Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 37 (2001) 305}323

Dynamic modelling of post-tensioned concrete #oors using "nite element analysis

Aleksandar Pavic *, Paul Reynolds , Peter Waldron , Kevin Bennett
Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Shezeld, Sir Frederick Mapping Building, Shezeld S1 3JD, UK Freyssinet Ltd., The Ridgeway, Iver, SL0 9JE, UK

Abstract The only existing guidelines developed speci"cally for checking the vibration serviceability of slender post-tensioned concrete #oors, which are simpli"ed and suitable for hand calculations, have proved to be unreliable. The alternative approach recommended here for checking the vibration serviceability of such #oors with high span-to-depth ratios is based on dynamic "nite element modelling. This paper presents an experimentally veri"ed set of guidelines for performing such modelling. In particular, it is recommended that band beams and wide, shallow ribs, which are common features in long-span in situ cast post-tensioned #oors, are modelled using orthotropic shell elements with smeared sti!ness properties, instead of standard beam elements. Also, it has been determined that the bending sti!ness of integral columns provides a signi"cant contribution to the overall bending sti!ness of the #oor and that these should not be modelled as pin supports allowing free rotation, as is currently common practice. The use of bar "nite elements to simulate the columns proved to be satisfactory. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Vibration; Finite element analysis; Modal testing; Model updating; Prestressed concrete; Post-tensioned concrete; Floors

1. Introduction Until the 1990 s problematic #oor vibrations under human-induced dynamic loading, such as walking, were typically associated with relatively light timber and composite steel-concrete #oors. However, as modern suspended #oor structures made entirely of concrete become increasingly slender, problems associated with occupant-induced vibrations are also becoming a very important

* Corresponding author. Tel.: #44-114-2225721; fax: #44-114-2225721. E-mail address: a.pavic@she$eld.ac.uk (A. Pavic). 0168-874X/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 6 8 - 8 7 4 X ( 0 0 ) 0 0 0 4 5 - 7

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Fig. 1. Floor spans achievable by in situ reinforced and prestressed concrete for o$ce loading of 5 kN/m (after Stevenson, [4]).

design issue. In particular, concerns are now being raised about the vibration serviceability performance of post-tensioned (PT) concrete #oors [1,2] since prestressing permits relatively light and #exible long span solutions. These #oors are particularly popular in the USA, Canada and the Paci"c Rim. However, they are used only to a limited extent in Europe and, in particular, in the UK. Long-span PT #oors constructed from internally prestressed in situ concrete [3] may be up to 30% thinner than slabs containing normal unstressed reinforcement. In addition, spans of PT #oors with band beams can be up to 70% greater than those made of normal reinforced concrete [4], as shown in Fig. 1. Although such slender slabs may be designed to have su$cient strength, this reduced #oor depth leads to a drastic reduction in sti!ness which could give rise to structural serviceability problems, such as unacceptable levels of #oor de#ection, vibration or cracking. Concrete cracking and excessive static de#ection in a prestressed PT slab can be overcome to a large extent by the careful choice of the amount and location of the prestress. No amount of prestressing, however, will signi"cantly improve the #oor dynamic behaviour since this is governed largely by slab sti!ness, mass and damping on which di!erent levels of prestressing do not have major in#uence. Therefore, although other serviceability design requirements can generally be satis"ed, vibration serviceability for PT #oors remains as a potential problem [5]. In addition to increased slenderness and longer #oor spans, building owners and developers are increasingly specifying uninterrupted open-space environments with little or no permanent partitioning. When compared with partitioned layouts, the damping in unpartitioned #oors is commonly considered to be lower [6]. Bolton [7] states that the introduction of large open-plan o$ces `might harma and is `bad practicea with regard to #oor vibration serviceability. However, the trend towards such practice continues, and this may further impair the vibration performance of slender concrete #oors. 1.1. Problems with simplixed formula-based checking procedures In 1994 the UK Concrete Society addressed the issue of vibration serviceability of PT #oors in Concrete Society Technical Report 43 [1] (CSTR43). This is the third and latest edition of a handbook describing the state-of-the-art in the design of PT #oors. The handbook has been used extensively since the late 1970 s and is one of the key references for designers of PT #oors throughout the world. The 1994 edition contains, for the "rst time, procedures for checking the

