(1) Organismic Theory of Herbert spencer

Organismic theory is another vital theory of the origin of human society. Plato, Aristotle, Herbert Spencer, Spengler and Novico were the main exponents of this theory. They have compared the society with a living human body or organism. According to them, society is nothing but a kind of living organism, biological organism. In other words, the organismic theory video society is a living organism possessing organs, which perform functions analogues to these of a plant or animal. Among ail these scholars Herbert Spencer has occupied unique place, because of this significant contribution in the field of organismic theory or society.

According to Spencer, society is not merely a collection of individuals, it is more than that, just as an organism is mere than a mere collection of ceils. Spencer developed the organismic theory by making an elaborate comparison between the society and the organism. He thinks that society is like a biological system a greater organism, a like in its structure and functions. Like an organism, society is also subject of the same process of gradual growth or development from a simple to complex "state. Like an organism, society is also exhibits differentiation in functions and integration in structure". Thus according to the organismic theory of society, society is an organism whose structure and function resemble those of the human beings and which also develops according to the same laws. Herbert Spencer indicates that society resembles an organism in the following important respects. 1. Society like organism grows or develops gradually. The human organism goes through the laws of development, maturation and decline. Similarly society also passes through some taws such as the laws of birth, growth and change or decay." 2. Both society and organism begin germs. 3. Society and organism both exhibit differential structure functions. . 4. Both society and organism are composed of units. Society is composed of the individuals and thus, individuals are considered as the units of society. Similarly, organism is also composed of different organs such as eyes, ears, hands, legs, head etc., and these are regarded as the units of an organism. 5. In both society and organism there exists close integration or interdependence of parts. Just as the different parts of the organism are mutually interdependence and on the whole, also the individuals in a dependant are mutually interdependent like the cells in an organism dependent in the whole. Inspite of these similarities, Spencer also draws number of structural analogies between the society and organism. A living organism possesses sustaining system and distributing system and regulative system corresponding respective to system of production of industry and agriculture, the means of transportation and communication and the government, in society in the industrial and agricultural systems the circulatory system with the heart arteries and veins correspond to the communication and transportation system of nation the nervous system to the government and so on. An individual cell of an organism may die with, little effect on its life, similarly the death of an individual.

According to P.A. Sorokin society passes through the organic process of birth, youth, maturity, old age and death. On the basis of the above resemblances Spencer concluded that society is an organismic and it is a special organism. The individuals are limbs of the society and behave as the cells of the body whose activity and life are meant for the sake of the whole. Just as the limbs separated from the body have no life, similarly individuals separated from the society have no. life. The individuals exist in and within the society.
In addition to the above points of-similarities, there are however, certain points of dissimilarities also. According to Spencer society differs from human organism in the following important respects.

1. In organic growth, nature plays a dominant and organismic naturally grows. On the other hand, social growth may be checked or stimulated by man himself. 2. The units of a society are not fixed in their respective positions like those of the individual organism. 3. In an organism, consciousness is concentrated in the small part of the aggregate, that is, in the nervous system while in a society it is diffused throughout whole aggregate.

(2)

