WORK STUDY

This is the detailed appraisal of what has to be done and the way to do it so that we achieve the greatest possible output of added value from the least possible input of resources and efforts. Work study has been defined as a generic term for those techniques particularly method study and work measurement which context and which are used in the examination of human work in all its context and which lead systematically to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed in order to effect improvement.

Work study

Method study

Work measurement

Motion study

Time study

Work performance rating (measurement)

The purpose of the work study include 1. To standardize methods of doing work so as to increase productivity 2. To determine standard time for performing work for use as a basis in wage payment 3. To eliminate unnecessary human motion when performing a given task

4. To improve working methods 5. To utilize the facilities such as machines and materials most effectively The two basic techniques method study and work measurement are complementary to each other and are rarely utilized in isolation from each other. However, the usual practice is for method study of some kind to precede a work measurement activity. Method study This technique is itself composed of a collection of techniques all of which systematically examine and record all the methods existing and proposed that are utilized in an operation of process with a view to increasing efficiency. Method study aims to improve working methods and the general procedures. It has the following steps:i). Select the work to be studied ii). Record all relevant facts relating to current or proposed methods iii).Examine the facts initially especially in relation to purpose, sequence, movements and means iv). vi). Develop the best method in the circumstances Evaluation of the new method to ensure that the intended aims v). Install and maintain the new method are being achieved. Work measurement This is a collection of techniques particularly time study aimed at establishing the time taken by a qualified work to complete a specified job at a defined level of performance.

Work measurement only becomes possible when method study has resolved how the work is to performed. The aim is to measure human performance work measurement process involves the following steps:i). Select the work to be measured ii). Break the job down into elements iii).Measure the work involved in each element iv). Make an assessment of the worker performance as a proportion of the normal i.e. performance rating v). Determine the standard time, taking into consideration allowance for personal requirement and fatigue. Work measurement using time study Time study is a technique which observes and records the time required to do each detailed element of an industrial operation. It determines the time in which the work ought to be done. Time study may be defined as an art of observing and measuring the time required to do the several parts of a given operation. In short, time study is an accurate analysis of time required to perform an operation or some part thereof with the view to set standard time for doing a job. It involves all the features of motion study. Procedure of time study Time study stop watch is the most popular method. In this system, a stopwatch and a time study observation sheet are used. The steps usually required in time study include: (i) Obtaining and recording all valuable information about the job, the worker and surrounding conditions (ii) Dividing the job into operation elements with definite transition points. And recording this on the observation sheet.

(iii)

After selecting the elements, timing can start by observing

and recording the stop watch and recording readings for each operation elements. (iv) Assessing operators performance and levelling the record time with the predetermined normal speed. (v) Providing the allowances for delays such as attending phone calls, fatigue etc. (vi) job. Time study and motion study are an integral part of work study. The movements made by and machinery are analyzed and the elements grouped. Each group of movement element is timed and recorded. The process follows the following steps:i). Determining average cycle time This is the sum total of the observations divided by the number of observations e.g. The time taken to perform a particular task was recorded as 40, 41, 42, 43, 42, 42, 40, 43, 42, 43 Average cycle time = 40 + 41 + 40 + 43 + 42 + 42 + 40 + 43 + 42 + 43 10 = 416 = 41.6 secs 10 ii). Determining normal working time - after the average cycle time is detained, the normal working time is obtained. The normal time for an operation or a task is the time that will be taken by an operator working at a normal pace with normal i.e. give performance rating of the workers. Normal working time = Average cycle time x performance rating 4 Calculating the standard time allowance for performing the

e.g. with performance rating of 90% then normal time = = 37.44 Normal working time = 37.44 sec iii).Determine standard working time (time standards). The final stage in setting time standard is making an allowance for the fact that an employee cannot sustain the same pace throughout the working day. In addition there might be frequent interruptions in the work floor by factors such as preference to instruction or to the supervisor and the need to attend to personal needs such as receiving phone calls, taking rest e.t.c. After considering all those factors, the standard time is set Standard time = normal time (1 + Allowance factor) = normal time + Allowance Allowance = Normal time x Allowance factor e.g. with an allowance factor of 20% determine the standard time for the task Standard time = 20 ) 100 Allowances = (37.44 x 20) 100 = 7.488 Standard time = 37.44 + 7.488 = 44.928 ~ 45 seconds Standards is the minimum acceptable performance Other work measurement methods 100 37.44 (1 + 20 ) = 37.44 + (37.44 x 41.6 x 90 100

