Galvanometer

Galvanometer is an electromechanical instrument which is used for the detection of electric currents through electric circuits. Being a sensitive instrument, Galvanometer can not be used for the measurement of heavy currents. However we can measure very small currents by using galvanometer but the primary purpose of galvanometer is the detection of electric current not the measurement of current. Working Principle Galvanometer works on the principle of conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current passes through the galvanometer coil, it experiences a magnetic deflecting torque, which tends to rotate it from its rest position. As the coil rotates it produces a twist in the suspension strip. The twist in the strip produces an electric restoring torque. The coil rotates until the elastic restoring torque due to the strip does not equal and cancels the deflecting magnetic torque, then it attains equilibrium and stops rotating any furthers.

Tachometer
A tachometer is an instrument designed to measure the rotation speed of an object, such as a gauge in an automobile that measures the revolutions per minute (RPMs) of the engine's crankshaft. The word "tachometer" is derived from the Greek words tachos, meaning "speed," and metron, meaning "to measure." This device traditionally is laid out with a dial, a needle that indicates the current reading and markings that indicate safe and dangerous levels. Digital tachometers have become more common, however, and they give numerical readings instead of using dials and needles.

Uses in Automobiles
Tachometers are used to monitor the RPMs in automobiles because running the engine at excessively high RPM rates can drastically shorten the life of the engine.

Use in Airplane
Airplanes typically have one tachometer for each engine.

Medical Applications
A tachometer can even find uses in medicine. By placing a small, turbine-like device called a haematachometer in an artery or vein, a doctor can use a tachometer to infer the rate of blood flow from the speed at which the turbine spins. This can be used to diagnose circulatory problems such as clogged arteries.

LUX Meter
Lux meters or light meters measure illumination in terms of luxes (lx) A lux is equal to the total intensity of light that falls on a one square meter surface that is one foot away from the point source of light. Most lux meters or light meters consist of a body, photo cell or light sensor, and display. The light that falls onto the photo cell or sensor contains energy that is converted to electric current. In turn, the amount of current depends on the amount of light that strikes the photo cell or light sensor. Lux meters read the electrical current, calculate the appropriate value, and output the results to an analog, digital, or video display. Since light usually contains different colors at different wavelengths, the reading represents the combined effects of all the wavelengths. Uses: Lux meters or light meters are used to measure levels of light in schools, hospitals, production areas, laboratories, and passageways. They are also used to monitor light-sensitive displays in museums, art galleries and archives. In the United States, lux meters are used to ensure that workplace, clean room and industrial lighting complies with requirements from the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

Power Factor Meter

A power factor meter is a type of electrodynamometer movement when it is made with two movable coils set at right angles to each other. The method of connection of this type of power factor meter, in a 3f circuit, is shown in Figure . The two stationary coils, S and S1, are connected in series in Phase B. Coils M and M1 are mounted on a common shaft, which is free to move without restraint or control springs. These coils are connected with their series resistors from Phase B to Phase A and from Phase B to Phase C. At a power factor of unity, one potential coil current leads and one lags the current in Phase B by 30; thus, the coils are balanced in the position shown in Figure . A change in power factor will cause the current of one potential coil to become more in phase and the other potential coil to be more out of phase with the current in Phase B, so that the moving element and pointer take a new position of balance to show the new power factor.

Frequency Meter
It is a device for measuring the repetitions per unit of time of a complete electromagnetic waveform. Various types of frequency meters are used. Many are instruments of the deflection type. An example of a simple electrically resonant circuit is a moving-coil meter. This device possesses two coils tuned to different frequencies and connected at right angles to one another in such a way that the whole element, with attached pointer, can move. Frequencies in the middle of the meters range cause the currents in the two coils to be approximately equal and the pointer to indicate the midpoint of a scale. Changes in frequency cause an imbalance in the currents in the two coils, causing them and, in turn, the pointer to move.