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vibration serviceability of long-span PT #oors supporting o$ce environments. This is the only known attempt to deal speci"cally with the vibration serviceability of in situ PT concrete #oors as a part of an overall design approach. The underlying principle behind the development of these procedures was that they should be simple and suitable for hand calculations. Unfortunately, considerable evidence now exists that the vibration serviceability provisions in CSTR43 produce erratic results and, frequently, overconservative designs [8}10]. This is con"rmed by "ve years of combining analytical and experimental research, supported by feedback on the application of the guidelines by industry. Strong indications exist that such, seemingly de"cient, design guidelines could seriously undermine the market competitiveness of PT concrete #oors. There are two principal reasons why the CSTR43 vibration serviceability guidelines are failing. Firstly, they were not experimentally veri"ed against the as-built dynamic performance of PT #oors. Secondly, the need for the approach to be suitable for hand calculation required a signi"cant number of dynamic modelling simpli"cations to be made, both conservative and non-conservative. The consequence of these simpli"cations is that the "nal hand-calculated acceleration responses required for the #oor vibration rating [6] appear to be unreliable and estimated in a rather arbitrary way. Such response calculations are of little value despite the fact that they can be made by hand. The Concrete Society guidelines have been found to be particularly problematic in the modelling of the overall sti!ness distribution in the #oor. Here, the main problem is that the CSTR43 provision neglects the bending sti!ness of the supporting in situ concrete columns and/or walls. It also assumes that #oors always have a regular grid with simply supported edges and column lines having no rotational restraint. In addition, the method for calculating the response of the #oor is inappropriate as the possibility that modes of vibration higher than the fundamental may be excited by walking is neglected. A detailed breakdown of all problems identi"ed in the CSTR43 #oor vibration serviceability design provision is given by elsewhere [10]. 1.2. The way forward It is the authors' experience that even fairly crude 3D linear dynamic "nite element (FE) modelling of PT #oors is likely to produce much more meaningful results than the CSTR43 guidelines, provided appropriate boundary conditions and other modelling parameters are assumed. FE modelling is therefore recommended for more critical applications where greater than the usual slenderness of PT #oors is required. The aim of this paper is to recommend techniques for determining the appropriate boundary conditions and mass, sti!ness and damping parameters for PT #oors acting as a dynamic structural system. As PT #oors with wide, shallow band beams are able to achieve the greatest spans (Fig. 1), the emphasis will be on the FE modelling and analysis of this con"guration as its vibration serviceability check is more likely to require a sophisticated numerical approach. This paper initially outlines some speci"c structural dynamic properties of PT #oors supporting high-quality o$ces. Key recommendations for modelling such #oors are then presented. The process of veri"cation of some of the uncertain modelling parameters, based on modal testing, FE model correlation and updating, which was applied on three large-scale in situ cast long-span concrete #oors, is then illustrated by a practical example.

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2. Speci5c structural dynamic properties of PT 6oors As a part of the #oor design process, the vibration serviceability check should be done immediately after details of the #oor's occupants and usage have been determined, and its spans, cross sections, material properties and loads have been estimated (shaded box in Fig. 2). These parameters provide enough information for checking the vibration serviceability and it is prudent to perform this check as soon as possible to assist in the identi"cation of a workable design solution.

Fig. 2. The design procedure for PT concrete #oors.

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The key problem at the design stage of in situ PT concrete #oors is how to create a reliable mathematical model. This must accurately describe the mass, sti!ness and damping distribution, so that it is possible to perform a modal analysis, which is a necessary intermediate step when checking vibration serviceability. These #oors have some unique structural properties which make the simpli"ed procedures established for composite steel}concrete or timber #oors inappropriate. For example, in composite steel}concrete #oors the concrete slab and the sti! steel support beams are clearly identi"able and allow a linear beam to be used to simulate the assumed one-way action of the whole #oor system. On the other hand, PT concrete #oors are frequently constructed as #at slabs (Fig. 3) or band beam and slab (Fig. 4). The non-existence of support beams and the presence of wide, shallow and relatively #exible band beams, which blend with the rest of the slab so$t, make it di$cult to determine the mass and sti!ness distribution in PT #oors using simpli"ed beam-like models [9,10].

Fig. 3. Solid #at slab construction (after Stevenson, [4]).

Fig. 4. Band beam and slab construction (after Stevenson, [4]).

