 1707, the empire started its gradual decline,[6] although the dynasty continued for another 150 years. During the classic period, the empire was marked by a highly centralized administration connecting the different regions. All the significant monuments of the Mughals, their most visible legacy, with brilliant literary, artistic, and architectural results. Following 1725, the empire began to disintegrate, weakened by wars of succession, agrarian crises fueling local revolts, the growth of religious intolerance, the rise of the Maratha, Durrani, as well as Sikh empires and finally British colonialism. The last Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, whose rule was restricted to the city of Delhi, was imprisoned and exiled by the British after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The name Mughal is derived from the original homelands of the Timurids, the Central Asian steppes once conquered by Genghis Khan and hence known as Moghulistan,

"Land of Mongols". Although early Mughals spoke the Chagatai language and maintained some Turko-Mongol practices, they became essentially Persianized[7] and transferred thePersian literary and high culture[7] to India, thus forming the base for the Indo-Persian culture.[7]

Education and Literature

There was tremendous literary activity during the Mughal period, because with the return of a stable and prosperous empire, there was once again patronage for their work. Languages like Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi and Urdu saw tremendous creative activity as did many vernacular languages. Persian literature received a lot of attention as it was the court language. A vast number of works were written during the period of the Mughals. Broadly one can divide them into three categories, historical works, translations ,poetry and novels. Our understanding of the Mughal period was greatly enhanced by these books, and most of the historical works of this period provide us with a fairly reliable source of information. The important historical works written in this time were Ain-IAkbari , and Akbarnamath by Abul Fazl, the Ta'rikh-I-'Alfi by Mulla Daud. Jehangir possessed a keen interest in literature, and his autobiography is one of the finest amongst the Mughal emperors. During his reign important historical works like Ma'asir-I-Jahangir , the Igbalnamah-I-Jahangiri and the Zubud-ut-Tawaikh were written. Many important works in translation were also written during this period, with the translation of the epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana taking place. Many of the Vedas were also translated and several previous historical books were also translated. All this translation added to the wealth of Indian literature and spread ancient knowledge to a greater audience. This renewed interest in Indian literature would be an important tool used by the social reformers of the eighteenth century to educate the people about what the ancient texts really said as opposed to the distorted interpretations that were being followed. The Mughal empire had a large number of poets and writers and hence there was a lot of work published in this era. Especially during the reign of Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jahan they had tremendous patronage and many remarkable works were composed. Since the Mughal emperors had integrated themselves into Indian society, they patronized many Indian languages leading to some

good quality literature being developed for these languages. The main themes of the period were essentially religious, covering most of the major religions of the period. One of the fine Hindu works composed during this time wasRamcharitmanasa (the pool of Rama's life) by Tulsidasa, which was a simplified version of the Ramayana. In Bengal there was a lot of work being created in Vaishnava literature. Writers like Krishnada andKaviraj were popular authors of the time. Many biographies were written, especially of the great saint Chaitanya Deya. The keen interest in literature that the Mughal emperors had led to the establishment of many great libraries which became repositories of tremendous knowledge. The works were properly filed and locating information was very easy. The art of calligraphy also reached a level of excellence. Literary activity did not decline with the Mughal empire and flourished even in the twilight years of the Mughal empire, in fact some of the later Mughals were better poets and writers than they were capable emperors. There was tremendous literary activity during the Mughal period, because with the return of a stable and prosperous empire, there was once again patronage for their work. Languages like Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi and Urdu saw tremendous creative activity as did many vernacular languages. Persian literature received a lot of attention as it was the court language. A vast number of works were written during the period of the Mughals. Broadly one can divide them into three categories, historical works, translations ,poetry and novels. Our understanding of the Mughal period was greatly enhanced by these books, and most of the historical works of this period provide us with a fairly reliable source of information. The important historical works written in this time were Ain-IAkbari , and Akbarnamath by Abul Fazl, the Ta'rikh-I-'Alfi by Mulla Daud. Jehangir possessed a keen interest in literature, and his autobiography is one of the finest amongst the Mughal emperors. During his reign important historical works like Ma'asir-I-Jahangir , the Igbalnamah-I-Jahangiri and the Zubud-ut-Tawaikh were written. Many important works in translation were also written during this period, with the translation of the epics, the Mahabharata and the Ramayana taking place. Many of the Vedas were also translated and several previous historical books were also translated. All this translation added to the wealth of Indian literature and spread ancient knowledge to a greater audience.

