Chemical Bonding Why do atoms combine with each other to form a molecule?

The driving force behin d combination of atoms to form a molecule is Stability . Stability of a system is g enerally associated with the lowering of energy of the system. So when atoms com bine and form a molecule, it means that the resulting molecule is more stable th an its individual constituent atoms and has a lower energy as well. Noble Gas Structure: Element of group 18 is know for their inertness i.e noble g as atoms show very little tendency to react with other atoms. This lack of reac tivity is attributed to the fact that noble gas atoms are already stable and hav e low energy which cant be further lowered by the formation of new molecules. Why is it so ? Low energy of noble gas atoms is associated with their having ou termost shell which is completely filled with electrons. This arrangement is als o called Noble Gas Structure. What makes a BOND: Normally outermost electrons of an atom participate in bond m aking. So outermost electrons of two or more atoms are involved in formation of a bond which results in a Molecule. After bond formation each atoms has a more s table configuration than what it previously had. Also the most stable electronic arrangement is a noble gas structure, and many molecules attain this structure after bond formation. Note however, that transition elements forms molecule whic h is less stable than this arrangement. Type Of Bonds: Atoms can attain a stable electronic configuration (noble gas structure) in thre e different ways: a. By loosing electrons b. By gaining electrons c. By sharing electrons. Consequently elements can be divided in three types: Electropositive: elements which can easily furnish an electron. Electronegative : elements which can easily accept an electron Elements which have little tendency to gain or lose electrons. Following table illustrates the type of bond formed when atoms of different kind of elements combine : Type of Element Type of Element Type of bond formed Electropositive Electronegative Ionic Bond Electronegative Electronegative Covalent Bond Electropositive Electropositive Metallic Bond Ionic bonding involves complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another atom. Covalent bonding involves sharing of one or more electrons between two atoms. In Metallic bonding valence electrons are free to move throughout the crystal. In Metallic bonding valence electrons are free to move throughout the crystal. Note: Bear in mind that the above three type of bonds are idealized in the sense that generally molecules show character of one or more bond types . For example Lithium Chloride (LiCl) is an ionic compound but it is also soluble in alcohol which suggests that it possesses a little covalent character as well. Very few b onds are purely Ionic, Covalent or metallic. Most are intermediate between the t hree main types. IONIC BONDING: Ionic bonds are formed when electropositive elements react with electronegative

elements. Consider the case of Sodium Chloride (NaCl) . The electronic configuration of Na is 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1 . We observe that the fi rst and second shell are full and the third shell has one electron. When Na atom reacts ,it does so in such a way so as to attain noble gas structure. If Sodium loses one electrons the resultant electronic configuration would be 1s2 2s2 2p6 . Here the outermost shell which is second shell is completely filled ,also not e that this is the way electrons are configured in Neon. So by losing one electr on Sodium attains a noble gas structure which is more stable . Also in doing so Sodium acquires a net positive charge and is now called Sodium Ion (Na+) . The p ositive charge arises because Sodium nuclei has 11 positively charged protons ea ch having a unit positive charges ,where as after losing one electron it now has only 10 electrons each having a unit negative charge. So the net charge whicih remains on sodium ion is (11-10) or one positive charge. This whole process can be represented as : Na Sodium atom Na+ + Sodium ion e? electron

Now lets come to Chlorine 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5 . This of Argon which is 1s2 2s2 n one electron in order to Cl + Chlorine atom

atom. The electronic configuration of chlorine is is only one electron short of Noble gas configuration 2p6 3s2 3p6 . So when Chlorine reacts it tends to gai attain noble gas structure . ClChlorine ion

e electron

Also in doing so Chlorine atom acquires a net negative charge and is now called Chlorine Ion (Cl-) When Sodium and Chlorine reacts together , the outer electron of sodium atom is transferred to Chlorine atoms forming Sodium ion and Chlorine ion . These two o ppositely charged ions are now held together by Electrostatic attraction in a cr ystalline lattice. The above reaction can also be easily understood using Lewis diagram for atoms. Note that in Lewis structure of an atom , outermost shell electrons are re presented as DOTS(.) ... .. Na . + :Cl: [ Na]+ + [:Cl :].. Sodium initially had one electron in its outermost shell (third shell) and Chlor ine had 7 electrons in its outermost shell(third shell). After electron transfer Sodium doesn t have any electrons in its outermost shell and Chlorine has 8 elec trons in its outermost shell. Note again that dots in Lewis structure represents only outermost shell electrons. Similarly consider the case of CaCl2 . Calcium atom ahs 2 electrons in its oute rmost shell and after losing these 2 electrons it can achieve Noble Gas Structur e ,whereas Chlorine atom needs 1 electron to attain Noble Gas Structure. So Calc ium atom loses 2 electrons and each Chlorine atom accepts one electron to form C aCl2 . .. :Cl : . Ca: + .. :Cl: [Ca]2+ + .. [:Cl:].. [:Cl:]..