Work is infinitely varied and not all work can be measured accurately though it can usually be evaluated in some way. Work measurement is easier with simple repetitive type of work such as typing complex in clerical, administrative or managerial work. The common methods used for measuring clerical and administrative or managerial work are:i) Estimates by supervisors Supervisors are in a position to give an estimate and extent of the duties and the time spent on each. i). Estimates by subordinates The concerned subordinate is in a position to give the estimate of time it will take to complete an individual task or the amount of work performed in a particular period of time. However, this may not be completely reliable since subjective considerations are likely to have an influence though unconsciously sometimes. ii).Diary sheets These are completed either daily or weekly by each individual member of staff involved in the serving. The working day or week is divided into several intervals where the individual indicated the time when he begins or ends task. However there may be overlapping such as a telephone call received while working on a larger task. Apart from fulfilling the objective of measuring work, a diary sheet reveals imbalance in time spent on different events /tasks. iii). Activity sampling This involves repeated random inspections of work being done at different times of the day. From the records made, kinds of work

being done by each member of staff can be identified and the volume of each kind of work can be estimated. iv). Personal observation

This is similar to activity sampling but is applied to particular activities. The main disadvantage of any observation technique is that individual workers may react naturally. Either they put on special effort while being observed, or they put on special effort while being observed, or they are worried causing them to be less efficient than usual. v).Predetermined motion time system This comprises of very precise time standards for each physical action involved in an operation. The time which should be taken to perform a wide range of repetitive work can be accurately determined provided each activity is carefully analyzed in to actions first. Uses of Time Study i). Provides basis for incentives wage plan ii). It shows ineffective time during the operation due to the operator or the machine or anything else. iii).It provides basis for planning and scheduling of production iv). It estimates the tenders selling prices etc because time element in cost can be determined and thus labour cost can be ascertained easily v). Sets up standards for machine utilization and labour performance vi). Standard labor cost can be fixed with the help of time study. It provides the basic information necessary for all activities of organising and controlling the work of a factory in which the time elements plays an important part Areas of concern in work study:7

Purpose of work study Procedure for method study Procedure for work measurement

ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS Organizational effectiveness can be defined as an organizations ability to realize its multiple goals which are profit, productivity, employee satisfaction, social responsibility, financial stability and ability to survive in a changing environment through adaptability and environmental control. Organizational effectiveness can be achieved when there exists a fit between the organization and its environment and when there are fits among various organizational components which are tasks, individuals, groups, technology and managerial structure and controls. This in turn can be achieved by using strategies such as motivation, management of change, time management, total quality management e.t.c. Motivation Motivation is the internal process that influences the commitment and behaviour of workers towards the achievement of organizational goals. Motivation helps in the improvement of productivity and employee satisfaction. Productivity depends very much on the employees motivation. The best trained employee, one who not only has the ability but has access to the most advanced technology will not be productive if he is unwilling or not commitment. Altitude play an important role as to whether an individual will have the willingness to work or not. Accordingly to increase productivity we must impart positive change in the employees attitude and motivation. Productivity improvements can be achieved through a series of events which include the following:8

1. Provision

of

attractive

pay

packages

and

opportunities

for

advancement. 2. Improved working condition through effective employee relations measures such as: Fair and appropriate rules and regulations Employee participation and involvement Good communication Recognition of informal organizations Job security etc. 3. Conducive working environment and good organizational climate by: Providing decent surroundings Friendly working environment Positive reinforcement or behaviour modification Provision of recreational facilities. 4. 5. mechanisms 6. Provision of suitable equipments or tools of trade. Effective job designs through process by job Effective organizational structures and enrichment, job rotation, job enlargement and job simplification.