Herberm analysis communication alternatives

More striking than new opportunities for group mobility within the traditional status hierarchy has been the appearance in recent decades of new status hierarchiesnew arenas for status competition. They have emerged from the impact of urbanization and westernization but are not independent of the traditional social organization in which they are based. Urbanism is nothing new in India but rapid urbanization is new. The emergency of industrial employment, of easy communication over long distances, of increasingly efficient distribution of goods and services and of more effective centralized administration has made urban living a more accessible alternative to more people in India than ever before. Urban life affords a measure of independence from the ties and constraints of membership in rural based social groups by granting a degree of individual anonymity and mobility quite unattainable in rural communities.Caste, religion, ritual, tradition and the social controls implicit therein are not as rigid or pervasive in the city. People are increasingly able to seek status and other rewards on an individual or small family basis largely independent of caste or the other larger social entities of which they are also a part. They do this primarily by going to the city although the values of the city also extend into the country-side and have loosened the hold of tradition even there. To a great extent urban Indians can achieve status as a result of behaviors and attributes rather than simply as a result of birth. According to Harold Gould industrialization brought about the transfer of specialized occupations of all kinds from the context of the kin groups to factories organized on bureaucratic principles. This meant that occupational role and role occupant would be in principle separated and that the preponderant criteria for determining occupations would be performance qualities and that economic rewards and social mobility would constitute the principle standards for evaluating the worth or the status of any given role. Traditional status -caste status does not disappear in the city. It remains important in the most private contexts; the family and neighborhood. Some neighborhoods essentially reproduce the village setting in personnel as well as social structure; others do not. A very large proportion of city dwellers are in close touch with their native villages. Tradition and ascription are important in the city in those relationships upon which the day to day functioning and future composition of the family depends of which the epitome is marriage. In the city primary relationships occupy a diminishing proportion of most people's time, attention and energies. Much of the individual's interaction takes place on the basis of particular or even fragmented roles. He can often behave in a way consistent with the requirements of the situation without reference to his group membership. He is even able to pass if that is his desire by learning the superficial symbols of the status such as that of white collar worker, student, middle class householder or professional. In these statuses skill in handling the language, in pursuing the occupation or success in acquiring money or an appropriate life style may be socially recognized and rewarded irrespective of caste and family. Contemporary urban life has available more means to mobility and suggests to those who seek it a greater likelihood of success that the highly structured closely controlled traditional village setting. Mobility occurs in all settings. Some low status groups have been victims of technological displacement with the result that their economic, political and social statuses have declined. They drift either into the status of rural landless laborers or into unskilled urban employment, both of which are overpopulated and underpaid. The result is underemployment, unemployment, poverty and lack of opportunity for improvement. For examples: water carriers comprise a caste whose members have been displaced in many parts of Northern India with the advent of handpumps.In some instances new occupations have been created and with them opportunities for enhancement of economic and social status thus allowing certain mobility.

(3)

Comte help the development of sociology

Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857) was a French positivist thinker and came up with the term of sociology to name the new science made by Saint-Simon.One universal law that Comte saw at work in all sciences he called the 'law of three phases'. It is by his statement of this law that he is best known in the Englishspeaking world; namely, that society has gone through three phases: Theological, Metaphysical, and Scientific. He also gave the name "Positive" to the last of these because of the polysemous connotations of the word. The Theological phase was seen from the perspective of 19th century France as preceding the Enlightenment, in which man's place in society and society's restrictions upon man were referenced to God. By the "Metaphysical" phase, he was not referring to the Metaphysics of Aristotle or any other ancient Greek philosopher, for Comte was rooted in the problems of French society subsequent to the revolution of 1789. This Metaphysical phase involved the justification of universal rights as being on a vauntedly higher plane than the authority of any human ruler to countermand, although said rights were not referenced to the sacred beyond mere metaphor. What he announced by his term of the Scientific phase, which came into being after the failure of the revolution and of Napoleon, was that people could find solutions to social problems and bring them into force despite the proclamations of human rights or prophecy of the will of God. In this regard he was similar to Karl Marx and Jeremy Bentham. For its time, this idea of a Scientific phase was considered up-to-date, although from a later standpoint it is too derivative of classical physics and academic history. The other universal law he called the 'encyclopedic law'. By combining these laws, Comte developed a systematic and hierarchical classification of all sciences, including inorganic physics (astronomy, earth science and chemistry) and organic physics (biology and for the first time, physique sociale, later renamed sociologie).This idea of a special science-not the humanities, not metaphysics-for the social was prominent in the 19th century and not unique to Comte. The ambitious-many would say grandiose-way that Comte conceived of it, however, was unique.Comte saw this new science, sociology, as the last and greatest of all sciences, one that would include all other sciences, and which would integrate and relate their findings into a cohesive whole. Comte's explanation of the Positive philosophy introduced the important relationship between theory, practice and human understanding of the world. On page 27 of the 1855 printing of Harriet Martineau's translation of The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte, we see his observation that, "If it is true that every theory must be based upon observed facts, it is equally true that facts can not be observed without the guidance of some theory. Without such guidance, our facts would be desultory and fruitless; we could not retain them: for the most part we could not even perceive them. He coined the word "altruism" to refer to what he believed to be a moral obligations of individuals to serve others and place their interests above one's own. He opposed the idea of individual rights, maintaining that they were not consistent with this supposed ethical obligation (Catechisme Positiviste). Comte formulated the law of three stages, one of the first theories of the social evolutionism: that human development (social progress) progresses from the theological stage, in which nature was mythically conceived and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from supernatural beings, through metaphysical stage in which nature was conceived of as a result of obscure forces and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them until the final positive stage in which all abstract and obscure forces are discarded, and natural phenomena are explained by their constant relationship. This progress is forced through the development of human mind, and increasing application of thought, reasoning and logic to the understanding of world.During his lifetime, Comte's work was sometimes viewed skeptically because he elevated Postivism to a religion and named himself the Pope of Positivism. Comte coined the term "sociology", and is usually regarded as the first sociologist. His emphasis on the interconnectedness of different social elements was a forerunner of modern functionalism. Nevertheless, like many others from his time, certain elements of his work are regarded as eccentric and unscientific, and his grand vision of sociology as the center-piece of all the sciences has not come to fruition.His emphasis on a quantitative, mathematical basis for decision-making remains with us today. It is a foundation of the modern notion of Positivism, modern quantitative statistical analysis, and business decision-making.