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Furthermore, in PT #oors, each panel (de"ned for a #oor with a regular grid as the area between four columns) is expected to act monolithically with the remaining panels and other elements of the building frame. This is ensured by the standard design of secondary reinforcement at connections and the use of bonded or unbonded prestressing continuation over several panels. The dynamic model for calculating natural frequencies of PT concrete #oors, recommended by CSTR43 ignores this connectivity between the #oor and supporting columns, and utilises pin-supports allowing free rotation. The roots of such a modelling assumption are in ultimate limit-state design where such simpli"cations have proved to be fully justi"able when structural elements are under a high level of static loading and plastic behaviour is well established [11]. Other recommendations for the treatment of in situ concrete columns have been found in the literature [10] and vary widely from pin-supports (no bending sti!ness) to fully "xed (in"nite bending sti!ness). However, these recommendations were based mainly on engineering judgement rather than convincing scienti"c evidence. As the choice of boundary conditions has such a major in#uence on vibration behaviour, and can easily determine whether a #oor fails or passes the vibration serviceability check, more precise guidance on the mathematical modelling of PT #oors is clearly required.

3. Review of recommended modelling assumptions and FE analysis options Generally speaking, FE dynamic analysis is more complicated than static analysis as there are many more types of structural dynamic problems and corresponding solution techniques. Key FE modelling assumptions and analysis options, which should be used when dealing with the vibration serviceability of PT #oors will be outlined here. 3.1. Linearity First of all, the #oor vibration problem can typically be considered as linear. This assumption is justi"able in the case of heavy concrete #oors under low levels of human-induced excitation where stress levels are minute [11,12]. The principles and methods of linear structural dynamic analysis are described in detail in many excellent classical textbooks, such as the one written by Clough and Penzien [13], and will not be repeated here. In particular, the FE method, one of the most popular numerical methods for structural dynamic analysis, is nowadays based on a broad scienti"c consensus. As a consequence, this is a mature technology implemented in many commercially available analysis software packages. However, the practical application of dynamic FE modelling, aimed at predicting the dynamic behaviour of real-life structures, is often considered as both a science and an art [13}15]. This is because the quality of the solution, which is not unique, frequently depends not only on the pure theoretical background but also on the skill, experience and intuitive judgement of the modeller. 3.2. Solution of equations of motion The FE approach simpli"es the complex problem of analysis by replacing the distributed parameter system for a real #oor by a lumped parameter multi-degree-of-freedom system (MDOF).

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By carefully selecting the location of nodal points and degrees of freedom (DOFs) which are of interest, the movement of the whole structure can be de"ned in su$cient detail at each instant of time by a displacement vector +x(t),. The elements of +x(t), are unknown functions +x (t), G (i"1,2, N) describing the movement of each DOF as a function of time. The limiting mDOF case is a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system where only one (generalised) DOF is considered to be su$cient to describe the dynamic behaviour of the whole distributed system. However, very few practical #oor structures could realistically be modelled by a SDOF system. Although simple and popular in the past, SDOF modelling practice is unlikely to be suitable in the case of cast in situ concrete #oors. This is due to the appearance of closely spaced modes of vibration in real #oors [10,11] and di$culties in lumping mass, sti!ness and damping properties to only one degree of freedom. After applying the prescribed time-varying loads + f (t),, as well as the equilibrium, compatibility and stress}strain conditions to all DOFs, the following well-known matrix equation describing the dynamic motion of the #oor can be obtained: [M]+x(t),#[C]+x(t),#[K]+x(t),"+ f (t),. K  (1)

The vector +x(t), is the unknown in this matrix equation. Whereas the formulation of the mass and sti!ness matrices [M] and [K] is based on the summation of physical properties of the individual discretised elements, the damping matrix [C] cannot be formulated in the same way. Nevertheless, in the case of a wide range of civil engineering structures, including PT #oors, it is acceptable to assume that the damping is viscous meaning that the damping force vector is directly proportional to the velocity vector +x(t),. This almost certainly does not represent the actual damping mecha nism which physically dissipates vibration energy from the real #oor structural system, but can take into account the overall loss of vibration energy in a vibrating #oor and is mathematically convenient. Methods for solving the equations of motion formulated by the FE method (Eq. (1)) can generally be divided into two groups: (1) mode superposition (or modal solution), and (2) direct (or step-by-step) time-integration methods. The linear dynamic response of PT #oors under humaninduced loading engages only a limited number of the lowest modes of vibration. In addition, it may be necessary to calculate relatively long response time histories, lasting typically more than 50 periods of the lowest mode of vibration. Considering these two requirements, mode superposition should be selected as the principal and, for this type of analysis, more e$cient solution method. 3.3. The ewects of prestressing on geometric stiwness Modelling the e!ects of prestressing in concrete elements, including #oors, is an area of confusion. Some authors, such as Eriksson [11], maintain that prestressing, as a compressive axial load, has the ability to reduce natural frequencies. This is because of the second-order e!ects which reduce the elastic sti!ness and which, ultimately, can cause buckling. Clough and Penzien [13], for example, showed that compressive axial force reduces the elastic sti!ness [K] of a structural system via the so-called geometric sti!ness matrix [K] , as shown in the following % equation: [M]+x(t),#[C]+x(t),#([K]![K] )+x(t),"+ f (t),. K  % (2)