..

Following table illustrates type of Ionic compounds formed when Electropositive and Electronegative elements belonging to different groups of Periodic table rea cts with each other: Electropositive element from Group Electronegative elements from Group eral Formula Ions Present Example I A VII A MX M+, XNaCl,LiBr II A VII A MX2 M+, 2XCaCl2 III A VII A MX3 M+ 3XGaF3 I A VI A M2X 2 M+, XNa2O II A VI A MX M+, XMgO III A VI A M2X3 2M+, 3 XAl2O3 I A V A M3X 3M+ , XLi3N II A V A M3X2 3M+ ,2 XCa3P2 III A V A MX M+ XAlP Properties Of Ionic Compound: 1.Atoms involves in ionic bonding lose or gain electrons to form charged ions. P ositive charged ions are called Cations and negative charged ions are called Ani ons .Cations and Anions are more stable than the parent atoms because they have completely filled outermost shell. 2.Structure of Ionic Compounds: Ionic compounds are typically solid and made up of cations and anions which are arranged in a regular way in a lattice.The att raction between ions is electrostatic and is given by F = Z1Z2 e2 /Dr2 Here F is the force of attraction .Z1 and Z2 are charges on the ion,e is electro nic charge . D is dielectric constant of the medium and r is bond-length or int er-ionic distance. This attraction is non-directional which means the force of attraction extends e wually in all directions. 3. Melting Point and Boiling Point : Owing to lattice structure which requires c onsiderable amount of energy to get broken, melting point and boiling point of ionic compounds are quite high . 4. Solubility : Ionic compounds are usually soluble in polar solvent like water (H2O) having high dielectric constant .One thumb rule for solubility is Like diss olves like which implicate that ionic compounds are soluble in ionic solvent . Effect of Dielectric constant on the solubility of Ionic Compounds can be unders tood in following way : Recall that force of attraction between ions in an ionic compound is given by F = Z1Z2 e2 /Dr2 Here D is Dielectric Constant of the medium . Consider two different solvent S1 and S2 having Dielectric Constant D1 and D2 such that D1 > D2 .From the above fo rmula it is evident that greater is the value of Dielectric constant ,smaller is the force of attraction Now force of attraction between ions. So force of attra ction between ions in S1 is less than force of attraction between ions in S2 (si nce D1 > D2) . Consequently it is easier for ions to break themselves from the l attice and go into the solution in case of S1 . Water has a high dielectric constant, which is why many Ionic compounds is solub le in it. We can thus conclude by saying that for a given solute ,grater the value of Diel ectric Constant of given solvents ,smaller is the force of attraction between ca tions and anions and hence ,greater the solubility . Gen

Other factors affecting Solubility of an Ionic compound : InterIonic Distance : From the expression of electrostatic force between opposit ely charged ions in an ionic compound it is evident that greater is the inter-io nic distance between ions smaller is the force of attraction and hence grater th e solubility in the given solvent . Take for example following compounds: LiF, LiCl, LiBr and LiI . As size of atoms increases as we move down in a particula r group ,the order of interionic distance for the above mentioned compounds woul d be: LiF < LiCl LiBr >LiCl > LiF , LiI being the most soluble in a given solven t. However If one of the ions is very big ,the solubility increases with the decrea sing size of other ion .Consider following examples: CsF > CsCl> CsBr > CsI (Cs+ being a big Cation) LiI > NaI >KI > CsI (I being a Big Anion) LiNO3 >NaNO3 >KNO3 >CsNO3 (NO3- being a big anion) Charge on Ions : Greater the charge on ions ,greater is the force of attraction and hence smaller is the solubility . E.g. NaCl > MgCl2 >AlCl3 here charge on ions increases from as we move from NaCl to AlCl 3 and hence sol ubility decreases form NaCl to AlCl3 ,NaCl being the most soluble . 5. Conductivity: Ionic compounds conduct electricity they are in a molten state or they are dissolved in a solution . Conduction is achieved when ions under the influence of electric potential migrate towards electrodes. For example if a el ectric current is passed in an NaCl solution , sodium ion (Na+) migrates toward negatively charged cathode and Cl- ions migrate towards positively charged Anod e. At cathode sodium receives 1 electron to form Sodium atoms where as at Anode Chlorine ion loses one electron to for Chlorine atom . This whole process is cal led electrolysis . In the solid state ions are trapped in a lattice structure and are not able to m igrate from their fixed positions in the lattice . However if the crystal lattic e has some defects ,it can conduct electricity to a small extent . Suppose there i s a defect in the crystal lattice in the form of a vacant lattice site . An ion can move from its location in the lattice to this vacant site thereby creating a nother vacant site at its original location. This process can continue, so event ually we have a vacant site (a hole ) which is migrating across the crystal lattice . This process is called Semiconduction and compounds showing this property are called Semiconductor.