(4)

Ethnomethodology
Ethno methodology is a recent development in sociology. Its existence as a publicly identified approach dates only from the publication of Harold Garfinkels Studies in Ethno methodology in 1967. Ethno methodology has attracted considerable attention and criticism within sociology. The impact of Ethno methodology has stemmed from the radical nature of its ideas. The ideas of ethno methodology are in a general similar to those of the Symbolic Interactionists.Both Symbolic Interactionists and ethnomethodologists are principally concerned with studying inter-personal social interaction. Both regard social interaction as consisting of meaningful communicative activity between persons, involving mutual interpretative work. Ethnomethodology draws from and extends the concerns of interactionists such as Blumer and Goffman and the phenomenological projects of Husserl and Schutz.It emphasizes the process of interaction, the use of interpersonal techniques to create situational impressions and the importance of perceptions of consensus among actors. In extending interactionism and phenomenology, ethnomethodologists often think that they posit a different vision of the social world and an alternative orientation for understanding the question of how social organization is created, maintained and changed. According to Mehan and Wood ethnomethodologists have chosen to ask not how order is possible but rather to ask how a sense of order is possible. The gestures, cues, words and other information sent and received by interacting parties have meaning in a particular context. Without some knowledge of the context the biographies of the interacting parties, their avowed purpose, their past interactive experiences and so forth-it would easily be possible to misinterpret the symbolic communication among interacting individuals. This fact of interactive life is denoted by the concept of indexicality.To say that an expression is indexical is to emphasize that the meaning of that expression is tied to a particular context. This phenomenon of indexicality draws attention to the problem of how actors in a context construct a vision of reality in that context. They develop expressions that invoke their common vision about what is real in their situation. The concept of indexicality thus directs an investigators attention to actual interactive contexts in order to see how actors go about creating indexical expressionswords, facial and body gestures and other cues to create and sustain the presumption that a particular reality governs their affairs. According to Mehan and Wood, the ethnomethodological theory of the reality constructor is about the procedures that accomplish reality. It is not about any specific reality. This emphasis has led ethnomethodologists to isolate the general types of methods employed by interacting actors. When analytical attention focuses on the methods that people use to construct a sense of reality the task of the theorist is to isolate the general types of interpersonal techniques that people employ in interaction. Aaron Cicourel has summarized a number of such techniques or methods isolated by ethno methodologists- searching for normal term, doing reciprocity of perspectives and using the et cetera principle. Searching for the normal form If interacting parties sense that ambiguity exists over what is real and that their interaction is strained, they will emit gestures to tell each other to return to what is normal in their contextual situation. Actors are presumed to hold a vision of a normal form for situations or to be motivated to create one and hence much of their action is designed to reach this form. Doing a reciprocity of perspectives Borrowing from Schutzs formulation, ethnomethodologists have emphasized that actors operate under the presumption and actively seek to communicate the fact that they would have the same experiences were they to switch places. Furthermore until they are so informed by specific gestures, actors can ignore differences in perspectives that might arise from their unique biographies. Thus much interaction will be consumed with gestures that seek to assure others that reciprocity of perspectives does indeed exist. Using the et cetera principle In examining an actual interaction much is left unsaid. Actors must constantly fill in or wait for information necessary to make sense of anothers words or deeds. When actors do so; they are use the et cetera principle. They are agreeing not to disrupt the interaction by asking for the needed information; they are willing to wait or to fill in. For example the common phase you know which usually appears after an utterance is often an assertion by one actor to another invoking et cetera principle.

These three general types of folk methods are but example of what ethno methodologists seek to discover. For some ethno methodologists the ultimate goal of theory is to determine the conditions under which these and other interpersonal techniques will be used to construct, maintain or change a sense of reality.