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The resulting reduced sti!ness is called the e!ective sti!ness [K] : # [K] "[K]![K] . (3) # % However, it is important to note here that this phenomenon cannot be a result of axial forces from internal prestressing. For internally prestressed structures, including PT #oors, where the prestressing tendons are in intimate contact with the surrounding concrete, the tendon pro"le follows faithfully the deformed shape of the prestressed element and no additional eccentricity between the tendon and the centroid of the element can be created. This is a speci"c property of internally prestressed concrete elements con"rmed by Khan and Williams [3]. Second-order e!ects due to prestressing should therefore not be taken into account when analysing dynamic properties of internally prestressed concrete #oors. This applies to both bonded and unbonded prestressing systems. 3.4. Modelling of mass When modelling the mass of a relatively heavy and rigid item placed or attached to the #oor (e.g. machinery), manual lumping using a point mass "nite element is recommended. However, the mass originating from the self-weight of #exible structures, such as concrete slabs, should be modelled as homogeneously distributed through the "nite elements used to represent the #oor [16]. This is done by assigning mass to each "nite element, usually through its material density. The density parameter can be varied to accommodate, if appropriate, the relatively small (non-structural) distributed mass of the imposed permanent load [17]. When checking the vibration serviceability of concrete #oors, it is necessary to distinguish between the design of new structures and the experimental assessment of existing structures aided by FE analysis when specifying the mass corresponding to imposed (live) gravity load. For example, in the case of o$ces at the design stage only 10% of the imposed gravity loads given in the design codes should be converted into equivalent mass [1,12]. Alternatively, for an existing #oor structure, the imposed loading which physically existed during the testing should be estimated as accurately as possible and converted into the equivalent mass in the FE model. 3.5. Damping All real vibrating structures lose the kinetic and potential energies which are stored in them. Any method of dispersing vibration energy in a vibrating system is generically termed damping. In the case of low-frequency #oors [12,18] damping has the potential to reduce signi"cantly the resonant or near-resonant response due to walking excitation. On the other hand, in high-frequency #oors, it increases the decay rate of free-vibration response between successive footsteps. In both cases the e!ects of damping are bene"cial and it is prudent to model it as accurately as possible. Unfortunately, the actual physical phenomena and mechanisms which cause damping in #oors are not well understood [17,19]. Damping tends to be the result of an engagement of several energy dissipating mechanisms within the structure, the individual contributions of which are extremely di$cult to assess. Consequently, #oor damping cannot be modelled as exactly as its mass or sti!ness. However, NAFEMS literature [17,19,20] provides excellent state-of-the-art guidelines on the treatment of damping when conducting a dynamic FE analysis and only the most important