This renewed interest in Indian literature would be an important tool used by the social reformers of the eighteenth century to educate the people about what the ancient texts really said as opposed to the distorted interpretations that were being followed. The Mughal empire had a large number of poets and writers and hence there was a lot of work published in this era. Especially during the reign of Akbar, Jehangir and Shah Jahan they had tremendous patronage and many remarkable works were composed. Since the Mughal emperors had integrated themselves into Indian society, they patronized many Indian languages leading to some good quality literature being developed for these languages. The main themes of the period were essentially religious, covering most of the major religions of the period. One of the fine Hindu works composed during this time wasRamcharitmanasa (the pool of Rama's life) by Tulsidasa, which was a simplified version of the Ramayana. In Bengal there was a lot of work being created in Vaishnava literature. Writers like Krishnada andKaviraj were popular authors of the time. Many biographies were written, especially of the great saint Chaitanya Deya. The keen interest in literature that the Mughal emperors had led to the establishment of many great libraries which became repositories of tremendous knowledge. The works were properly filed and locating information was very easy. The art of calligraphy also reached a level of excellence. Literary activity did not decline with the Mughal empire and flourished even in the twilight years of the Mughal empire, in fact some of the later Mughals were better poets and writers than they were capable emperors.

Science and technology

Complex Arabesque inlays at the Mughal Agra Fort.

[edit]Astronomy The 16th and 17th centuries saw a synthesis between Islamic astronomy, where Islamic observational techniques and instruments were employed techniques. While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers continued to make advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi, while Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories but were unable to do so. The instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from the Islamic tradition.
[18][19]

In particular, one of the most remarkable

astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the seamless celestial globe (seeTechnology below). [edit]Technology See also: History of gunpowder: India Fathullah Shirazi (c. 1582), a Persian-Indian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar the Great in the Mughal Empire, developed a volley gun.
[20]

Considered one of the most remarkable feats in metallurgy, the seamless globe was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (158990 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modernmetallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology. Another famous series of seamless celestial globes was produced using a lost-wax casting method in the Mughal Empire in 1070 AH (16591960 CE) by Muhammad Salih Tahtawi with Arabic and Persian inscriptions. It is considered a major feat in metallurgy. These Mughal metallurgists pioneered the method of wax casting while producing these seamless globes.
[21]

Mughal period-art and architecture

Mughal rule stabilised during the time of Akbar. By that time, Mughals were no longer the strangers, but they had adopted India as their home. The policy of sulh i kul adopted by Akbar became visible in the art forms patronised by the Mughal emperors. This was visible in paintings, music and architecture. Although, Babur and Humayun would have followed a liberal policy in such matters, they did not live long, and therefore could not give shape to durable policy. The interregnum of Sher Shah had destabilised the Mughal rule in the period prior to Akbar. Akbar by giving shape to a durable policy of tolerance promoted development and intermingling of art forms, which hitherto would be considered heretic. His patronage also removed the stigma of sacrilege attached to arts like

painting under the orthodox Islamic laws as followed by some of the rulers of the Sultanate.

Paintings. Initially it depicted Persian and Central Asian (Chinese Turkmenistan) influence, but gradually, it developed its own forms which had large measure of Hindu influence. In manuscript paintings, although Islamic themes were avoided, Hindu stories were given free expressions. The Hindu religious and mythological themes were painted like Razmnama (Mahabharat), Ramayana, NalaDamayanti, Panchatantra, Kalia-daman etc. In Islam, the painting of human forms is considered sacrilege, as it means imitating Gods creation but under Mughals, the art of portraiture reached a high pedestal eg. portraits of emperors, royalty, nobles, Sufi saints etc

Moreover, Hindu artists like Dasawnath, Baswan, Mukund, Manohar, Bishan Das etc brought in their influence. During Jahangirs time, themes of nature, hunting scenes, paintings of birds and animals became prominent. By Shahjahans time, females as well as love scenes started to be painted.

There was also influence from Rajasthani school eg ek-chashma paintings (one sided face), while the Persian ones were dedh-chashma. This similarity can also be seen in miniatures and to some extent night scenes of dancing and singing.