(5)

Periyars idea on caste system

Periyar felt that a small number of cunning people created caste distinctions in order to dominate over society. That was why he emphasized the view that we must first develop self-respect and learn to analyze propositions rationally. A self-respecting rationalist will readily realize that caste system has been stifling self-respect and therefore he will strive to get rid of this menace. One of Periyar's quotes on caste was, "a sizable population today remains as Untouchables, and another sizable population exists in the name of Sudras and as serfs,coolies and menials. Who wants an independence that cannot help change these things? Who wants religion, scriptures and gods, which cannot bring about a change in this sphere"?[5] Periyar explained that the caste system in south India is, due to Indo-Aryan influence, linked with the arrival of Brahmins from the north. Ancient Tamil Nadu (part of Tamilakkam) had a different stratification of society in four or five regions (Tinai), determined by natural surroundings and adequate means of living.[6] Periyar also mentions that birds, animals, and worms, which are considered to be devoid of rationalism do not create castes, or differences of high and low in their own species. But man considered to be a rational being, is suffering from these because of religion. He further explains that amongst dogs you do not have a Brahmin dog, or a Pariah (untouchable) dog. Among donkeys and monkeys we also do not find such things. But, amongst men there is such discrimination.[7] Periyar argued on how a person with an iota of sense or rationalism in could do such things such as giving special treatment only to Brahmins. Some examples practiced were for lower castes to fall at their feet and to even, sometimes, wash their feet and drink that water. Periyar explains that if this is Hindu doctrine and philosophy, such a religion must go. He gives examples of rituals such as christening, house warming, marriage, and for puberty, that they are for the Brahmin's gain as the only ones to conduct these occasions. We do not respect our knowledge nor are we ashamed of our

actions. Are we merely a mass of flesh and bones? Why should anybody get angry when I say all these to make you think over. Who is responsible of our degradation? Is it religion or government"?[7] Gandhi advocated for the caste system in its preservation. On the question of Untouchables being prevented from drawing water from wells and entering temples, Gandhi suggested having separate wells and temples made for them instead.[8] Periyar argued against this by demanding the Vedas of Indo-Aryans to be burnt and their deities to be destroyed since it was their creation of the castes and Untouchables. He also went on to state that "it was absurd to quote religion, god, or religious doctrines to render people as lowest castes".[9] Periyar argued that the caste system has "perverted peoples ideas about human conduct. The principle of different codes of conduct for each caste based on birth and life, led in accordance with it for centuries, have spoiled the Hindu mentality almost beyond repair, and destroyed the idea of uniformity in conduct. Graded inequality has got so much into the Hindu blood that general intelligence is warped and refused to mend even after English education and higher standards of living".[10]
Periyar Society To attain casteless society, gender equality and justice, and to eradicate rural poverty "Periyar Society" was organized under the inspiring banner of "Periyar". Periyar Society, a eponymous description of or perhaps an encapsulation of a network of thirty voluntary units registered under the Societies registration Act. These institutions are functioning as public, voluntary, non-profit, non-governmental entities. The society"s activities are carried out in the whole of Tamil Nadu. People all over the world should unite. They should have an existence that does not harm other beings. Means must be found for a peaceful life, free from envy, anxiety, deceit, hatred and sorrow This is the cherished wish of Thanthai Periyar. In order to attain the wish of Thanthai Periyar the society"s vision is to eradicate casteism, superstition, social and gender injustice and to ensure equal opportunities for all by creating awareness and by transforming society through education, health care and community services. To broaden the social spectrum where caste and superstitions will sink into oblivion through peaceful propagation of equality and scientific temper. To structure, practise and apply social justice and gender equality with belief in leadership by example. To campaign for equal opportunities through a movement for education, health care and community services. To focus on service network for the underprivileged and rural population by providing health care services including ante-natal outreach programmes. To provide technology, with the twin purpose of human development and poverty eradication. Education Thanthai Periyar, a laudable mentor and an ardent fighter for social equality, dedicated his entire life to liberate the conventional society from the fetters of superstitious beliefs and class discriminations. His contribution to the cause of the downtrodden, in particular women is history in itself. He insisted that only life-oriented education could enlighten the dark society and that it was the only effective tool for the emancipation of women.

Ever since its inception, the Society has been striving hard to make the people intellectually competent, physically fit, emotionally stable and socially desirable. In order to fortify the vision of Thanthai Periyar, several educational institutions have been established. Primary, secondary and post-secondary educations are the three pillars in the Periyar Society"s mission to end gender inequality, caste discrimination and rural poverty. The success of Periyar Society is founded on the strong commitment to education and through the creation of a flexible, competitive and dynamic economic environment, which will provide students the creative potential to use and develop technological innovations. Educational Institutions are identifying the demands and challenges linking science and technology for the promotion of economic and social needs.