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aspects, often overlooked in the literature on vibration serviceability of #oors, will be summarised here. 3.5.1. Resonance considerations Although an order of magnitude lower than the inertia and elastic forces, the damping force tends to be important when a structure vibrates at or near resonance. This is because at resonance the inertia forces cancel the elastic forces and the damping force is all that remains to oppose the external excitation force. As the response becomes more non-resonant, so the importance of the damping force diminishes in comparison to the elastic and inertia forces. 3.5.2. Physical sources of damping and their measurement When considering damping, a clear distinction should be made between the sources to which damping can physically be attributed, and the mathematical models used to simulate them. Large structures, such as #oors, lose vibration energy in two principal ways: (1) through dissipation within the boundaries of the structure, and (2) through dispersion of vibration energy which is propagated through the boundaries away from the structure [21]. Any practically achievable damping measurement on a real #oor structure, which is a part of a larger building, will measure damping as a compound e!ect of dispersion and dissipation with no practical means of distinguishing between them [21]. 3.5.3. Analytical models of damping in the mode superposition method Modal and proportional (or Rayleigh) damping approaches [13] represent the two most commonly used models suitable for dynamic FE analysis of #oors. Of these two, the former has more physical meaning than the latter as it can be measured by the experimental modal testing. In addition, the vast majority of experimentally measured #oor damping values reported in the literature are modal damping. Finally, modal damping ratios can be varied for di!erent modes of vibration whereas Rayleigh damping cannot because it is constrained by two parameters corresponding to the lowest and highest frequency of interest [13]. Therefore, to avoid confusion and to produce an analysis which is more versatile and can be veri"ed experimentally if required, it is prudent to adopt FE models having damping based on modal damping ratios. These ratios need to be speci"ed for each mode of vibration used in the mode superposition. This may, however, be di$cult as there is very little published information on the modal damping of #oor modes higher than the fundamental. This situation is clearly not satisfactory. Furthermore, even the damping ratios corresponding to the #oor fundamental modes reported in the literature vary signi"cantly for nominally identical o$ce #oors applications, from 1 to 14% of critical damping. Wyatt [12] and Ohlsson [22] explained the reason for this as inadequate experimental damping estimation techniques used in the past. These techniques were typically either the amplitude decay or the half-power method [13]. When these SDOF vibration parameter estimation methods were applied to #oors having their higher modes closely spaced to the fundamental mode, as is frequently the case, they led to an overestimation of damping vales for the fundamental #oor mode. There is also a lack of reliable damping values measured on fully furnished o$ce #oors [10]. However, some recent damping measurements obtained from a number of prototype #oors in various con"gurations, based on MDOF parameter estimation of good-quality frequency response

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functions [10,23], suggest modal damping ratios of 1% to be adopted for all modes for bare #oors. For fully furnished open-plan #oors with no partitions, not more than 3% should be assumed. This recommendation is tentative until more good-quality experimental data become available. 3.6. Modulus of elasticity for concrete in vibration serviceability calculations The dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete E is another uncertain parameter in dynamic   FE analysis. Maguire [24] compiled information from "ve published sources yielding values for E within the range 36.5}39.2 GPa for a concrete having a compressive strength of 35.8 MPa.   The selected value for FE modelling performed by Maguire was E "38 GPa. Independently,   Wyatt [12] recommended the same value for a normal weight concrete when checking the vibration serviceability of composite steel}concrete #oors. Other proposals for the dynamic modulus of elasticity found in the literature pertinent to the dynamic performance of #oors [11,25,26], typically recommend increasing the static modulus by 10}25%. Higher strength concretes are likely to have moduli of elasticity greater than 40 GPa, as will be demonstrated in the following veri"cation exercise.

4. Practical veri5cation of some uncertain FE modelling assumptions The exercise presented here illustrates the methodology used to verify probably the two most uncertain FE modelling assumptions which have to be made when checking the vibration serviceability of long-span PT #oors: (1) the #oor bending sti!ness in the direction perpendicular to the wide, shallow band beams (also known as the #oor lateral bending sti!ness), and (2) the #oor boundary conditions including the e!ects of the in situ concrete walls and columns. 4.1. Modelling verixcation methodology The process of mathematical modelling starts with making certain assumptions. Typically, in structural engineering, these assumptions are based on previous experience and an intuitive understanding of the expected physical behaviour. When there is a lack of such knowledge, structural prototype testing is a recommended way forward. Meyer [15] gave an excellent overview of the role of prototype testing in mathematical modelling, especially when FE modelling is used and this philosophy was used to develop the veri"cation methodology adopted here. Basically, the veri"cation methodology applied utilises the technology of FE model correlation and updating based on the experimental modal testing of prototype structures. The FE model updating methodology is well established in the mechanical and aerospace industries where it is used in day-to-day design [27}29], but its application to civil engineering structures is currently limited mainly to research applications. Modal testing using impulse sledge hammer excitation was performed on three large-scale in situ concrete #oors providing a number of natural frequencies, scaled mode shapes and modal damping ratios for each structure [10]. The same structures were modelled using FE to calculate modal properties which were then correlated with the experimental results. Calculated and measured natural frequencies and mode shapes were used for this correlation. The correlation of mode shapes