Synchroscope
In AC electrical power systems, a synchroscope is a device that indicates the degree to which two systems (generators or power networks) are synchronized with each other. For two electrical systems to be considered synchronized, both systems must be operating at the same frequency, and the phase angle between the systems must be zero. Synchroscopes measure and display the frequency difference and phase angle between two power systems. Use in power plants This synchroscope was used to synchronize a factory's power plant with the utility's power grid. Since it is necessary to synchronize AC power systems before connecting them, synchroscopes are used in any power plant that connects to an outside power grid and also in isolated plants containing more than one generator, as each generator must be synchronized with the others before being connected to the plant bus. If line voltages are unequal when they are connected, a heavy current will flow as each line will attempt to equalize the other, causing damage in the process. When operators of an electric generator wish to connect it to the grid, they first start the generator spinning at a rate approximately equal to the line frequency of the grid with which they plan to connect. The voltage of the generator is then matched with the grid by adjusting the field/armature current. The synchroscope is connected to the power grid and to the generator being started. If the generator is turning at a lower frequency than the grid, the synchroscope needle rotates continually in the direction (usually counterclockwise) marked "slow" or "lag" on the dial to indicate that the generator is running slower than, or lagging behind, the grid. If the generator is running faster than the grid, the needle rotates continually in the opposite direction

Signal generators ( Function Genereators)

Signal generators, also known variously as function generators, A function generator is a device which produces simple repetitive waveforms. Such devices contain an electronic oscillator, a circuit that is capable of creating a repetitive waveform. (Modern devices may use digital signal processing to synthesize waveforms, followed by a digital to analog converter, or DAC, to produce an analog output). The most common waveform is a sine wave, but sawtooth, step (pulse), square, and triangular waveform oscillators are commonly available as are arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs). If the oscillator operates above the audio frequency range (>20 kHz), the generator will often include some sort of modulation function such as amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation (FM), or phase modulation (PM) as well as a second oscillator that provides an audio frequency modulation waveform. Uses: Function generators are typically used in simple electronics repair and design; where they are used to stimulate a circuit under test. A device such as an oscilloscope is then used to measure the circuit's output. Function generators vary in the number of outputs they feature, frequency range, frequency accuracy and stability, and several other parameters.

Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope is a laboratory instrument commonly used to display and analyze the waveform of electronic signals. In effect, the device draws a graph of the instantaneous signal voltage as a function of time. A typical oscilloscope can display alternating current (AC) or pulsating direct current (DC) waveforms having a frequency as low as approximately 1 hertz (Hz) or as high as several megahertz (MHz). High-end oscilloscopes can display signals having frequencies up to several hundred gigahertz (GHz). The display is broken up into so-called horizontal divisions (horizontal division) and vertical divisions (vertical division). Time is displayed from left to right on the horizontal scale. Instantaneous voltage appears on the vertical scale, with positive values going upward and negative values going downward. In any oscilloscope, the horizontal sweep is measured in seconds per division (s/div), milliseconds per division (ms/div), microseconds per division (s/div), or nanoseconds per division (ns/div). The vertical deflection is measured in volts per division (V/div), millivolts per division (mV/div), or microvolts per division (V/div). Virtually all oscilloscopes have adjustable horizontal sweep and vertical deflection settings.

Ohm Meter
An instrument used for direct measurement of the electrical resistance of a material or electronic component, usually in ohms. Ohmmeters typically use an ammeter to measure current through the material after it has been given some set voltage by the ohmmeter; the direct-current resistance of the sample can then be directly determined through Ohm's law. Opereation: The mechanics of how an ohmmeter works is very simple. First, an ohmmeter needs to be able to generate an internal flow of current; therefore, it comes equipped with its own battery. The device also consists of two leads, from which the resistance between them is measured. The red lead is connected to the corresponding positive terminal of the electrical unit being tested, while the black is attached to the negative. As the current flows from the battery and through the unit, the ohmmeter measures the drop in voltage, or resistance that occurs.

Multi Meter / Digital Meter / AVO / VOM

A multimeter is aslso known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter) or AVO(Ampere - volt Ohm) , is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsanalog multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.) Analog instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale [[calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made; digital instruments usually display digits, but may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity being measured. Uses: A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.