Benefits of motivation 1). Best utilization of resources 2). Will to contribute capacity to work 3). Reduction in labour problems 4). Sizeable increase in production & productivity 5). Basis for co-operation 6). Improvement upon skill and knowledge 7). Acceptance of organizational change 8). Better image positive image by the public

Management of change The first step towards organizational change is to identify or recognize the major changes in the environment and the problems within the organization. The environment within which the organization operates is changing all the time, such changes creates forces for change within organizations. Therefore, pressure for change comes from external environment although at times it may stem from within the organization. Managers respond differently to the pressure for change:i). Some managers tend to ignore forces for change ii). Other managers react to the forces of forces of change in a piecemeal manner i.e. they tend to deal with the pressures for change as need arises. They delay action until it is critical for the company to respond. iii).Other managers use planned approach to change i.e. they develop a program of planned change to deal with present and anticipated difficulties. Planned change involves a great commitment resources and time, it also requires a lot of skills because it can lead to many problems if not well managed. In a planned change process, has to be communicated to people who will be involved in the change process. The process has three phases or stages: (a). (b). (c). Unfreezing the present behaviour Developing new behaviour patterns Refreezing the new behaviour

Old state

Unfreezing

Changing New Behaviour

Freezing

Old state

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Unfreezing involves identifying need for change, preparing people for change, through communication and involving people in the change process change involves changing current attitudes of the individuals groups, task components, technological components and structural components towards the desired state. Refreezing consists of reinforcing the newly acquired behaviour by rewarding people who accept change. Resistance to change People resist change for two broad reasons:Rational and emotional reasons. Rational resistance occur when people do not have adequate information about the change. Providing necessary information largely reduces the rational resistance to change. Emotional resistance on the other hand occurs when psychological problems arise within an individual i.e. when fear, uncertainty, insecurity etc are evoked. Emotional resistance is rather personal in nature and may be difficult to understand and handle. It cannot be overcome by rational means but only through emotional means. Reasons for resistance i). Economic reasons change may threaten the economic well being of employees in the company, this creates a lot of economic uncertainty for the individuals concerned and naturally people do not like uncertainties about their future. ii). Social reasons change can threaten to break the informal structures in an organization and as such any threat to established informal groups tends to be resisted by the members.

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iii). Status reasons change in the organization may reduce the perceived status of some individuals in the organization therefore they resist such changes. iv). Security reasons people always crave for economic physical and psychological security. Any changes that create uncertainly over such security will be resisted. v). Maintenance of status quo change is frequently resisted because it is easier for people to maintain the status quo i.e. people to maintain the status quo. Managing resistance to change The strategies employed by organizations to deal with resistance to change include:i). Education and communication people can resist change if they lack a basic understanding of what change involves. In such cases providing accurate facts and information may reduce such resistance. ii). Involvement problems of resistance to change can be reduced by involving those people who will be affected by the change at all stages of the change process i.e. let every person make a contribution. This strategy brings in commitment to change among all individuals. iii). Facilitation and support in introducing change, certain individuals or groups may be affected or hurt. It is important to help such persons to adjust to the consequences of change.

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iv). Negotiation and agreement affected or interest groups in an organization can block benefits and therefore it may be necessary to bargain and negotiate with such groups in order to secure their support for change. v). Manipulation managers can manipulate information resources, provide rewards and other favours to overcome resistance. Managers can co-opt the resisting group into the design and implementation of change. vi). Coercion managers can use their power and position to demand compliance to any change. This strategy is particularly useful where quick response is necessary but continued use of coercion may lead to dissatisfaction and motivational problems. NOTE: The last two strategies are not popular but are sometimes dictated by the situations. Time Management This refers to allocating time to tasks in the most effective manner. Time is a scarce and a valuable organizational resource which managers must allocate effectively and efficiently. A manager must manage his time effectively before managing the time of either worker in the organization. Keeping a time diary is the first step in helping to improve time management problems. The steps involved in good time management are:(a). (b). Identifying objectives and the key tasks which are most relevant Prioritizing and scheduling- the manager has to assess key tasks to achieve. for relative importance, amount of time required and the urgency.

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(c).