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was performed by calculating the modal assurance criterion (MAC) matrix and the co-ordinate modal assurance criterion (COMAC) for a number of paired analytical and experimental modes. Details of this advanced technology are described elsewhere [27,28]. The aim of correlating results from experiments and relatively sophisticated FE analyses was to assist in identifying and modelling the actual vibration behaviour of the #oors tested. By trial and error, guided by engineering judgement, the FE models were updated to maximise MAC and COMAC values for correlated pairs of experimental and analytical mode shapes, and match the measured modal properties as closely as possible. Common features of such updated FE models, which consistently appeared in all updating exercises, clearly indicated where changes were required to produce better FE models of similar structures in the future. Full details of the &manual' model re"nement and updating procedures are beyond the scope of this paper and are presented elsewhere [10]. 4.2. FE modelling verixcation example One of the three slabs experimentally investigated was a #oor in a six-storeied building which was designed and erected in 1995/1996. Its details are given in Fig. 5. Structurally, the #oor had two distinct areas: (i) the open o$ce area, approximately 31 m;14.5 m; and (ii) the remaining #oor area approximately 31 m;8 m (varying) around the various service cores. General horizontal stability of the #oor and of the whole building was provided by a system of shear walls and lift shafts as well as orthogonal structural frames comprising horizontal beams rigidly connected to wide columns along the #oor edges. 4.2.1. Open ozce area The #oor in the open o$ce area consisted of a partly ribbed slab, post-tensioned only in the direction of the ribs. The PT ribs, 650 mm wide with a 350 mm overall depth at approximately 1.0 m

Fig. 5. Plan of the test #oor.

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centres, were cast integrally with a 110 mm thick concrete slab to form a monolithic T beam cross section. The system of 26 parallel T beams 12 m in length was built into a 350 mm thick solid slab approximately 1.25 m wide at each end. The outer edge of the partly ribbed slab was supported by 1050 mm deep and 300 mm wide beams, as shown in Fig. 5a. These beams were themselves supported either by wide columns along the edge of the slab, or by walls and facade beams. 4.2.2. Remaining yoor area The remaining area comprised a 300 mm thick solid concrete slab supported on either beams or walls. It contained a number of openings designed to permit the passage of stairs, lifts and services, but which were also used to gain access during the tensioning of the prestressing tendons coming from the wide shallow ribs in the open o$ce area. The boundary between the open o$ce area and the remaining #oor was sti!ened by reinforced concrete beams with an overall depth of 850 mm and 200 or 500 mm width. The main structural role of these beams was to accept and transfer the vertical reaction forces from the prestressing tendons. 4.2.3. Pre-test FE analysis The FE model developed for the pre-test analysis is shown in Fig. 6. The model was developed prior to the test to satisfy a number of quality assurance requirements when performing modal testing, as speci"ed by the UK Dynamic Testing Agency [30]. The model was developed by employing the solid modelling technique available in the ANSYS FE code [31] and served as a starting point in the subsequent updating exercises. Following the spirit of many design guides, such as CSTR43, it was assumed in the FE model that all support points were pinned (Fig. 6), even though it was known that some rotational restraint existed at support points of the real #oor structure. Appropriate rotations were restrained along the support lines corresponding to walls. As no additional information about the concrete material properties existed, the dynamic modulus of elasticity of concrete, designed to have a strength of 50 MPa, was taken as 38 GPa, whilst the concrete density was assumed to be 2400 kg/m [3].

Fig. 6. Pre-test FE model developed using orthotropic shell elements only.