Music. Patronage by Mughals led to development of forms like mian ki todi, mian ki malhar, raag darbari by Tansen these ragas were Indian in origin. According to Abul Fazl there were 36 musicians in Akbars court, headed by Tansen. Later on many books were written on music. By the time of later Mughals, forms like tarana, thumri etc were formed. It should be remembered that except Aurangzeb, music was patronised by all Mughal emperors. Even Aurangzeb was an expert veena player.

Architecture. Akbar initiated building activity in a major way. Humayuns tomb, buildings at Fatehpur Sikri (containing monuments like Panch-mahal, Buland-darwaza, palaces etc), forts containing various structures at Agra and Allahabad were built during his reign. This activity was carried on by his successors, reaching zenith under Shahjahan with the construction of Taj Mahal. During Shahjahans time the emphasis was on use of marble (while earlier, red sandstone had been used). The quality of

architecture deteriorated under Aurangzeb and gradually declined under his successors.

In terms of building style, there was adoption and intermingling of Islamic and Hindu styles and techniques. Original Islamic style for domes and arches was Arcuate which was particularly used in religious buildings. However, during Akbars time, Trabeate technique (use of beams) was extensively used in secular buildings. There was also use of decorative arches, rather than structural ones, and use of multifaceted shafts, with bracket supports and exquisitely carved capitals. In Islamic style the decorative motifs were floral designs, arabesque and calligraphy, the Mughals also adopted the decorative Hindu motifs like the gaja (elephant),hansa, padma, swastic, chakra etc. The Bulbous domes and convoluted arches the techniques introduced during Shahjahan were Islamic, the pietr dura (prachin kari) was influence of the Hindu style. We thus see that Mughal rule particularly from Akbars time to that of Shahjahan was quite open to adoption and intermingling of Hindu influence in the royal art forms. All these furthered developement of Indo-Islamic forms of art and architecture in India.
Mughal architecture is the style that developed in India under the Mughal dynasty in the 16th and 17th centuries. This is a blend of Islamic, Persian and Indian architecture. The buldings of Mughal architecture reflects not on the architectural techniques and wealth but also their love for poetry, personality and other artistic inclinations. Mughal architecture has its origin in its religion, Islam. The concepts apparent in Islam like power, pleasure and death are reflected in the forts, durbars, mosques, tombs, gardens and so on. Early Mughal architecture: The Mughals were an Indian Islamic dynasty which ruled most of northern India from the beginning of the sixteenth to the mideighteenth century. Mughal architecture came into prominence with the rule of Babur who was the first Mughal emperor in India in 1526. Babur`s victory over Ibrahim Lodi, initiated the erection of a mosque at Panipat succeded by another called the Babri Masjid in Ayodhya. The Maqbara in Baroda is an example of the early Mughal architecture and bears very less similarities with the florid style that existed prior to the Mughal era. Early Mughal architecture relied on postandbeam construct ion and scarcely used arches. Some great forts and palaces

of the early Mughal period can be traced in the reign of Akbar(1556-1605) in Agra. Lahore and Fatehpur Sikri. Mausoleum to Humayun is another important signifier of the early mughal architecture. Akbar and Mughal architecture : Emperor Akbar was the first Mughal ruler during whose rule we find the emergence of wonderful Mughal architecture, which rapidly progressed with his reign. He built massively and the style was unique which was developed in his rule. Most of Akbar`s buildings are almost entirely in red sandstone, exempted at times through marble inlay. Fatehpur Sikri which is located 26 miles west of Agra, was constructed in the late 1500s and bears the testimony to the era of his royal heritage. In Gujarat a nd many other places we find the presence of a style, which is a blend of Muslim and Hindu characteristic features of architecture. Fatehpur Sikri defines Akbar`s finest styles of architecture. The great mosque is one such epitome of architectural brilliance unmatched in elegance and splendor. The south gateway is well known, excelling any similar entrance in India in its size and structure. The Tomb of Akbar`s father Humayun, Akbar`s tomb at Sikandra are some such finest work of architectural magnificance which broadly highlights the Mughal architecture prototypes. the tomb placed in a garden at Delhi, has an intricate ground plan with central octagonal chambers, which is joined by an elegantly faceded archway, surmounted by cupolas, kiosks, and pinnacles ructure of the kind and of great virtue. Jahangir & Mughal architecture: Jahangir`r reign during 1605-1627 saw the decline in the Hindu influence on Mughal architecture. Jahangir`s reign was noted for architectural works. His style basically was Persian like his great mosque at Lahore, which is covered with enameled tiles. Akbar`s mausoleum was built in Jahangir`s time, but Jahangir`s interests were painting and garden architecture. "Verinag" and "Chashma-Shahi" are gardens built by Jahangir beautifully around spring. The tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marble and covered wholly by pietra dura mosaic. This is one of the most resplendent examples of that class of ornamentation that can be found anywhere. The shalimar Gardens and other pavillions on the shore of Kashmir`s Dal lake was also magnificantly built by him. The Shalimar Bagh, is distinguished by a series of pavilions on carved pillars, surrounded by pools with seats which can only be reached by stepping stones. Jahangir was the person who was responsible for the development of the Mughal garden. Jahangir`s own tomb, like I`timaduddulah`s and Akbar`s tombs, have no dome, minarates and ornamentation are only evident. After Itimad-ud-daulah died his daughter commissioned the construction in white marble of his exquisite tomb at Agra which was finished in 1628. the tomb appealed due to its decoration with various styles of inlay. The extensive use of white marble as a material and inlay as a decorative motif