Delegation of routine, non essential

tasks-

non routine key

tasks should then be carefully scheduled as they arise according to their relatives importance and urgency (d). Planning and control drawing up schedules regularly and priorities for more important, urgent interventions. be grouped into the following categories:providing

The tasks should

i). Important and urgent ii). Urgent but not important iii).Important but not urgent Importance of time management i). It ensures that employees use their time efficiently and effectively ii). Ensures proper allocation of time to different tasks in the most effective manner iii).It ensures that manager to plan how to use the available time to meet organizational objectives iv). It promote delegation of duties in the organization, therefore allowing for management by exception Assignment Write a one page (typed) about Total quality management Introduction Quality circles

Total quality management (TQM) Total quality management (TQM) means the implementation of strategies, tactics and operational methods for integrating practical quality control techniques with organizational of quality. It focuses on the totality of the system rather than its individual parts, seeking to

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identity the causes of failure rather than the simple fact that failures have occurred. Typically the steps involved in implementing a total quality management system are as follows:i). Senior management itself becomes fully aware of the concepts and techniques of quality management ii). Steering committees are formed and pilot project identified iii).All employees are introduced to the basics of TQM and informed of top managements commitment. iv). Suppliers are brought into the companys TQM planning v). New methods relating to continuous improvement prevention of devised output, reduction in variation etc are introduced. vi). The system is monitored and audited.

Quality circles A quality circle is a departmental workers discussion group that meets regularly to consider, analyze, investigate and resolve production and quality problems. The group is trained in problem solving technique and is also given resources and limited authority to implement decisions. Circles concentrate on mundane, practical problems and solve those using ideas and methods developed by the workers themselves. Advantages of quality circles include possible higher motivation of employees as they become involved in company decision taking, and the application of workers experience, knowledge and operational skills to the solution of problems. And since circle decisions are taken by those responsible for their application they are almost certain to be carried out. Management (3rd ed)Roger Bennet Kreiter R. (2003) management 3rd ed, Boston, Hougaton influence of organizational culture committed to the continuous improvement of 15

skills, teamwork, process, product and service quality and customer satisfaction. For continuous improvement to be achieved there are four avenues. (a). (b). (c). (d). Improved and more consistent product and service quality Faster cycle times i.e. cycles ranging from product development Greater flexibility i.e. faster response to changing customer Lower costs and less waste

to order processing to payroll processing demands and new technology

Quality circles (Quality control) Are voluntary problem solving groups of 5-10 employees from the same work area who meet regularly to discuss quality improvement and ways to reduce costs. A week one hour meeting, during company time, is common practice. By relying on voluntary participation QC circles attempt to tap the creative potential that every employee possesses. Although QC circles do not work in every situation, benefits such as direct cost savings. Improved workers management relations and greater individual commitment can be realized. Each QC circle is responsible not only for recommending solutions but also for actually implementing and evaluating those solutions. QC circles fasters employee participation within the confines of the existing power structure. Circle is a brain child of Deming W E, whose concept has gained popularity in Japan. Total Quality Management (Taylor, R.R and Ferrel, O.C) Gatewood R.D, et al (1995) Management Comprehension, Analysis and Application, Chicago, IRWIN IQM is a management view that strives to create a customer centred which defines quality for the 16

organization and lays the foundation for activities aimed at attaining quality related goals. It is a philosophy anchored in the belief that long run success depends on a uniform committee to qualify in all sectors of the organization. The concept of IQM, rests largely on five principles Quality work the first time, focus on the customer, strategic holistic approach to improvement, continuous improvement as a way of life, and mutual respect and teamwork. Hesop & Siliano J (1996) management responsibility for performance New York Mcgrans Hill mc Quality circles consist of 8 12 workers and often include a supervisor or manager. Participants are encourages to present they have identified in terms of quality or productivity. The QC then works to identity solutions to these problems. QC are also called Quality Improvement teams, and are not intended to focus on major policy issues, but rather on the day to day problems that surface in the work area. Such groups recognize the important contributions that front line workers are able to make. They are the ones most familiar with the process, with whatever the problems might be, and they also process important insight into the most effective solutions. These circles also ensures that control will be a process of continuous improvement rather than one of catching mistakes which often happen with no consistency or pattern. The key point is that TQM is not a program emphasis a limited number of major changes, but a process of constant and continuing review and a steady stream of improvements to better meet customer needs and expectations. In recent years the concept of control has been expanding to include an emphasis on quality and continuous improvement. In this approach called Kaizen, the goal is no longer just to reduce defects in the product or service. 17

The goal is now to continuously improve both the product and the process, and everyone in the organization is viewed as a partner in achieving this goal.

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