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When analysed as a 3D system, the ribbed zone of the open o$ce area acted structurally as an orthotropic plate having greater bending sti!ness in the main (short) direction than in the lateral direction. This orthotropy was modelled by using orthotropic shell elements (SHELL63 in ANSYS). However, the main problem was how to determine the lateral sti!ness for this "nite element which would represent the e!ects of the 110 mm integral slab (Fig. 5b). When smeared over a 1 m width of slab, the series of 350 mm deep T beams have 32 times greater bending sti!ness in the lateral direction than the 110 mm thick slab alone and this was adopted for the purpose of pre-test analysis. However, since the ribs were wide (650 mm) and shallow with only approximately a 350 mm gap between them (Fig. 5b) it was possible that the ribs would sti!en the slab in the lateral direction as well. Hence, the lateral sti!ness of this in situ cast concrete #oor was selected as one of the unknown FE modelling parameters, and an attempt was made to determine a more realistic value through FE model updating based on the experimental measurements. The natural frequencies calculated using the pre-test FE model are summarised in Table 1, and the corresponding mode shapes are shown in Fig. 7. Being shorter and supported by many walls and beams, the #oor area around the service cores did not de#ect very much in any of the "rst seven modes calculated (Fig. 7). This also had the e!ect of sti!ening the open o$ce area since full continuity was provided in the model between the two #oor areas. 4.2.4. Modal testing When modal testing took place, the building in which the #oor was situated was completely clad. The #oor surface was bare, but complete services, including air-conditioning ducts and piping, were attached underneath. Also, as the building was clad, a number of non-structural masonry facade walls existed between the RC columns. Brickwork was erected full height between the 1050;300 mm edge beams and was supporting large steel window frames. A set of frequency response functions (FRFs) was measured across a test grid of 33 points. This was performed using a manually operated sledge hammer having a mass of 5.4 kg (12 lb). Ten frequency domain averages were required for each FRF to "lter out the e!ects of extraneous noise. Vibration parameter estimation was performed using an MDOF curve "tter implemented in the ICATS [32] suite of software. The natural frequencies obtained are summarised Table 1 and

Table 1 Natural frequencies (Hz) from measurements, the pre-test FE model and the updated FE model Mode No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Pre-test FE model 5.2 5.5 6.6 7.9 9.3 11.5 13.9 Correlated and updated modes. Measured 6.4 6.9 8.2 10.2 11.9 15.0 17.4 Updated FE model 6.4 6.9 8.2 10.2 12.4 15.3 17.4

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Fig. 7. Mode shapes and natural frequencies of the pre-test FE model.

the measured modal damping ratios were in the range 0.89}2.32%. It is interesting to note that the estimated modal damping ratios of the "rst three modes of vibration excitable by normal walking were less than 1.5%, even with services attached to the underside of the #oor. 4.2.5. FE model correlation and updating The main aim of the FE model updating was to match the "rst three measured and calculated modes as well as possible since these three modes were excitable by the third harmonic of normal walking which is typically the governing excitation of o$ce #oors [12]. A comparison of the natural frequencies from the pre-test model and those measured for the "rst three modes is given in Table 1. The frequencies do not compare well and the "rst two columns of frequencies in Table 1 show not only discrepancies between the corresponding frequency values, but also discrepancies in the intervals between them. To simulate better the measured behaviour, a number of updating

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parameters was selected. These were 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. concrete dynamic modulus, material density, the equivalent moment of inertia corresponding to #oor lateral sti!ness, the column bending sti!ness and boundary conditions at the end of the columns, the sti!ness of the #oor support at the lift shaft at the North edge of the #oor (Fig. 5) where special steel dowels were used allowing horizontal movements, but preventing vertical displacements, and 6. the torsional sti!ness of the edge beams around the open o$ce #oor area.

The manual FE model re"nement and further updating, described in detailed elsewhere [10], involved about 120 parametric simulations (i.e. FE model runs) leading to a "nal updated FE model having much improved natural frequencies, as shown in Table 1. The frequencies of the "rst three modes were matched exactly. In addition, the frequencies of the higher modes also correlate well with the measured values, increasing con"dence in the updated model shown in Figs. 8 and 9. There were three main conclusions arising from this interesting exercise. Firstly, an unrealistic change of a global updating parameter (such as the dynamic modulus of concrete), which led to matching one natural frequency, resulted in unmatched values for the other two frequencies. Secondly, during the updating exercises it became clear that the FE models where columns were modelled as pin-supports did not permit the "rst three natural frequencies to be matched while keeping other updating parameters within their realistic boundaries. It was, therefore, necessary to include columns in the updated FE model and these were modelled as elastic bar elements rigidly connected to the slab, having a full (clear) height up to the #oor above and down to the #oor below at which points they were assumed to be fully "xed (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. Manually re"ned and further updated FE model of the test #oor structure.

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Fig. 9. The "rst three correlated experimental and analytical mode shapes.