were

the

two

major

innovations

distinguishing

the

Mughal

architecture

in

the

later

years.

Shahjahan & Mughal architecture:Mughal architecture reached its perfection in Shahajahan`s reign(1627-1658). Humayun`s tomb was the first of the tombs, which continued the saga of the succession of tombs out of which the Taj Mahal is a magnicant piece of art. The Red Fort contains the imperial Mughal Palace, which is situated in Delhi, is again one of Shahjahan`s excellence. Tradition and innovation was very intelligently regarded in shahjahan`s architectural extravaganza. Marble, which was easily available in Rajasthan, was used for the constructions. In the palace fort of Agra, Shah Jahan replaced old structures along with the addition of new ones. An inlay of black marbles was used for the re-bulding of The Diwan-I-Am. The Moti Masjid is highly representative of purity,balance,and gracefulness which was his appreciable contributions to the Agra Fort. The Jama Mosque of Delhi and the Pearl Mosque of Agra are reminiscent of the style that was eminent in mughal era. Near the city of Old Delhi, Shah Jahan built a new capital, Shahjahanabad, with its magnificent Red Fort. The Hall of Public Audience, in the fort contains the Peacock Throne, which consisted entirely of jewels and precious metals and stones. Shah Jahan took ten years to build the city, and other than parts of the wall and three of its original 14 gates, the Red Fort and three mosques has survived the ravages of time. Taj Mahal: Taj Mahal, is the finest example of Mughal architecture combining Persian, Turkish and Indian styles. There are inscribed texts from the Koran round the tall doorways which appear like designs. The letters 30 feet or more above the line of the eye appear to be exactly of the same size as those a foot above the floor level, this is absolutely a revelation of the great mastery and perspective of the artists. It is made in white marble. The Taj Mahal is described as "A Dream in Marble" and the mosaic is studded with onyx, jasper, cornelian, malachite, carbuncle, lapis lazuli and precious stones. The Taj Mahal`s approximated estimate is 32 million rupees, but it is timeless and priceless due to its beauty and valor. The Taj is among the seven wonders of the world, and cited as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world`s heritage". Later Mughal architecture: Art and architecture almost took a backseat in Aurangzeb`s rule. His reign from 1659-1707 marked the shift from the art loving Mughals to a more orthodox ruler under whom the decline set in. his fanatical zeal was destructive and this further was responsible for the decline of the flourishing art and architecture since ages. Due to his policies to overpower Hinduism, he made the Great Mosque towering over the Hindu holy city of Venaras. A standard mosque form was developed in his reign where the eminence of three domes over the sanctuary in conjunction with a raised central arch, or iwan, and engaged minarets could be seen. The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) built by Aurangzeb in the Red Fort at Delhi incorporated a three-domed sanctuary with a raised central arch and mini-domed pillars projecting out of the roof to resemble minarets. Aurangzeb`s concern seems to be for garden architecture than construction of palaces. Fatehbad near Agra is one of the most impressive of these gardens.