Finally, the frequency separation between the analytical modes was particularly sensitive to changes in the lateral #oor sti!ness, and, to a lesser extent, to changes in the bending sti!ness of the columns and the torsional beam sti!ness along the East and West edges. In order to increase the frequency separation between the fundamental and the higher modes, and to match the experimentally measured separation whilst keeping the frequency of the fundamental mode more or less unchanged, it was necessary to increase the initially assumed #oor bending sti!ness in the lateral direction. This sti!ness had little in#uence on the frequency of the fundamental mode and was engaged much more in the higher modes [10]. A list of starting and "nal updated parameters is given in Table 2. The relatively high updated value of the dynamic modulus for concrete in Table 2 may be explained by the fact that concrete designed to have a strength of 50 MPa actually achieved a strength of approximately 70 MPa in practice. Another interesting observation is that the equivalent moment of inertia corresponding to the main sti!ness of the ribbed area was estimated to be 16% higher, whilst the ratio of the lateral to main bending sti!ness of the #oor increased almost "ve times, from 3% to 14%. The increase in the main sti!ness may be explained by the sti!ening e!ects of the services which were attached to the so$t of the #oor. In addition to the e!ects of the services, the e!ective sti!ness in the lateral direction was much increased as a consequence of the relatively wide ribs. This e!ect is very bene"cial as the increased #oor lateral sti!ness engages much greater #oor mass resulting in greater modal masses and reduced resonant acceleration responses [10]. Finally, the reason for the signi"cant increase in the bending sti!ness of the columns probably re#ects the sti!ening e!ects of the facade. 7

A. Pavic et al. / Finite Elements in Analysis and Design 37 (2001) 305}323 Table 2 Starting and "nal FE model updating parameters for the test #oor Updated parameter Dynamic modulus of concrete Concrete density Additional mass of installations North lift shaft vertical sti!ness North lift shaft rotational sti!ness along the longer lift shaft edge Columns Equivalent moment of inertia corresponding to 1 m wide strip of ribbed area in N}S direction Lateral #oor sti!ness of ribbed area in E}W direction Torsional sti!ness of edge beams Starting model/value 38.0 Gpa 2400 kg/m 0 kg/m Pin support (in"nite sti!ness) Pin support (zero sti!ness) Pin support (in"nite vertical and no rotational sti!ness) Smeared moment of inertia Final model/value

321

42.7 GPa 2400 kg/m 10 kg/m 750;10 N/m for each of "ve vertical springs 5;10 kNm/m for each of three torsional springs Full height columns fully "xed at ends 16% increase over starting moment of inertia 14% of the increased sti!ness in the ribbed N}S direction 5K 2

3% of the sti!ness in the ribbed N}S direction Sti!ness K corresponding to 2 a 1050;300 mm rectangular cross section

5. Conclusions By performing modal testing and FE model updating based on the experimental modal testing, su$cient evidence was gathered to conclude that the bending sti!ness of the in situ concrete columns made a considerable contribution to the overall bending sti!ness of the #oor. As such, and contrary to widespread practice, columns should not be modelled as pin supports when calculating #oor modal properties for the purpose of vibration serviceability checks. Linear elastic FE models, where columns were modelled using bar elements rigidly connected to the #oor and having their remote ends fully "xed, proved to be satisfactory. Apart from the columns, accurate modelling of the geometry and other boundary conditions of the in situ concrete #oors was shown to be of crucial importance when estimating their modal properties. In testing a prototype long-span #oor in an o$ce building, the sti!ening e!ects of edge beams and non-structural elements, such as facade 7 walls and services underneath the #oor, were shown to exist and were quanti"ed. The lateral bending sti!ness of ribs in post-tensioned ribbed #oors should be taken into account as it may increase signi"cantly the overall lateral #oor sti!ness and will generally be bene"cial to the #oor's vibration performance. FE model updating exercises demonstrated that the modelling of this feature using orthotropic shell "nite elements with smeared mass and sti!ness properties is reasonable. Finally, the FE model updating exercise presented in the paper also con"rmed that a value of about 43 GPa for the dynamic modulus proved to be a reasonable assumption when calculating modal properties of a #oor made of relatively high-strength concrete (70 MPa). Similar FE model updating exercises on other #oor structures not reported here have also con"rmed that a value of dynamic modulus for in situ concrete #oors of between 38 and 40 GPa is reasonable in the case of normal strength concretes.

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Acknowledgements The results and conclusions reported in this paper formed part of a 5-year study into the vibration serviceability of PT concrete #oors. This study was funded by the Centre for Cement and Concrete, University of She$eld and the UK Department for Environment, Transport and the Regions research grant CI 39/3/393(cc0952). Special thanks go to Mr. Michael Hartley for his help with the "eld testing of the prototype #oors.

References
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